INTRODUCTION
Background to the study
English serves as a global language and a vital communication tool in modern societies Proficiency in English fosters strong relationships among individuals and communities across nations, opening doors to opportunities in international trade, science, technology, and socio-economic development As a result, numerous countries have invested in teaching English as a second or foreign language, with some even adopting it as the medium of instruction in higher education.
In 2020, Vietnam ranked among the top 16 most successful emerging economies, as highlighted by United and Napire (2015) The Vietnamese government actively promotes integration into global economic and political frameworks, having joined key organizations such as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1995, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Forum in 1998, the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2007, and the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP) with 11 countries.
Since Vietnam's integration into the global economy in 2018, there has been a notable increase in foreign investment, making English a vital skill for the workforce (Pham Thanh Hang et al., 2020) The language has gained prominence, particularly following the country's decision to enhance international relations in the 1980s Consequently, the societal recognition of English's importance has grown, with many Vietnamese parents believing that proficiency in English will provide their children with better opportunities for success.
The demand for English proficiency among Vietnamese learners has intensified, as it is essential for accessing employment opportunities in a global economy English language skills are crucial for graduates to be competitive, yet many still exhibit limited proficiency, ranking low compared to regional peers Factors contributing to this issue include ineffective teaching methods and a lack of qualified instructors, particularly affecting non-English majors who often lack motivation to learn Recent studies indicate that enhancing students' self-efficacy beliefs could significantly influence their motivation and performance in English, highlighting the need for further exploration in this area This study emphasizes the importance of motivation in improving language competence, as motivated students are more likely to succeed in mastering English.
The current study employs self-efficacy theory, a key component of Bandura’s social cognitive theory of motivation, as its theoretical framework Defined by Bandura (1986) as individuals' assessments of their abilities to plan and carry out actions necessary for achieving specific performance goals, self-efficacy plays a crucial role in understanding motivation.
3 perceptions are proposed as major determinants of individuals’ choice of activities, effort exerted, and persistence.
Statement of problem
The significance of learning English in today's globalized world cannot be overstated, particularly for university students seeking enhanced educational and job prospects Numerous studies have explored the factors that influence language learning, highlighting a shift from teacher-centered to student-centered teaching methodologies Key areas of focus include learners' characteristics, beliefs, motivation, and anxiety Research indicates a strong correlation between self-efficacy beliefs and academic success, yet studies on students' self-efficacy in English usage remain limited in Vietnam Furthermore, motivation has been identified as a crucial factor affecting language learning outcomes.
At Dong Nai Technology University, there is a noticeable lack of research on the self-efficacy beliefs of non-English majors in learning English, with a predominant focus on teaching methods rather than student motivation Many students approach English as a compulsory subject, often putting in minimal effort due to its non-relevance to their major This attitude leads to the use of strategies aimed solely at achieving high scores, rather than appreciating the long-term benefits of English proficiency for their future careers Consequently, this contributes to their low effectiveness in learning the language; for instance, many students who have completed three English modules in their first year still struggle with pronunciation, comprehension of basic questions, and writing short passages The proposed research on self-efficacy aims to identify strategies to enhance students' motivation and improve their English learning outcomes.
This study investigates students' beliefs about their abilities in learning English, focusing on the relationship between their confidence and academic achievement Additionally, it examines gender differences in self-efficacy related to English language learning.
Objectives of the study
This study aims to explore the relationship between students' self-efficacy and their English language achievement in Vietnam, where English is a compulsory subject from primary school to university Understanding whether self-efficacy influences English achievement is crucial in this context The primary objectives of the study are to determine the impact of self-efficacy on students' performance in learning English.
(1) To examine the relative strength of self-efficacy beliefs and students’ performance in English
(2) To investigate the differences between male and female students in terms of their self-efficacy beliefs in learning English.
Research questions
Here is the guiding question of the research:
How does students’ motivation to learn English, as assessed by self-efficacy theory, affect their performance in English?
To answer this question, the following sub-questions are presented:
1 What is the relative strength of self-efficacy beliefs in predicting students’ achievement in English?
2 What are the differences between male and female students in their self- efficacy beliefs in learning English?
Scope of the study
The researcher examines the self-efficacy of non-English students in learning English at Dong Nai Technology University (DNTU) This study aims to assess the students' self-efficacy levels, enabling teachers to understand how their own self-efficacy influences student outcomes.
This research investigates the English learning achievements of students at DNTU, focusing on the behavioral differences between male and female learners A total of 128 students participated, utilizing three primary instruments: a self-efficacy questionnaire, interviews, and final semester scores, which provided complementary quantitative and qualitative data to enhance the reliability and validity of the findings However, the study did not delve deeply into the sources of self-efficacy or explore methods for improving students' beliefs in their English learning capabilities, nor did it propose strategies to boost their self-efficacy in learning English.
Significance of the study
Self-efficacy constructs are crucial predictors of performance, yet they have been underexplored in the context of EFL education in Vietnam (Sulistiyo & Urip, 2016) This study investigates the relationship between students' beliefs in their English competence and their actual achievement in the language Additionally, it examines how self-efficacy beliefs and academic performance may differ between genders.
This research represents the inaugural exploration of Vietnamese university students' motivations for learning English through the lens of self-efficacy theory The findings aim to pinpoint challenges within the current university environment that hinder English language acquisition, ultimately assisting educators in developing more effective teaching strategies.
Definitions of the key terms
The study uses a number of key terms and concepts which are defined as the followings:
Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments (Bandura, 1977, 1986,
High self-efficacy is about the confidence of a person in his or her ability to perform a task (Earley and Lituchy, 1991) People with high self-efficacy tend to target
6 higher goals, put more effort and persistence to achieve the goals they set (Bandura,
Low self-efficacy refers to an individual's lack of confidence in their ability to successfully complete a task Students with low self-efficacy perceive difficulties as obstacles rather than challenges, making them more likely to give up easily (Bandura, 2006).
Student achievement refers to the extent to which a learner has attained their short or long-term educational goals
Gender encompasses the roles, responsibilities, rights, and expectations socially and culturally linked to being male or female It also involves the power dynamics that exist between women and men, as well as among girls and boys.
Organization of the thesis
This study is structured into five chapters, beginning with an introduction that outlines the impact of self-efficacy on university students' English learning and the rationale behind the research The second chapter offers a literature review on self-efficacy beliefs, discussing relevant studies, key terms, influencing factors, and the relationships among variables, while also identifying gaps and presenting the conceptual framework for the study Chapter 3 details the research methodology, including participant demographics, research setting, timeline, data collection instruments, and analysis procedures In Chapter 4, the analysis of questionnaires and interviews is presented, along with a discussion of the findings Finally, Chapter 5 summarizes the main findings, highlights implications for the field, addresses limitations of the study, and offers recommendations for future research on self-efficacy beliefs within the Vietnamese context.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This chapter outlines the theoretical framework of the study, comprising six key components: an overview of learning achievement, the role of self-efficacy, factors that enhance self-efficacy, the connection between self-efficacy and learning achievement, the influence of gender on self-efficacy, a review of previous studies, and the conceptual framework Together, these sections form the foundation for the research.
Self-efficacy
There have been various definitions of self-efficacy According to Bandura
Self-efficacy, as defined by various scholars, refers to individuals' beliefs in their abilities to achieve goals According to Bernhard (1997), it specifically pertains to learners' confidence in performing tasks, while Pajares (2000) highlights its role in how students assess their academic outcomes Additionally, Ehrman (1996) describes self-efficacy as the extent to which students perceive themselves as capable of overcoming learning challenges (cited in Arnold & Brown).
Individuals who excel in learning a foreign language often possess a strong belief in their ability to succeed in mastering it Conversely, those with low self-efficacy are more likely to struggle and fail in their attempts to learn a new language from the outset.
1997) It can be understood that self-efficacy beliefs determine how people feel, think, motivate themselves and behave
2.2.2 Self-efficacy and Social Cognitive Theory
Social cognitive theory, as proposed by Bandura (1986), suggests that individuals can modify their behavior through a self-belief system that helps them manage their emotions, thoughts, and actions.
The theory of human behavior and motivation suggests that individuals' feelings, thoughts, and beliefs significantly influence their actions According to Bandura, behavior is shaped by the interplay of three factors: the individual, their behavior, and the environment, a concept known as reciprocal determinism This process allows individuals to choose their actions, reflect on the appropriateness of their behaviors, assess outcomes, enhance their self-efficacy, and use these insights to inform future decisions Ultimately, this interactive dynamic demonstrates that individuals can actively influence changes in their lives (Bandura, 1986).
Self-efficacy, a key component of social cognitive theory, significantly influences an individual's environment and behaviors It is not merely based on one's abilities but rather on personal beliefs regarding the achievement of goals through their skill set Research indicates that self-efficacy positively predicts academic success (Bandura, 1997), as it impacts motivation, effort, persistence in overcoming challenges, and self-improvement For example, Millset al (2007) found that students with high self-efficacy are more likely to tackle difficult tasks, evaluate their learning performance effectively, and learn foreign languages more easily Conversely, students with low self-efficacy often lack confidence in facing challenges and tend to give up quickly Those with strong self-efficacy can rebound from failures and difficulties, demonstrating that self-efficacy shapes behaviors, thoughts, and motivations throughout life (Bandura, 1997).
According to Bandura (1997), self-efficacy is shaped by four key sources: mastery experience, social persuasion, vicarious experience, and physiological states Successful past experiences in learning tasks significantly boost self-efficacy, as students who achieve success are more likely to believe in their abilities Additionally, when students witness their peers successfully completing tasks, it reinforces their own positive beliefs about their capabilities, further enhancing their self-efficacy.
Feedback and praise from teachers and supervisors significantly enhance students' self-efficacy, as positive reinforcement from respected figures boosts their confidence in specific academic subjects Additionally, learners' emotional and physiological states, such as reduced anxiety and a sense of comfort while engaging in tasks, further strengthen their beliefs in their own capabilities.
Mastery experiences involve a student's self-assessment based on past observations, particularly regarding specific tasks or abilities shaped by previous successes or failures (Bandura, 1977; Usher and Pajares, 2009; Phan Huy Phuong, 2012) According to Tschannen-Moran et al (1998), these tasks should be challenging and should not rely on significant external assistance A student's self-efficacy diminishes when they fail to complete a task, but consistent success fosters a strong belief in their abilities When self-efficacy is established, individuals tend to view minor failures as a result of insufficient effort, motivating them to try again (Zulkovsky, 2009) For example, a student who struggles in science tests does not lose confidence in their abilities due to occasional setbacks (Bandura, 1977, 1986; Schunk, 1991).
Numerous studies have demonstrated the superiority of mastery experiences over other sources of efficacy beliefs Early research focused on treating various phobias through performance or symbolic procedures to alter anxious and defensive behaviors The findings consistently favored performance-based treatments, regardless of the specific strategy employed (Bandura, 1977; Johnson).
According to Bandura (1977), his therapeutic approach involves exposing clients to negative stimuli while employing techniques to reduce anxiety, primarily through muscular relaxation In this treatment, participants visualize themselves gradually facing more threatening scenarios or engage in similar activities with real dangers, followed by relaxation exercises Research indicates that this method has been effective for various individuals.
Research indicates that performance decline linked to various phobias results in significantly greater changes in activity compared to symbolic desensitization (Bandura, 1977) Additionally, multiple studies across educational environments demonstrate that mastery experiences consistently predict students' self-efficacy (Hampton, 1998; Usher & Pajares, 2006; Pajares, Johnson & Usher, 2007).
In a 2003 case study on African American teachers' self-efficacy, a teacher faced significant racial threats yet maintained her belief in her abilities Despite numerous challenges, she persevered, drawing strength from her past experiences The study revealed that recalling and recreating previous successful performances helped bolster her self-efficacy When she sensed a decline in her confidence, she reminded herself of her past mastery in similar situations, allowing her to transfer that expertise to her current circumstances.
Vicarious experiences play a crucial role in shaping an individual's self-efficacy by allowing them to compare their performance on tasks with that of others who possess similar talents (Yeni-Palabıyık, 2013) While enactive mastery experiences are considered the most powerful source of self-efficacy, vicarious experiences become significant when individuals doubt their own abilities Observing someone with comparable skills succeed in a task can enhance one's belief in their own capabilities, while witnessing failure can diminish self-efficacy Bandura (1986) notes that seeing competent individuals struggle can weaken observers' perceptions of their own abilities, thereby reducing their motivation (p 99) Furthermore, Bandura (1994) emphasizes that the effectiveness of modeling on self-efficacy is strongly influenced by the perceived similarity to the models (p 72) This dynamic holds true when the individuals being compared possess similar capabilities; differences in abilities can prevent an impact on self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1997).
Research by Schunk (1981, 1985, 1989) and others has demonstrated the significant influence of vicarious experiences on skill acquisition and self-efficacy development In a pivotal study, Schunk (1981) found that children with low arithmetic skills benefited from either modeling or didactical instruction, with cognitive modeling involving an adult demonstrating division problem-solving strategies During practice, the model provided assistance and reminders of relevant strategies, while students also engaged in self-study Feedback on effort attribution during the practice phase enhanced both accuracy and perceived efficacy, with cognitive modeling yielding greater improvements in accuracy Further, Schunk and Hanson (1989) explored the effects of self-modeling on children's beliefs and behaviors in math, revealing that children exposed to self-modeling achieved similar results to those with peer models and outperformed those with no model Notably, self-efficacy beliefs improved significantly for students who viewed recordings of their performances, highlighting the effectiveness of vicarious experiences as a source of self-efficacy, particularly when models are relatable.
Verbal persuasion, particularly from trusted sources, plays a crucial role in shaping an individual's self-efficacy, as highlighted by Bandura (1986) and Alderman (1999) Encouragement can significantly enhance a person's belief in their ability to complete tasks, fostering resilience when faced with challenges This form of support not only motivates individuals to exert greater effort but also helps them develop the necessary skills to achieve their goals, boosting their confidence (Bandura, 1994) However, the effectiveness of verbal persuasion hinges on its realism and the credibility of the person providing it; endorsements from experts, mentors, or educators can notably enhance self-efficacy (Bandura, 1982; Mills, 2014) Conversely, discouragement or negative feedback can diminish self-efficacy, leading individuals to shy away from challenging tasks and stunting their growth (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1995, 1997) Thus, while positive reinforcement can bolster self-beliefs, negative comments can have a detrimental impact.
Factors enhancing self-efficacy
Because of its critical impact on academic success, it has been of interest to researchers to find out how to increase student self-efficacy According to Alderman
(1999), modeling, goal setting, information processing, encouragement and feedback,
Rewards and modeling significantly influence self-efficacy levels in learners Research by Schunk (1989, 1991) emphasizes that modeling is essential for students with low proficiency, enabling them to acquire new skills effectively Additionally, the presence of individuals who successfully manage tasks can enhance a learner's self-efficacy, while the failures of those with low self-efficacy can diminish it (Bandura et al.).
Research indicates that modeling peers is often more effective than modeling teachers in enhancing self-efficacy, as demonstrated by Schunk (1995) Self-modeling, where learners observe their own successful task performance, boosts their self-efficacy and future performance, while mistakes can diminish it (Bandura, 1977) Goal setting also plays a crucial role; effective goals should be specific, proximal, and appropriately challenging to motivate learners (Schunk, 1995) A learner's self-efficacy influences their understanding of academic materials, with higher self-efficacy leading to better comprehension and greater effort in learning Positive feedback and encouragement from teachers and parents are essential in fostering self-efficacy, as highlighted by Schunk (1996) Clear assignments and constructive feedback further enhance this process (Schraw et al., 1995) While teacher rewards can promote self-efficacy, Alderman (1999) suggests they are less effective, advocating for group recognition over individual rewards to foster a collaborative classroom environment.
Self-efficacy and learning achievement
Learning achievement refers to the knowledge and skills students acquire in a subject, typically assessed through test scores and grades According to Azwar (1999), metrics such as GPA, grades, and graduation rates effectively represent learners' academic success These achievements can be conveyed through various formats, including words, letters, symbols, or numbers, reflecting students' performance over a specific timeframe Essentially, learning achievement quantifies the knowledge gained during the educational process, with final test scores serving as a key measure of English learning achievement in this study Additionally, learners' self-efficacy beliefs are adaptable and can change across different learning environments, highlighting the importance of analyzing specific linguistic skills—listening, speaking, reading, and writing—in English language learning (Klassen, 2006; Wang, Schwab, Fenn, & Chang, 2013).
Research shows that self-efficacy significantly influences students' academic achievement (Koura & Al-Hebaishi, 2014; Mahyuddin et al., 2006) Students' learning behaviors are often shaped by their perceptions of their own abilities and expectations of performance Those with high self-efficacy are more likely to invest greater effort in their studies, leading to greater academic success (Pajares, 1996) Furthermore, Koura and Al-Hebaishi (2014) found that individuals with elevated self-efficacy levels approach challenging tasks with more confidence and composure compared to their peers with lower self-efficacy.
Research indicates a strong connection between self-efficacy and learning achievement in children, as highlighted by studies from Bong (1998) and Pajares (1996) Conversely, findings from Strelneks (2005) and Lim (2001) suggest that self-efficacy does not significantly impact learning outcomes in adults.
Further investigation into adult students is essential to uncover correlations in their learning experiences Kim et al (2015) conducted a study on Korean college students' self-efficacy beliefs regarding English learning using latent profile analysis The findings revealed that students with higher self-efficacy demonstrated greater English proficiency, with female participants exhibiting more self-efficacy than males in both medium and high self-efficacy profiles Additionally, those in the high and medium self-efficacy groups dedicated more time to studying English compared to their low self-efficacy counterparts Similarly, Liem, Lau, and Nie studied a nationally representative sample of Singapore secondary students, contributing valuable insights into English language learning.
Research by Wang, Schwab, Fenn, and Chang (2013) highlights the importance of self-efficacy in language learning, revealing that it positively influences performance-approach goals while negatively impacting performance-avoidance goals Additionally, self-efficacy beliefs indirectly affect English language test scores, making it essential to incorporate strategies that enhance learners' self-efficacy in classroom teaching methods.
Bandura's self-efficacy theory plays a crucial role in education, influencing learners' decisions about their abilities and impacting their motivation and persistence Students with higher self-efficacy are more likely to set ambitious goals, work diligently towards achieving them, enhance their critical thinking skills, and demonstrate resilience in the face of challenges Consequently, those with strong self-efficacy are better positioned for success in their academic pursuits.
Recent studies highlight the significant influence of self-efficacy on education, emphasizing its role in mastering new and challenging skills Research by Bandura and colleagues has consistently demonstrated that high levels of self-efficacy contribute positively to learning outcomes According to Wang and RiCharde, students' self-efficacy is a critical factor in their academic success.
Students' learning performance is significantly influenced by their self-efficacy beliefs, which in turn affect their tutorial actions (Pajares and Miller, 1994; Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons, 1990) Research by Pajares and Miller (1994) indicates that students' success in solving mathematical problems is often a stronger predictor of their overall abilities than other variables Additionally, findings from Zimmerman and Bandura further support the importance of self-efficacy in academic achievement.
Research indicates a strong correlation between students' self-efficacy in writing and their academic performance, suggesting that higher self-efficacy leads to better outcomes Studies have also explored the relationship between students’ beliefs in their reading abilities and their achievements, demonstrating that self-efficacy in reading skills can predict success on standardized reading comprehension tests For instance, Shell et al (1995) revealed that self-efficacy regarding specific reading tasks was a reliable predictor of reading comprehension performance across various grade levels Additionally, Klassen (2010) found that students with elevated reading self-efficacy not only excelled in reading assessments but also achieved higher grades in English and displayed greater self-efficacy in self-regulated learning, irrespective of their special education needs.
Research indicates that students' self-efficacy can be enhanced through effective classroom instruction and modeling techniques Studies by Pajares, Miller, and Johnson (1999) highlight the role of teaching in boosting self-efficacy, while Schunk and Hanson (1985) and Wang and RiCharde (1987) emphasize the impact of modeling on this belief.
Research indicates that students' self-efficacy can be enhanced through positive feedback and successful past experiences, along with support from teachers and parents This suggests that when educators provide encouragement and create a supportive learning environment, students are more likely to develop a strong belief in their abilities Therefore, it is essential for teachers to motivate learners to harness their full potential and instill confidence in their capabilities.
To enhance self-efficacy, students should follow several essential steps According to Bandura (1997), students actively engage in their learning by choosing and interpreting information from four primary sources This process leads to a higher level of competence and confidence in their abilities.
Self-efficacy in students is significantly shaped by their prior experiences and the observation of others, as highlighted by Bandura (1997), who underscores the role of modeling in fostering independent activities Additionally, social persuasion, including feedback from peers, teachers, and evaluators, plays a crucial role in shaping these beliefs Emotional and physiological factors, such as anxiety, mood, and fatigue, also impact the development of self-efficacy Consequently, multiple elements contribute to the formation of students' self-efficacy beliefs.
Self-efficacy and gender
Gender differs from sex, as gender is shaped by societal and cultural influences while sex is biologically determined, referring to male and female based on genetics and reproductive organs (Eski, 2009) This classification of humans into male and female is a significant aspect of identity, often overshadowing other differences Psychologists and education specialists have long studied the behavioral, mental, and personality traits of both genders, focusing on variables like self-efficacy Eski (2009) notes that men typically exhibit traits such as aggression and competitiveness, whereas women are often seen as gentler and more emotional These differing personality traits contribute to varying beliefs in self-efficacy between genders.
The researchers’ efforts have led to the emergence of research findings related to the impact of gender on self-efficacy Among these researchers are Pintrich and Groot
(1990) They reported that boys and girls of school age have the same self- assurance level but, boys’ self-efficiency is more than girls Some researchers, including Prichen
Research indicates that gender differences in self-efficacy are not significant, as noted by 1990 studies However, various studies, including those by Oxford (1993) and Onwuegbuzie, Bailey, & Daley (2001), have explored the nuances of self-efficacy among males and females, revealing interesting findings Onwuegbuzie et al (2001) contribute to this discourse by uncovering specific differences in self-efficacy levels between genders.
Research indicates that females are generally more motivated to learn foreign languages than males, as males may perceive language learning as a feminine pursuit, leading to discomfort in this area According to Schmidt et al (1999), gender differences in motivation significantly impact learning performance in English as a foreign language, with females demonstrating a higher motivation level This gap in motivation may stem from the inherently social nature of language learning, which tends to encourage women to engage more actively in acquiring foreign languages (Oxford and Shearin, 1994).
Gender significantly affects individuals' self-efficacy in learning English, with varying levels of self-belief between different genders Understanding this disparity is crucial for developing effective strategies to enhance students' English learning experiences.
Previous studies
Research has shown a significant relationship between self-efficacy and English learning achievement, indicating that students with higher levels of self-efficacy tend to perform better in English.
Studies by Schunk (1981), Pajares and Miller (1994), Chemers, Hu, and Garcia
Research by Jeng and Shin (2008) and Cheng and Chiou (2010) emphasizes the critical role of self-efficacy in predicting student success Templin's (1999) study on Japanese EFL students revealed varying levels of self-efficacy, with a t-test indicating that students with high self-efficacy achieved better grades than those with low self-efficacy Additionally, Templin, Guile, and Okuma (2001) found that self-efficacy significantly enhanced the English language proficiency of Japanese college students enrolled in English courses Furthermore, Chen (2007) investigated the impact of English listening self-efficacy, further supporting the notion that self-efficacy is vital for language development.
A study involving 277 non-English university students in Taiwan revealed that English listening self-efficacy is a stronger predictor of listening performance than other factors Similarly, Meera and Jumana (2016) examined the link between self-efficacy and English language learning outcomes among middle school students, finding that higher self-efficacy correlates with improved academic results However, contrasting findings from researchers such as Graham (2006), Schunk (2003), and Wilhite (1990) indicate that there may be no significant relationship between academic achievement and self-efficacy.
Several studies have examined the connection between language skills achievement and self-efficacy Rahimi and Abedini (2009) found a strong correlation between students' self-efficacy beliefs and their listening proficiency Additionally, Chen (2007) highlighted that listening self-efficacy is a crucial factor influencing English listening performance among EFL students, alongside anxiety and perceived value of English culture Other researchers, including Chapman & Tunmer (1995) and Guthrie et al (2013), have focused on reading self-efficacy, assessing students' confidence in their abilities to perform specific reading tasks and skills.
The certainty of reading comprehension is often questioned, as highlighted by Shell et al (1995), who ask if students truly engage with all the text in their schoolbooks Measures of reading skills self-efficacy typically involve tasks that assess a student's ability to read a passage and answer comprehension questions According to Nelson & Manset-Williamson (2006) and Schunk & Rice (1992, 1993), students evaluate their confidence in successfully completing these reading tasks, which provides insight into their self-efficacy in specific reading skills Researchers have found that these self-efficacy assessments are crucial for understanding students' reading capabilities.
25 reliabilities starting from 57 to 97 The dimensionality of those measures has not been addressed in the literature
Research indicates a strong and consistent link between socioeconomic status (SES) and the use of academic strategies (Jensen, 2009) A study by Callan et al (2017), which analyzed PISA data from 65 countries, revealed that students from higher SES families utilized academic strategies—such as understanding, summarizing, and control strategies—more frequently Additionally, the findings highlighted that students attending higher SES schools were more likely to employ achievement-related strategies However, a significant challenge in learner strategy research is the lack of a consistent definition of what constitutes a strategy (Rose et al.).
In 2018, Rose et al advocated for a shift from focusing on language learner strategies to exploring self-regulation research While our understanding of the connection between socioeconomic status (SES) and the use of self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies in writing is still developing, we anticipate that SES will influence SRL strategy utilization in writing Therefore, we will include this variable when analyzing the relationship between writing SRL and writing proficiency.
In addition to the research of self-efficacy and learning achievement, Mills et al
A study conducted in 2006 examined the gender differences in the relationship between self-efficacy and language achievement, focusing on self-efficacy, anxiety, and French listening and reading skills The findings revealed that both genders exhibited a similar correlation between reading self-efficacy and reading achievement However, only females showed a positive correlation between listening self-efficacy and learning achievement, while listening anxiety was positively correlated with listening proficiency for both genders The study concluded that female students generally displayed higher levels of self-efficacy in terms of interest, value, self-regulation, and enjoyment in learning the French language and culture compared to their male counterparts.
In a study conducted by Truong Thi Nhu Ngoc and Wang (2019) involving 767 Vietnamese college students, the researchers explored the relationship between self-efficacy and English language learning The findings revealed a significant correlation between students' self-efficacy and their proficiency in the English language.
A significant achievement in self-efficacy was noted among southern Vietnamese students, who demonstrated higher levels compared to their northern and central counterparts, with no gender differences affecting these results Phan Thi Tuyet Nga and Locke (2016) identified four key sources of self-efficacy in Vietnamese EFL teachers through a study involving eight educators, highlighting mastery experiences, social persuasion, vicarious experiences, and physiological/affective states Ngo Hong (2017) analyzed the attitudes of 970 Vietnamese EFL learners, revealing that effective learning and self-direction accounted for nearly 51% of the variance in opinions regarding Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Furthermore, Tran Quoc Thao and Nguyen Hoang Nhat Khanh (2020) found that English majors at the University of Dalat exhibited confidence in their writing self-efficacy for both daily and academic tasks, with high self-efficacy serving as a significant predictor of writing achievement.
Previous studies indicate a significant relationship between self-efficacy and learning achievement, although some conflicting results exist (Graham 2006; Schunk, 2003; Wilhite, 1990) Consequently, further empirical research is necessary to confirm the correlation between these two variables, which justifies the need for the current study.
Conceptual framework
This study aims to explore the connection between students' self-efficacy beliefs and their achievements in learning English To achieve the research objectives, the study clarifies and analyzes three key variables: self-efficacy, learning achievement, and gender.
Self-efficacy has been defined in different ways In this research, self-efficacy is defined following Bandura’s (1997) self-efficacy theory to examine precisely how it is
Self-efficacy, as defined by Bandura (1997), refers to students' beliefs in their own abilities, which significantly influences their learning outcomes When students possess strong self-efficacy, they are more likely to engage effectively in their studies, leading to improved language achievement Consequently, self-efficacy serves as a crucial motivational factor that drives learners to successfully complete their educational tasks.
Gender plays a significant role in shaping students' self-efficacy and academic performance, as highlighted by research (Oxford, 1993; Onwuegbuzie, Bailey, & Daley, 2001) Cultural influences contribute to differing beliefs among males and females, potentially affecting their success in acquiring a target language This study further investigates the impact of gender differences on learning outcomes.
The conceptual framework of this study is presented in Figure 2.2 below
Figure 2.2 Conceptual framework of this study
Summary
This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the literature surrounding self-efficacy and its related concepts It defines self-efficacy and explains the Self-efficacy Theory, highlighting the various sources and factors that enhance self-efficacy The chapter also explores the applications of self-efficacy across different fields, with a specific focus on its role in education and learning Additionally, it presents recent studies on self-efficacy in second and foreign language learning from both local and global perspectives, offering valuable insights into its impact on educational outcomes.
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter outlines the methodology employed in the current study, detailing the data collection instruments used and concluding with the procedures for data analysis.
Research design
This study investigates the self-efficacy of EFL learners in learning English, focusing on gender differences and the relationship between self-efficacy and academic performance at DNTU Utilizing a mixed-method approach, recognized as a significant research design alongside qualitative and quantitative methods, the study aims to yield reliable and valid results by integrating both data types This combination enhances the understanding of the research problem, as it allows for a more comprehensive analysis than either method alone.
Utilizing a mixed-methods approach enhances confidence in addressing research questions by integrating diverse data sets that provide a more detailed understanding of the subject matter (Creswell, 2012) In the context of multi-dimensional constructs such as motivation in language education, this approach offers a richer, more informative perspective than relying on a single method (Hubbard, 2005), enabling researchers to deliver thorough answers to their research inquiries.
Research site / Research context
Dong Nai Technology University, situated in Quarter 5 of Trang Dai Ward in Bien Hoa City, Dong Nai Province, Vietnam, is a private institution that offers 15 undergraduate and 1 graduate program The university has a significant population of students majoring in fields other than English, making it an ideal location for data collection.
The university offers seven faculties encompassing 18 diverse departments, including Information Technology, Electrical Engineering, Chemical Engineering Technology, Health Sciences, Accounting, Finance, Business Administration, and Foreign Languages With a significant population of students majoring in non-English fields, all students are required to study English from elementary to intermediate levels The researcher, having served as an English lecturer at this institution, has a unique advantage in accessing the university for research purposes.
The targeted population was 128 EFL non-English major students currently learning English as a minor component in their university program
DNTU offers small class sizes, typically comprising 30 to 35 students, with the current study involving a total of 30 students per class Students are required to complete seven English modules during their university studies, although their English proficiency levels are generally below average, aligning with the study's objectives A questionnaire was distributed to five classes, gathering responses from 128 students, with the assistance of the class lecturers in collecting completed forms Additionally, ten students volunteered for individual interviews, providing their contact information as consent, which the researcher used to schedule suitable interview times.
31 individual interview with the researcher expected that through the interviews with students, she could deeper understand students’ motivation to learn English
A survey conducted at Dong Nai University of Technology involved 128 non-English major students from five classes, each consisting of 30 students The results revealed a significant gender disparity, with 68% of participants identifying as male and 32% as female, likely due to the technology-focused majors that tend to attract more male students.
Figure 3.1 Non-English majors by gender
The study involved 125 participants, predominantly second-year (N = 123) and third-year students, representing 98% of the total English is a mandatory subject for students during the first semester of their second year Additionally, one first-year student successfully completed prior courses, while two fourth-year students, having failed their previous English course, are required to retake the class.
Figure 3.2 Non-English majors by year
A significant majority of students, accounting for 54%, chose to major in Technology, making it the most popular field of study This was followed by Economics and Administration at 21%, Accounting and Finance at 18%, and Applied Science in Health at 7% The enrollment figures clearly indicate a preference for technology over other disciplines.
Figure 3.3 Non-English majors by faculty
Descriptive statistics reveal that the majority of students participating in interviews were male, primarily in their 2nd or 3rd year, and were concentrated in the departments of Technology, Economics, and Administration and Financial Accounting While these results did not directly impact students' confidence in learning English, they did have a partial influence, which will be further explored in conjunction with the subsequent research findings to provide a clearer understanding of students' beliefs about learning English.
The Questionnaire of English Self-Efficacy (QESE) consists of 32 items designed to assess learners' self-efficacy beliefs in English language learning Construct validity was evaluated through Item Response Theory (IRT), with findings from single-group and multigroup Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) affirming the factorial validity and invariance of a higher-order four-factor model among Chinese and German college students Additional analyses on data from Chinese and Korean college students further supported the psychometric properties of QESE, demonstrating effective functioning of the rating scale and alignment of item hierarchy with expected order The questionnaire's content remained largely unchanged due to its proven reliability and relevance in both domestic and international research contexts Adaptations were made to ensure comprehension within the Vietnamese context, allowing participants to assess their capabilities in listening, speaking, reading, and writing in English Careful consideration was taken to distinguish self-efficacy from related constructs like self-esteem and self-concept during the adaptation of these items for educational psychology and second language learning.
Self-efficacy refers to the ability to accomplish specific tasks based on self-evaluation, while self-esteem reflects a general sense of worth and feelings of adequacy across various domains (Byrne, 1996; Damon & Hart, 1982) For instance, a question measuring self-efficacy might ask, "How well do you think you can write a text in English?" in contrast to a self-esteem measure like, "I feel good about my English writing." Although studies indicate a positive correlation between self-efficacy and self-esteem (Fan et al., 2010), these two constructs are distinct and not equivalent (Bandura, 1997; Bong, 2006).
The questionnaire was developed to assess self-efficacy based on Bandura's model, incorporating reworded items for this study The Questionnaire of English Self-Efficacy (QESE) comprises 32 items that evaluate non-native English speakers' proficiency in listening, speaking, reading, and writing It focuses on four key aspects of self-efficacy: Listening Efficacy, which includes items 1, 3, 9, 10, 15, 22, 24, and 27, and Speaking Efficacy, represented by items 4, 6, and 8.
The study assessed English self-efficacy across four key areas: listening, speaking, reading, and writing, each measured with eight questions on a seven-point scale ranging from 1 ("I cannot do it at all") to 7 ("I can do it very well") To minimize participants' awareness of the specific aspects being evaluated, the questions were presented in a random order Higher scores reflected greater self-efficacy in English The questionnaire was translated into Vietnamese by two experienced lecturers from the English faculty, with cross-checking conducted by additional faculty members to ensure accuracy The translation was further validated through testing with two students to confirm their understanding.
To ensure the reliability of the data collection instruments, a pilot test of the efficacy tool was conducted with 30 volunteer university students, yielding a Cronbach alpha coefficient of 96, which confirmed its reliability for the main study The survey's face validity was established, and the questionnaire items were adapted from previous studies recognized for their high quality and validity (Truong Thi Nhu Ngoc & Wang, C., 2019) The survey was designed to be visually appealing, using simple and familiar language to encourage full participation Participants completed the survey in approximately 15 minutes in the classroom, with all responses kept confidential and used solely for research purposes After completion, participants returned the surveys to their lecturer, who then assisted the researcher in collecting the completed questionnaires.
Second research method was the qualitative semi-structured interview, which “is a construction site of knowledge” (Kvale, 1996, p 42) Two main questions were asked during the interviews
1 To what extent are you confident in learning English? Why do you think so?
2 Do you think males and females behave differently in English classes? Why do you think so?
The interview questions were crafted to align with self-efficacy theory, focusing on the author's research objectives The first question aimed to clarify the reasons behind the varying levels of confidence among students, while the second sought to understand their perceptions of gender differences in learning English Interviews were conducted in locations selected by the students, ensuring these were quiet environments to minimize distractions Overall, the questions were designed to directly address the study's research inquiries.
The study examined students' perceptions of confidence in learning English and analyzed gender differences in performance Interview questions were translated into Vietnamese and validated by two experienced lecturers A pilot test was conducted with three students to ensure clarity, revealing that three questions were ambiguous These questions were subsequently revised to eliminate confusion prior to the actual interviews.
The author conducted personal interviews with each student, beginning with general questions about their major to create a comfortable atmosphere This approach allowed for a smoother transition into the main interview question, supplemented by sub-questions and prompts to facilitate quicker responses from the students.
3.5.3 End-of-semester tests and scoring
Research instruments
The Questionnaire of English Self-Efficacy (QESE), consisting of 32 items, effectively measures learners' self-efficacy beliefs in English learning Construct validity was assessed through Item Response Theory (IRT), with findings from single-group and multigroup Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) supporting the factorial validity of a four-factor model across Chinese and German college students Additionally, data from Chinese and Korean students further validated the psychometric properties of QESE, confirming its effective rating scale and consistent item hierarchy The questionnaire's content remained largely unchanged due to its reliability in various studies, and it was adapted for the Vietnamese context to enhance participant comprehension Each item prompts students to evaluate their English capabilities in listening, speaking, reading, and writing, with careful distinction made between self-efficacy and related constructs like self-esteem.
Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in their ability to accomplish specific tasks, while self-esteem reflects a broader sense of worth and adequacy across various areas (Byrne, 1996; Damon & Hart, 1982) For instance, a question measuring self-efficacy might ask, "How well do you think you can write a text in English?" in contrast to a self-esteem measure like, "I feel good about my English writing." Although studies indicate a positive correlation between self-efficacy and self-esteem (Fan et al., 2010), they are distinct constructs that do not operate in parallel (Bandura, 1997; Bong, 2006).
The questionnaire designed for this study measures the self-efficacy construct based on Bandura's model, with items specifically adapted to fit the research context The Questionnaire of English Self-Efficacy (QESE) includes 32 items that assess non-native English speakers' self-efficacy in listening, speaking, reading, and writing It encompasses four key aspects of self-efficacy: Listening Efficacy, which includes items 1, 3, 9, 10, 15, 22, 24, and 27, and Speaking Efficacy, represented by items 4, 6, and 8.
The study measured English self-efficacy across four areas: listening, speaking, reading, and writing, each assessed with eight questions on a seven-point scale ranging from 1 (“I cannot do it at all”) to 7 (“I can do it very well”) To minimize bias, questions were randomly ordered, with higher scores indicating greater self-efficacy The questionnaire was translated into Vietnamese by two experienced lecturers from the English faculty, ensuring clarity and ease of understanding for participants The translations were cross-checked and tested with two students to confirm comprehension.
To ensure the reliability of the data collection instruments, a pilot test of the efficacy tool was conducted with 30 volunteer university students, yielding a Cronbach alpha coefficient of 96, which confirms its readiness for the main study The survey's face validity was carefully considered, with items adapted from previous studies recognized for their high quality and validity (Truong Thi Nhu Ngoc & Wang, C., 2019) The questionnaire was designed to be visually appealing, using simple and familiar language to encourage full participation All responses were kept confidential and used solely for research purposes Participants completed the survey in approximately 15 minutes during class, returning it to their lecturer, who then assisted the researcher in collecting the completed questionnaires.
Second research method was the qualitative semi-structured interview, which “is a construction site of knowledge” (Kvale, 1996, p 42) Two main questions were asked during the interviews
1 To what extent are you confident in learning English? Why do you think so?
2 Do you think males and females behave differently in English classes? Why do you think so?
The interview questions were crafted to align with self-efficacy theory, focusing on the research question posed by the author The first question aimed to clarify the reasons behind varying levels of confidence among students, while the second explored gender differences in perceptions of learning English Interviews were conducted in locations chosen by the students, ensuring a quiet environment with minimal distractions These questions were specifically designed to align with the study's research objectives.
The study explored students' perceptions of their confidence in learning English and examined gender differences in performance Interview questions were translated into Vietnamese and reviewed by two experienced lecturers To ensure clarity, the questions were piloted with three students, revealing that three questions were ambiguous Consequently, these questions were revised to eliminate confusion prior to the actual interviews.
The author conducted personal interviews with each student, beginning with general questions about their major to create a comfortable atmosphere This approach facilitated the interview process, allowing the researcher to pose the main question along with several sub-questions or prompts, enabling students to respond more effectively.
3.5.3 End-of-semester tests and scoring
Students' English achievement was assessed through their overall grades on end-of-semester tests that evaluate proficiency in listening, speaking, reading, and writing In Vietnam, each skill is rated on a 10-point scale, and the total course score is the average of these four skill scores Instructors provided the scores for the students involved in the current research, which included evaluations for listening, reading, and writing The tests were designed by the course instructor.
The listening comprehension test evaluated students' abilities to grasp key information and main points from situational conversations found in their textbooks Through multiple-choice questions, students demonstrated their understanding of various communicative contexts, including interviews, discussions, and dialogues, while also assessing their ability to follow the progression of reasoning within these conversations.
The final tests in reading measured students' reading comprehension, vocabulary, and spelling Multiple-choice questions were designed to measure student's comprehension ability by accessing directly stated information, interpreting information
37 clearly and implied, and reflecting on the texts Learners' vocabulary was assessed through word knowledge
Writing tests, which include essay tests and short answer questions on popular topics, evaluate candidates' writing skills in formats such as letters, articles, and reports These assessments also measure students' abilities to organize their ideas and utilize correct grammar and vocabulary To ensure fair evaluation, a scoring criterion has been established for each essay question, accompanied by a scoring guide that outlines the expectations for responses Students are informed about the scoring system and the points allocated for each section of their answers.
The speaking assessment evaluated learners' communication skills by providing questions on familiar topics and utilizing cards with semester-learned subjects Students were required to discuss a given topic for approximately two minutes and respond to questions succinctly Their communication abilities were assessed based on criteria such as fluency, coherence of ideas, vocabulary range, and usage The assessments were aligned with Cambridge's scales, targeting A1 level for sophomores and A2 level for third-year students.
The score was approved by the vice dean.
Data collection procedures
The pilot study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of the questionnaires and the time required for completion, while also assessing the internal consistency of the tools used The researcher obtained permission to study a specific group of learners, providing them with information about the research and a self-efficacy questionnaire on English as a Foreign Language (QSEQ) To enhance comprehension, the questionnaire was translated into Vietnamese, making it more accessible for participants Reliability was established by testing the tool with 30 volunteer students prior to the main study, and the validity of the survey was confirmed as it was adapted from established previous studies.
The survey was validated as an effective measure of its intended qualities, with all questionnaires completed anonymously by students, who were not required to provide their names Distributed by the classroom instructor, the completed questionnaires were collected and analyzed using SPSS 20.0 The pilot study results indicated high reliability, with a Cronbach's Alpha of 96 for the English Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (QSEQ).
The researcher contacted the Vice-Dean of the Faculty of English via email to schedule an appointment, followed by an in-person meeting to discuss the project and seek permission to conduct research at the university Subsequently, the researcher collaborated with the class teachers to distribute surveys to their students.
Students submitted their completed anonymous surveys, which were analyzed using the SPSS statistical program Descriptive statistics were employed to collect, organize, and summarize the sample data from the population Factor analyses assessed the statistical properties of the scales, while Cronbach's alpha was calculated to determine reliability statistics Developed by Lee Cronbach in 1951, Cronbach's alpha measures internal consistency reliability, indicating how well items on a scale or test measure the same construct This internal consistency is crucial for composite scores derived from the scale It's important to emphasize that reliability pertains to the data rather than the scale itself In this study, coefficient alpha was utilized extensively, beginning with the Piloting Procedure phase, where a trial interview with 30 participants assessed the reliability of the QESE Following this, the official interview results were analyzed using the same reliability measure.
39 coefficient alpha was calculated to see the reliability of each question in QESE and self- belief of each listening, speaking, reading and writing skill
Multiple analyses were performed to evaluate the impact of self-efficacy beliefs on English scores, focusing on the strength of these independent variables Additionally, separate analyses were conducted for male and female students to identify any differences in the influence of self-efficacy on their academic performance.
The audio recordings of the interviews were transcribed and sent to participants for feedback before being translated into English The transcriptions were then coded by identifying segments of text that convey a single idea or piece of information, as defined by Tesch (1990) Common themes were extracted from the interviews, which took place in various settings such as meeting rooms, empty classrooms, or faculty common areas, chosen for their accessibility and minimal noise With participant consent, the researcher used two smartphones to simultaneously record each interview, which lasted approximately 5 to 10 minutes.
Data analysis procedures
In the study, data were collected using paper questionnaires and entered into Excel, with each observation represented as a row and each measurement item as a column To ensure accuracy, the data underwent frequent spot checks during and after entry to prevent errors or omissions The cleaned data was then transferred to SPSS 20.0, a statistical package for social sciences, where descriptive statistics such as means, standard deviations, and ranges for all demographic variables were calculated.
The study analyzed the self-efficacy levels of 128 participants at DNTU, utilizing quantifiable data coded with numerical values and frequency distributions Gender, academic year, and faculty data were meticulously cleaned, and the reliability of the "self-efficacy in listening, speaking, reading, and writing" scale was confirmed using the Cronbach Alpha coefficient To assess self-efficacy and performance among non-English students, mean and standard deviation values were calculated The research explored the influence of self-efficacy on learning achievement goals by examining the relationship between self-efficacy and academic achievements, identifying both positive and negative correlations An Independent Samples T-Test was employed to compare self-efficacy levels between male and female students, aiming to understand the impact of gender on self-efficacy and academic performance.
After analyzing the quantitative data from the study, the researcher conducted interviews with ten voluntary students, allowing them to choose comfortable locations and times for the discussions Permission was obtained to record the interviews using a voice recorder, ensuring participants felt at ease while sharing their responses Following the interviews, the researcher transcribed the recordings and notes, then employed qualitative data analysis procedures to examine the responses Common themes were highlighted and coded with color pens, while differing perspectives among participants were marked with distinct colors The transcripts of the ten participants, originally in Vietnamese, were translated into English for comprehensive analysis, culminating in a thorough review of the interview data.
Validity and reliability
In research, it is important to identify the concepts of validity and reliability
Validity in social science research, as defined by Robson (2010) and Mehrens & Lehman (1987), refers to the extent to which a measurement accurately reflects the research problem being studied It assesses whether the measurement tools used are comprehensive and appropriate for the issues at hand Validity checks are crucial for confirming that researchers are effectively and adequately measuring their research questions, making it a fundamental component of ensuring research integrity.
The face validity of a test is determined by its relevance to the participants, ensuring that the content is appropriate for both teachers and students (Oluwatayo, 2012) In this study, the questionnaire was designed with careful attention to feasibility, readability, consistency in style and formatting, and clarity of language, allowing respondents to easily understand and answer the questions According to Straub, Boudreau et al (2004), content validity refers to "the degree to which items in an instrument reflect the content universe to which the instrument will be generalized."
9) To examine the content validity, Cohen et al (2007) states that the questions should ensure moderately and generatively covers the domain or items that it purports to cover
In the realm of information systems, it is crucial to implement content validity during the development of new survey instruments Content validity entails a thorough evaluation to ensure that the instrument encompasses all necessary items while excluding any irrelevant elements related to a specific construct domain (Lewis et al.).
1995, Boudreau et al., 2001) Besides, the questionnaire and interview questions were carefully considered to make sure they are at a practical length in order to avoid the fatigue for participants
Construct validity is the most crucial type of validity in research In this study, construct validity is grounded in the literature reviewed in Chapter 2 Joy (2003) defines cultural validity as the extent to which a study is suitable for the cultural context in which the research is conducted, highlighting its significant role in the current research.
The researcher adapted items for the study to ensure their relevance within the DNTU context A careful translation of the questionnaire was conducted to guarantee cultural appropriateness and meaningfulness for the participants.
There are two main research tools including Questionnaire of English Self- efficacy and interview questions The reliability of these tools considered
The self-efficacy questionnaire has been widely utilized in various studies globally, demonstrating high human and item reliability, as well as a significant difficulty level for expected items, as indicated by Item Response Theory (IRT) (Wang & Bai, 2017) The internal consistency was notably high, with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.96, leading to the removal of several detrimental items to enhance overall questionnaire consistency During data collection, researchers provided immediate clarification to participants when confusion arose, ensuring real-world fidelity, contextual relevance, and authenticity, as outlined in the design and piloting of the pivot table (Cohen et al., 2007).
The researcher translated the survey into Vietnamese, ensuring its accuracy by having two experienced English instructors, each with over seven years of teaching experience, cross-check the translation To verify the reliability of the interview data, an English teacher was tasked with listening to the recorded interviews and reviewing the raw data alongside the written transcripts.
The evaluation of a student's success is based on a comprehensive assessment conducted over one semester, where end-of-semester grades are determined by multiple teachers within the foreign language department, rather than solely by the classroom instructor This approach ensures an objective measurement of the student's academic performance during the study.
The reliability of the QSEQ scale is assessed using the Cronbach Alpha coefficient, which evaluates students' self-efficacy in four key English skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing This comprehensive assessment comprises 32 questions, with each skill represented by 8 specific questions For listening skills, the relevant questions are 1, 3, 9, 10, 15, 22, 24, and 27, while speaking skills are evaluated through questions 4, 6, 8, 17, 19, and 20.
The article discusses the assessment of reading and writing skills through specific questions, with Cronbach's alpha used to evaluate the internal consistency of these scales This statistical measure indicates how closely related a set of test items are, with values ranging from 0 to 1; higher values signify greater reliability A Cronbach's alpha of 1.0 suggests that variability in test scores is entirely due to true score differences, while a value of 0.0 indicates no reliable variance It's important to note that a high alpha may indicate redundancy among test items, whereas a low alpha could point to insufficient questions or poor interrelatedness among them To improve reliability, adding more relevant items may be beneficial.
Table 3.1 The rating scale reliability by Cronbach alpha coefficient of reliability
Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha N of Items
In the reliability scale test, variables with a Corrected Item - Total Correlation of less than 0.3 are deemed unsatisfactory and should be excluded from the model A Cronbach's Alpha coefficient of at least 0.7 is considered acceptable for model use The testing results indicated that all items in the skill exhibited a Corrected Item - Total Correlation greater than 0.3, and the Cronbach's Alpha coefficients for all four scales exceeded 0.9 (refer to Table 3.1) Therefore, the collected data demonstrates satisfactory reliability.
Ethical issues
The current study, involving human subjects, raised several ethical considerations, as emphasized by Walliman (2006), who noted that "the value of research depends heavily on the center of its ethical activity as well as the new features of its discovery" (p.147) Research ethics is essential for guiding researchers to conduct their work responsibly, demonstrating honesty and respect for participants According to David B Resnik (2015), adhering to research ethics is vital for several reasons: it promotes the achievement of research goals and the pursuit of truth, fosters collaborative values among team members, ensures accountability to the public, encourages community support for research initiatives, and contributes to the development of broader social ethical values.
Participants were briefed on the purpose of the research program, along with the specific time and location for their involvement The researcher communicated the study's objectives to the students beforehand and engaged with volunteers to emphasize the significance of their contributions and how the information would be utilized.
Forty-five students received equitable treatment, independent of their involvement in research activities The study emphasized the importance of respecting participant information and research data Additionally, the researcher confirmed that the necessary decimal data was efficiently provided by the DNTU board of directors for the current study Data collection commenced only after obtaining the appropriate approval.
Summary
This chapter outlines the methodology employed in the study, detailing the study design, location, participant selection, research tools, data collection and analysis procedures, as well as the validity and reliability of the data Additionally, it addresses the ethical considerations involved in the research process.