INTRODUCTION
Background to the study
Over the past few decades, English has rapidly spread worldwide, establishing itself as a global language for communication, diplomacy, and trade Consequently, it is often the preferred choice for those looking to learn a foreign language (Crystal, 2003) Currently, there are around 1 billion English speakers in the Outer Circle, particularly in countries formerly colonized by Britain.
In Vietnam, English is increasingly viewed as essential for academic success and career opportunities, despite the country not being a British colony To remain competitive in the global workforce and international business, Vietnamese students are required to learn English at all educational levels, with proficiency becoming a prerequisite for university entrance exams However, despite high school students averaging over 700 hours of English instruction, many still struggle to attain adequate language skills, a concern that has not been thoroughly investigated due to the lack of comprehensive studies in the country Researchers are actively seeking ways to enhance English language competence among learners to address these challenges.
To effectively teach learners to master English, it is essential to understand and implement self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies Research indicates that students who can initiate their study activities and utilize SRL strategies tend to achieve better academic outcomes (Zimmerman, 1986) This growing interest in SRL among second-language learning researchers highlights its positive impact on academic performance (Andrade & Evans, 2013) Self-regulated learning encompasses the deliberate planning, monitoring, and regulation of cognitive, behavioral, and motivational processes essential for completing academic tasks (Hadwin, 2008) Furthermore, Zimmerman (2013) emphasizes that SRL is grounded in Bandura’s social cognitive learning theory, which examines the interactions between personal, behavioral, and environmental factors in the learning process.
In second language acquisition, learners actively engage in language processes and adopt various strategies regardless of their backgrounds (Oxford & Crookall, 1989) English learners must effectively manage their learning through self-organization and self-regulation, as these skills are crucial for improving academic outcomes (Corno & Mandinach, 1983; Corno & Rohrkemper, 1985) This study aims to explore how Vietnamese learners utilize self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies in their English language studies.
At Van Lang University, English has emerged as a vital and mandatory language for all students across various majors and levels With its significant impact on students' GPAs, this study aims to assist learners in overcoming the challenges associated with mastering the language.
Statement of the problem
A recent report by HaNoitimes reveals that around 70% of Vietnamese students scored 5 points or below on the 10-point scale in the 2020 national English entrance exam, raising significant concerns about the state of language education in Vietnam To address these issues effectively, it is essential to investigate the English learning strategies employed by Vietnamese students, as previous research has demonstrated a correlation between strategy use and English proficiency levels (Bai & Wang, 2021; Bernacki et al., 2012; Wang, Bong, et al., 2013) The alarming results regarding students' English proficiency have drawn considerable attention from language experts.
Le Xuan Quynh (2013) highlighted that while self-regulated learning (SRL) is recognized as a crucial educational concept, research on SRL in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) remains insufficient In Asian educational contexts like Vietnam, a focus on exams and the hierarchical relationship between teachers and students often relegates teachers to mere knowledge transmitters, which can hinder students' autonomous learning To cultivate self-regulated learners with strong English skills, it is essential to promote SRL strategies alongside skill development, as students frequently face challenges in acquiring, applying, and monitoring these strategies and competencies.
Self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies are crucial for achieving positive outcomes in language acquisition, highlighting the need for educators to support the development of these skills among language learners (Kim et al., 2015) Despite numerous studies on SRL in foreign contexts, there is a significant lack of extensive research focused on the SRL strategies employed by Vietnamese students in learning English Additionally, the teaching of effective learning strategies in English is often insufficient in many Vietnamese schools.
According to Van Van Hoang (2018), despite the crucial role of English in today's globalized world, the quality of English language teaching remains low and fails to produce well-qualified speakers.
Many English instructors at primary and secondary schools lack sufficient qualifications, leading to undesirable outcomes in student learning By investigating students' self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies, effective interventions can be implemented, empowering students to autonomously manage their learning and overcoming the limitations posed by low teacher proficiency.
For over five years, Van Lang University has provided a general English course designed to enhance students' writing, speaking, listening, and reading skills First-year students often find this course challenging, as their high school education primarily emphasized grammar for exams This study aims to assist these students in improving their English skills and discovering new methods for effective language learning.
Aims and objectives of the study
This study addresses the lack of research on self-regulated learning strategies among Vietnamese students, specifically focusing on their application in English language learning at Van Lang University The aim is to gain insights into how these students manage their learning processes effectively.
Specifically, this study is designed to achieve:
1 To investigate the SRL strategy use level among Vietnamese first-year university non-English majored students at Van Lang university
2 To find out the relationship between SRL strategy use level and English proficiency of non-English majored students at Van Lang university
3 To identify the best predictors of SRL strategy use among Vietnamese first-year university non-English majored students at Van Lang university of different genders, disciplines, and years of learning English
Research questions
Accordingly, the following research questions must be addressed:
1 What is the level of SRL strategy use among Vietnamese first-year university non- English majors at Van Lang university?
2 How is the relationship between Vietnamese first-year university non-English majors’ SRL strategy use and their English proficiency at Van Lang university?
3 What are the best predictors of SRL strategy use among Vietnamese first-year university non-English majors at Van Lang university of different genders, disciplines, and years of learning English?
Scope of the study
The study focused on self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies utilized by first-year non-English majors in their English language acquisition It aimed to investigate the use of SRL strategies among a large sample of Vietnamese university students from various disciplines, excluding English majors The research employed a quantitative design, targeting first-year students at Van Lang University, with a convenient sample of 328 participants Data was collected through both computer-based and paper questionnaires to assess their SRL strategy use in English learning.
Significance of the study
This study offers essential insights for English educators regarding the self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies employed by Vietnamese students and the factors that influence them Additionally, the findings serve as a resource for Vietnamese educators, highlighting the significance of SRL in improving student performance and understanding the current levels of SRL strategy utilization among their students.
English proficiency is closely linked to students' self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies By understanding these strategies, Vietnamese English lecturers can create tailored lessons and training programs to enhance students' self-regulation The findings of this study will assist English university lecturers in Vietnam in recognizing the value of teaching SRL strategies as a means to foster academic success As a result, English educators can gain deeper insights into their students, allowing them to adapt their teaching methods and design effective pedagogical activities that promote both the use of SRL strategies and overall English proficiency.
The study enhances English learners' awareness of their strategy use and its connection to their proficiency by utilizing a questionnaire and English proficiency test It contributes to the broader research on strategy use among EFL learners and provides valuable insights for Vietnamese researchers regarding the self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies employed by students, as well as the relationship between these strategies and their English proficiency levels A deeper understanding of learners' agentic self-regulation and their active, enthusiastic participation in the foreign language learning process is essential for advancing research in Vietnam.
Definitions of the key terms
+ SRL is defined by Pintrich (2003) as a “proactive process when learners set their aims, monitor, regulate, control, and sustain their cognition, motivation, and behaviors in the learning environment”
+ SRL strategies are measures that students use to develop study habits, to monitor or regulate their learning process, and to make adjustments to their own strategies based upon feedback
In this study, the SRL strategy use was measured on a 50-item SRL questionnaire, adapted from Wang & Bai's (2017) 68-item Questionnaire of English SRL Strategies (QESRLS)
English proficiency is defined as a student's ability to effectively use the English language for communication in both spoken and written forms throughout their academic journey In this research, proficiency is evaluated using the PET test.
Organization of the thesis
The paper includes five separate chapters
Chapter 1 covers the background, statement of the problems, aims, objectives, research questions, the scope of the study, the significance of the study, definitions of the terms, and overview of thesis chapters
Chapter Two reviews the literature of social cognitive theory, Vietnamese learning styles and learning strategies, followed by previous studies in SRL
Chapter Three gives a detail description of the methodology used for research, which includes research setting, research participants, research design, research instruments, the procedure of data collection, and data analysis
Chapter Four presents the analysis of data gathered from the research instruments, discussing the findings and addressing the three primary research questions.
Chapter Five concludes the study by presenting the implications, limitations, recommendations, and suggestions for the research in the future.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Social Cognitive Theory
The study utilized Bandura’s (1986) Social Cognitive Theory, which builds on his Social Learning Theory, emphasizing that individuals learn behaviors by observing models and recalling the outcomes of those behaviors According to Bandura, learning occurs through observation, and factors such as environment, behavior, personality, and cognition interact in a reciprocal manner to influence human development This relationship highlights that every observed behavior can impact an individual's thought processes Figure 2.1 visually represents the interconnectedness of personal, behavioral, and environmental factors.
Figure 2.1: Bandura’s (2001) Social cognitive model
Albert Bandura's concept of reciprocal determinism (1986) highlights the interconnectedness of three key elements: the environment, the individual, and behavior This theory posits that human behavior is both influenced by and influences these elements, creating a dynamic interplay that shapes actions and reactions.
Reciprocal determinism emphasizes the continuous interaction between society, personality, and behavior, suggesting that while the environment shapes individual actions, those actions also influence the environment This model highlights that children's behaviors are not merely responses to learned associations or reinforcements; rather, their traits, thoughts, emotions, and behaviors play a crucial role in how they engage with their surroundings.
Social cognitive theory emphasizes that individuals acquire knowledge by observing others in social settings, interactions, and through media influences This theory suggests that learning occurs not only through direct experience but also by watching the behaviors of others, which can motivate observers to engage in similar actions The survival of humans relies on imitating the actions of others, influenced by the rewards or punishments associated with those behaviors Consequently, observers may choose to replicate the behaviors they see modeled based on the outcomes of those actions.
Social learning theory posits that individuals learn by observing others, making social modeling a powerful educational tool When students witness positive outcomes from certain actions, they are more inclined to replicate those behaviors, while negative consequences deter them (Bandura, 2001) Unique and engaging situations capture students' attention, and when they observe their peers being attentive, they are more likely to focus as well This study aims to investigate how students implement strategies in their English learning, emphasizing that they can learn from one another and adopt effective strategies used by their peers to enhance their English proficiency.
Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) is grounded in various theoretical frameworks, including operant, phenomenological, social cognitive, sociocultural, and constructivist theories, with social cognitive theory being particularly prominent in educational contexts (Dignath & Büttner, 2008) Despite their differences, these theories share common principles Firstly, SRL emphasizes the intentional use of specific strategies by students to enhance academic performance (Zimmerman, 2001) Secondly, it involves a continuous feedback loop where learners assess the effectiveness of their learning strategies and adapt their approaches accordingly Thirdly, the selection of SRL strategies and the decision-making process behind them are consistent themes across these theoretical perspectives Lastly, learners strive for adequate preparation time and actively engage in self-regulating their academic efforts to achieve desired outcomes.
Since the advent of social cognitive theory, numerous models have emerged to explore the factors influencing self-regulated learning and its connection to academic success Key contributions in this area include the frameworks developed by Zimmerman (1998, 2000) and the research conducted by Pintrich, Wolters, and Baxter.
Wolters et al (2003) emphasized that learners are “active, constructive and able to monitor their environment” (p 3), highlighting their role as participants in the learning process Rather than passively receiving information from mentors and family, learners actively construct their own meanings, goals, and strategies from both external and internal environments This engagement transforms them into positive, constructive meaning-creators in their academic pursuits (Pintrich, 2000) Furthermore, all self-regulation models suggest that learners possess the ability to monitor their own learning processes.
Controlling and modifying cognitive environments and operations can significantly impact individual regulation efforts, as noted by Karabenick (2001) Additionally, various biological, developmental, precognitive traits, and restrictions play a crucial role in influencing these regulatory endeavors (Butler & Winne, 1995; Zimmerman, 2000).
Zimmerman’s (2000) self-regulated learning (SRL) model is the most recognized framework, grounded in Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory, which emphasizes the interplay of cognition, metacognition, and social-contextual factors in learning This theory highlights how individuals utilize self-regulation to enhance academic performance and foster autonomy SRL involves the self-generation of thoughts and behaviors aimed at achieving personal goals, marking a significant theoretical advancement by showcasing the reciprocal interactions between personal, behavioral, and environmental influences.
(2000) formulated a three-phase cyclical model comprising forethought, performance, and self- reflection phases SRL consists of many processes, as shown in Fig 2.3
Figure 2.2 Key behavioral, environmental, and personal processes, adapted from Zimmerman & Moylan (2009)
Forethought activities, such as planning and strategy selection, are essential before completing a task, as they help learners build motivation and monitor their progress The performance phase involves self-control and self-observation, allowing learners to reflect on their results during pauses and after task completion This reflection enables them to assess their success and attribute their performance to their actions Depending on their confidence, learners can either continue with their current strategies or return to the planning phase for adjustments Self-regulation, which includes motivational processes, significantly influences learners' ability to achieve their goals, leading to effective self-management and enhanced outcomes.
13 regulatory practices, namely tactics-opting, performance-controlling, suitable method adapting, progress reflecting, along with motivation-sustaining for completing tasks
2.3 Self-regulated learning strategies and Characteristics of Self-Regulated Leaners
Self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies are essential for students to cultivate effective study habits, monitor their learning processes, and adapt their strategies based on feedback Research by Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons (1986) found a positive correlation between students' self-reported SRL strategies and their performance on standardized tests Additionally, their 1988 study revealed that high-achieving students employed more self-regulated learning strategies They concluded that successful students possess a strong awareness of their performance levels, often predicting their test results before receiving them from instructors, which highlights their ability to self-monitor effectively.
Zimmerman (1989) defined self-regulated learners as individuals actively engaged in their cognition, effectiveness, and behavior, highlighting their decision-making process in adopting specific strategies He emphasized that self-regulatory actions are not merely mental abilities or learning skills, but rather a self-guided process that transforms mental capacities into academic skills This self-regulation involves thinking, feeling, and behaving in ways that facilitate goal achievement According to Zimmerman and Schunk (2009), self-related learning strategies encompass proactive processes such as goal setting, effectiveness evaluation, and self-assessment.
Other aspects of SRL also involved time management, environmental regulation and one's sociability, and the ability to monitor learners’ effort and attention (Pintrich, 1995; Zimmerman
& Risemberg, 1997) When self-regulated learners find that their learning strategy was not right, they adjust their learning and continually regulating their perceptions of activities accordingly
Research indicates that self-regulation significantly enhances learning by utilizing feedback loops (Zimmerman, 1989) and employing diverse learning strategies (Mace, Belfiore, & Shea, 1989) By becoming more aware of their learning processes, students can improve their performance and actively engage in their educational journey Zimmerman (1998) noted that self-regulated learners often share traits with high achievers, while those with low achievement typically lack these qualities However, with adequate training in self-regulation, all students can gain better control over their learning and performance, potentially alleviating many learning disabilities associated with low ability Overall, studies have identified specific characteristics that differentiate self-regulated learners from their peers who lack these skills.
Self-regulating students effectively adopt various cognitive strategies, such as rehearsal and organization, which enhance their engagement and information processing (Zimmerman, 2001) They progress to planning and directing their mental processes to achieve personal goals, exhibiting adaptive beliefs in motivation and emotion, including setting academic aims and fostering positive feelings toward tasks (Zimmerman, 2002) These learners create structured plans, manage their time efficiently, and actively seek conducive learning environments, often consulting instructors or peers when facing challenges (Zimmerman, 2001) Additionally, self-regulatory students demonstrate significant effort in controlling and adjusting their learning tasks and classroom dynamics.
Vietnamese learning styles and learning strategy
Learning a language requires significant time and effort, making it a complex process for learners To facilitate language acquisition, learners should develop a strategic plan that emphasizes practical engagement rather than rote memorization According to Chamot (2005) and O’Malley and Chamot (1990), effective learning strategies involve specific mental and communicative techniques that enhance language use Wong and Nunan (2011) highlight that these strategies promote learner-centered approaches, acknowledging that individual learning styles influence the strategies employed O’Malley et al (1985) categorize learning strategies into three key areas: metacognitive strategies, which involve controlling and being aware of the learning process; cognitive strategies, focused on memorization and comprehension; and socio-affective strategies, which emphasize the practical use of the language.
According to Zimmerman (1988), self-regulated learning strategies empower learners to take an active role in their educational journey through metacognitive, motivational, and behavioral approaches Metacognitively, learners engage in planning, organizing, self-instruction, and self-evaluation From a motivational standpoint, they cultivate intrinsic motivation, practice self-efficacy, and manage their capacity to complete tasks Behaviorally, learners establish controlled environments and social frameworks that contribute to their success.
Numerous studies on the learning styles and strategies of Asian students have been conducted both in their home countries and in host nations A common trait observed is the tendency towards passive learning, where students often remain quiet during lessons, reflecting a cultural inclination to listen and obey This behavior is rooted in a desire to show respect to instructors, as noted by Chalmers and Volet (1997), who highlighted that Vietnamese students traditionally listen intently to their teachers, viewing them as honorable figures The classroom dynamic is typically hierarchical, with instructors holding significant authority over the learning process Despite this, there is a growing expectation for instructors to share authority and involve students more actively in decision-making Unfortunately, English study skills are often not prioritized in the curriculum, even for English majors, leading to confusion among Vietnamese ELF students at higher levels These students, conditioned to a passive learning environment, often prefer direct information transfer from instructors and clear instructions on tasks.
A study revealed that most first-year non-English majors in Vietnam do not exhibit passivity in their learning approach, aligning with earlier findings by Littlewood (2000) Their learning style is independent of personality traits, as those identifying as passive learners attribute their classroom reticence to shyness and a desire to save face, rather than to obedience or politeness, as noted in research by Chalmers and Volet (1997).
In other words, students are afraid of making mistakes and losing face in front of their peer friends
Tran Thi Tuyet (2013) identified traditional teaching methods as a key factor contributing to student passivity, while ineffective assessment practices exacerbate students' reluctance to engage Similarly, Nguyen Tuong Hung (2002) noted that many language learners in Vietnam often remain silent in class, believing that this behavior demonstrates respect for their instructors Students tend to refrain from asking questions, assuming that absorbing knowledge from lectures is sufficient, and often seek additional learning opportunities outside the classroom.
Research indicates that learners in Asian regions, particularly Vietnamese students, favor memorization strategies over collaborative approaches like discussion and peer assistance Wharton (2000) highlighted this preference, while Duong Thi Hoang Oanh and Nguyen Thu Hien (2006) confirmed that memorization is a primary method for English learning among Vietnamese students The popularity of memorization strategies is evident, especially in foreign language acquisition Additionally, Attapol (2011) noted that Vietnamese learners often write new English vocabulary in notebooks to reinforce their memory.
A study by Supalak (2016) comparing learning styles of Thai and Vietnamese EFL learners revealed that both groups favored similar active learning styles, with the processing-active style receiving the highest mean score This indicates that learners preferred discussing lecture content and thrived in active experimentation, suggesting they may struggle in passive learning environments like traditional lectures Additionally, the study highlighted that team learning was the most preferred method, as group work allowed students to feel more relaxed and effectively enhanced their information retention through interaction.
19 their friends at class Also, they memorized lessons better and quickly as they collaborated with their mates
Duong Thi Hoang Oanh and Nguyen Thu Hien (2006) highlighted the prevalent use of memorization strategies among Vietnamese learners, suggesting that both educators and students should seek effective methods to enhance English learning through these techniques Their findings reflect the influence of Vietnam's traditional education system Supporting this perspective, Le Thi Yen Nhu (2011) conducted a qualitative case study revealing that high school English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers favored memorization for grammar learning Nhu found that students commonly relied on memorizing grammatical rules and vocabulary, along with completing controlled exercises from textbooks, indicating that such traditional approaches to grammar learning remain entrenched even at higher education levels.
Nguyen Thi Boi Hoang (2013) highlighted that Vietnamese students often prioritize conscious grammar learning, frequently memorizing rules and completing exercises This emphasizes the traditional belief in the importance of grammar in language acquisition, aligning with existing literature on English teaching in Vietnam Le Van Canh (2011) further noted that high school EFL teachers tend to favor a deductive approach to grammar instruction, viewing the memorization of grammatical rules and textbook exercises as the most effective methods for learning grammar.
20 learning grammar has been so deeply ingrained by constant conditioning that students continue to embrace it at the tertiary level
In the Vietnamese educational context, Thompson (2009) identified two distinct learning styles associated with prevalent teaching methods in tertiary institutions Through observations in higher education classes in Hanoi, he concluded that when lecturers adopted an authoritative stance, students tended to remain passive and disengaged Conversely, when instructors encouraged interactive lessons that invited student input, engagement levels significantly increased, reducing passivity Thompson (2000) noted that the perceived passivity of Vietnamese learners was largely a reflection of the rigid educational system rather than the students' capabilities Given appropriate opportunities, these learners demonstrated a greater capacity for engagement and independent thinking.
Recent observations by Vietnamese English lecturers reveal that students are increasingly vocal on social media platforms like Facebook, particularly in discussions about TV shows This shift indicates a move towards greater self-confidence and dynamism among learners, showcasing significant generational changes However, students' dependence on family and university contexts often limits their ability to express genuine opinions This aligns with findings from a Singapore study, which identified Facebook as an effective learning management tool, facilitating activities such as material sharing and discussions in educational settings (Qiyun Wang et al., 2011).
Phan Thi Uyen Minh et al (2020) found that students utilized language learning strategies at a medium level, with metacognitive strategies being the most favored, while social strategies were less commonly used They observed that metacognitive strategies were particularly prevalent among medium and high proficiency students, whereas low proficiency learners favored affective strategies Participants demonstrated autonomy in their language learning by setting goals and making plans, frequently employing techniques such as organization, planning, focus, and evaluation The findings aligned with Oxford’s (1990) assertion that metacognitive strategies are popular among language learners, especially beginners and intermediates However, compensation strategies, which help learners make educated guesses and address weaknesses in speaking and writing, were not widely used in this study, contrasting with previous research by Chang et al (2007) and Lai (2009), which highlighted their frequent application among EFL learners in Taiwan This discrepancy may be attributed to the students' unfamiliarity with compensation strategies in the current English learning context.
In her 2016 study, Nguyen Thi Viet identified the most and least frequently used learning strategies among non-English students, revealing that they predominantly employed metacognitive strategies Notably, out of the 50 strategies surveyed, the two most commonly utilized strategies were categorized as cognitive.
Participants in the study employed various strategies for learning English, with diary writing in English being identified as an effective method The most frequently used strategies among English majors were metacognitive and social, followed by cognitive, memory, affective, and compensation strategies at a medium frequency Non-English participants also favored metacognitive strategies, while other methods, such as repetitive writing, using flash cards, and engaging with social networks, TV, and music, were employed at a medium frequency Many participants highlighted their learning methods, noting that using flash cards allowed for easy memorization by keeping vocabulary visible in their environment, thus enhancing their ability to remember new words.
In summary, both Asian and Vietnamese students are increasingly seeking an active learning environment rather than a spoon-fed approach to education While they may still be perceived as passive and obedient, research by Littlewood (2000) indicates that this behavior may stem more from the educational context than from the students' inherent traits A common misconception about Vietnamese learners is that their traditional learning style, characterized by "listen and repeat" and rote memorization, reflects a lack of engagement Instead, it may be a result of the educational habits cultivated since early schooling.
Previous studies
2.5.1 The relationship between self-regulated learning strategy and foreign language proficiency level
Self-regulated learning is a vital component of the educational process, impacting students of all ages and backgrounds (Wolters & Pintrich; Zimmerman, 2002) It involves the ability of learners to manage their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors effectively (Wolters et al., 2005; Zimmerman).
Self-regulated learning is a process where learners set goals, monitor their progress, and manage their cognitive, motivational, and behavioral aspects within the learning environment Research indicates that self-regulated learning plays a crucial role in fostering academic success by enhancing learners' engagement and motivation.
Self-regulated learners are characterized by their ability to establish personal learning objectives and reflect on the skills and strategies necessary to achieve these goals.
Self-regulated learners can effectively manage their learning progress by evaluating their achievements against set objectives, as highlighted by Zimmerman (2002) They possess a strong awareness of their beliefs and feelings about tasks, which helps maintain motivation when facing challenges Research indicates that these learners utilize strategies that combine personal and contextual factors to enhance their performance (Pintrich, 2004; Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997; Zimmerman, 2002) Additionally, self-regulated learners reflect on their learning processes and outcomes, seeking to identify areas for improvement and the necessary steps to achieve their goals (Wolters, 2003; Wolters et al., 2005).
Research indicates a significant link between students' perceptions of their language proficiency and their strategic learning approaches Wharton (2000) highlighted that students with higher language skills tend to employ learning strategies more frequently Furthermore, bilingual Asian students studying a third language, such as English, often prefer social strategies over other types Additionally, students in traditional textbook-centered learning environments may adopt different strategies compared to those in more student-centered educational settings.
Research has shown that proficient language learners actively employ a variety of tactics while reading, writing, speaking, and listening, which sets them apart from less efficient learners (Anderson, 2003) A significant body of evidence supports this notion, highlighting the conscious strategies utilized by successful learners For instance, Fukuda (2017) explored the relationship between self-regulated learning (SRL) and language proficiency among 97 Japanese freshmen at a private university in Tokyo, discovering that the use of metacognitive strategies, effort monitoring, and seeking assistance from others significantly contributed to their English learning success.
Research indicates that 25 positive factors can enhance learners' TOEIC test scores, which assess reading and listening skills Three key strategies were identified as influential in achieving proficiency: metacognitive strategies, effort regulation, and problem-solving skills Notably, low-proficiency learners tended to neglect metacognitive strategies and did not regulate their English learning efforts as effectively as their high-proficiency counterparts This aligns with Asmari's (2012) findings, which highlighted a significant correlation between the use of self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies and language competence.
A study by Javadi et al (2010) at Isfahan University of Medical Sciences revealed a significant correlation between participants' use of self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies and their reading comprehension The findings indicated that higher-level students employed more advanced cognitive and metacognitive strategies compared to their lower-level counterparts Additionally, the research established a relationship between metacognitive awareness and academic proficiency, while noting that demographic factors such as age, gender, and living area did not influence metacognitive perception.
Samah (2016) found that teaching self-regulated learning (SRL) to university undergraduates positively impacted their speaking skills and significantly reduced their speaking anxiety Similarly, Ngo Cong Lem (2016) established a clear relationship between SRL strategy use and listening performance among non-English students at a Vietnamese university, revealing that students who practiced self-regulation in their listening skills achieved better results Furthermore, a medium level of SRL use was notably linked to improved listening proficiency among these students.
Shirani Bidabadi and Yamat (2011) examined the relationship between learning strategies and listening proficiency among Iranian EFL freshman university students using the Oxford Placement Test and a modified version of the MALQ Their descriptive analysis revealed that students frequently employed metacognitive strategies, followed by cognitive and socio-affective strategies, and indicated a positive correlation between listening proficiency and learning strategies Additionally, Kretsai (2020) found that self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies significantly enhanced English learners' writing skills, confirming a positive relationship between writing strategies and overall language learning outcomes in various contexts (Bai, Hu & Gu).
Research indicates that individuals' learning performance is significantly enhanced by their ability to self-regulate their cognition, motivation, and behavior, which mediates the relationship between personal factors, contextual elements, and ultimate achievement (Pintrich, 2004).
A study by Mahmoodi (2014) found that Iranian EFL students predominantly utilized cognitive and metacognitive self-regulated learning strategies in their English studies The research highlighted the positive interplay between self-regulation and motivation, which facilitated a more effective EFL learning experience However, the study did not confirm a strong link between self-regulated learning tactics and the L2 achievement of these learners This suggests that other factors, such as the educational system, materials, and instructors, may significantly influence students' academic behaviors and goals beyond self-regulated learning The findings indicate that engaging EFL learners in goal setting, evaluating criteria, and self-assessment can empower them to manage their learning and assessment outcomes, thereby increasing their motivation to tackle challenging tasks like learning a foreign language.
Research by Cheng (2011) investigated the link between students' self-regulation abilities and their academic performance, identifying four key components: learning motivation, objective setting, action control, and learning strategies, all of which significantly influence learning outcomes Similarly, Turan and Demirel (2010) examined medical students' self-regulated learning skills and found that higher achievement levels correlated with enhanced self-regulation skills Their qualitative study revealed that proficient learners exhibit stronger self-regulated learning abilities throughout all learning phases The findings underscore a strong connection between self-regulated learning skills and academic success, suggesting that enhancing these skills can lead to improved comprehension and learning efficiency.
Akamatsu (2017) conducted a study with over 100 Japanese university students to explore the effects of metacognitive strategies on self-regulated English learning Utilizing monthly questionnaires, the research assessed the application of these strategies and found that metacognition significantly influenced general learning behaviors and cognitive strategies The study refined the theoretical framework of self-regulated learning, highlighting the importance of metacognitive strategies Additionally, it indicated that participants' learning outcomes could be improved through targeted interventions emphasizing metacognitive strategy use.
2.5.2 The relationship between gender and learning strategies
Research indicates that gender influences learning strategies, with studies showing varying results For instance, a study involving 327 Vietnamese students revealed that male students employed more strategies to enhance their English skills compared to female students (Tran, 1988) Conversely, a study of 1,758 Taiwanese students found that females predominantly used cognitive, metacognitive, and social strategies (Chang, 2007) In contrast, research on Malaysian students indicated that gender does not significantly impact learning strategies (Kashefian-Naeeini, Maarof, & Salehi, 2011) Consequently, the evidence regarding gender differences in learning strategy usage remains inconclusive.
Conceptual framework
From the social cognitive theory and previous studies on self-regulated learning, the study proposed the following conceptual framework:
LEVEL OF SRL STRATEGY USE
Self-regulated learning strategy usage
Summary
This chapter explores essential concepts and theoretical foundations for the research, focusing on Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory, self-regulated learning models, and reviews of self-regulated learning theory It also examines previous studies that investigate the relationships between self-regulated learning and language proficiency, gender differences in self-regulated learning, and the connections between self-regulated learning and various academic disciplines, providing a robust foundation for the analysis process.