INTRODUCTION
Background to the study
The English language has a significant impact across various sectors, including education, economics, technology, and everyday life Research highlights its crucial role in higher education and the workplace, establishing English as a vital component of the entire education system, from primary to higher education levels Despite this importance, the 2019 Education First English Proficiency Index ranked Vietnam 52nd out of 100 countries, with a low proficiency score of 51.57, indicating challenges in English language skills among the Vietnamese population.
10 th position out of 25 countries and regions Therefore, enhencing the proficency in using English is very essential for Vietnamese learners
In addition to the essential language skills of listening, reading, writing, and speaking, effective English language learning hinges on three key components: vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar These elements require significant focus from both educators and learners to enhance overall language proficiency.
Vocabulary is often regarded as the "core or heart of language" (Lewis, 1993, p 89), leading to a significant rise in research focused on vocabulary learning and teaching (Carter & McCarthy, 1988; Nation, 1990; Arnau & Bejoint, 1992; Hatch & Brown, 1995; Coady & Huckin, 1997; Schmitt, 1997, 2000) In Vietnam, this emphasis on vocabulary instruction is mirrored by local scholars who explore its importance in teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) (Tran Van Duong, 2008; Le Nguyen Huong Giang, 2009; Le Thi Bao Tran, 2010; Nguyen Thi Anh Dao, 2012; Nguyen Binh Nguyen, 2013).
Effective vocabulary learning requires specific strategies, as highlighted by Schmitt (1997) He categorizes these strategies into two main groups: discovery strategies and consolidation strategies Within these groups, he identifies various approaches, including discovery-determination, discovery-social, consolidation-social, consolidation-memory, consolidation-cognitive, and consolidation-metacognitive.
Statement of the problem
One significant issue that English teachers have long recognized is students' deficient vocabulary, which hampers their ability to effectively engage with the language despite receiving progressive education (Mumary, 2017) Vocabulary is crucial for learning English, yet there is limited understanding of students' perceptions and usage of vocabulary learning strategies, particularly at HUTECH This study aims to gather comprehensive data to address these concerns, focusing on how non-English major students perceive vocabulary learning strategies and the specific strategies they employ in their English vocabulary acquisition.
EFL students often rely on teacher-provided word lists, but they frequently struggle to complete them due to a lack of motivation, as noted by Dinh Tan Thuy Kha (2011) This common practice highlights the challenges faced by learners in effectively acquiring vocabulary.
Many students struggle with vocabulary acquisition, both in and out of the classroom, due to ineffective strategies and applications Recent evaluations of English teachers and student performance indicate that a significant challenge is the limited vocabulary of students Consequently, it is essential to explore effective vocabulary learning strategies to improve students' vocabulary size and overall language proficiency.
Aims and objectives of the study
The purpose of this study is to investigate vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) of non- English majors at HUTECH The objectives of the study are as follows:
(1) to examine HUTECH non-English major students’ perception towards vocabulary learning strategies, which involves awareness and the level of importance of the strategies
(2) to survey non-English major students’ use of vocabulary learning strategies in terms of frequency and preference
(3) to find the correlation between students’ perception and their use of vocabulary learning strategies.
Research questions
In order to achieve the aforementioned aims, this study is guided by the following questions:
(1) How do non-English major students in HUTECH perceive vocabulary learning strategies in terms of awareness and the level of importance of the strategies?
(2) How do non-English major students in HUTECH use vocabulary learning strategies in terms of frequency and preference?
(3) What is the correlation between students’ perception and their use of vocabulary learning strategies?
Scope of the study
Firstly, due to practical constraints, this study does not provide a comprehensive review
This article explores students' perceptions and usage of vocabulary learning strategies, specifically focusing on four key groups: memory strategies (MEM), cognitive strategies (COG), metacognitive strategies (MET), and social strategies (SOC) These strategies were chosen due to their prevalence in previous research (Nation, 1990; Stoffer, 1995; Gu & Johnson, 1996; Kudo, 1999; Schmitt, 1997, 2000) The study targets sophomores who are non-English majors at Ho Chi Minh University of Technology (HUTECH), excluding students from other academic levels Additionally, the research does not evaluate the effectiveness of the vocabulary learning strategies employed.
Significance of the study
The study's findings aim to enhance students' awareness of vocabulary learning strategies, ultimately broadening their understanding of effective techniques This increased recognition is anticipated to motivate students in their overall language learning journey and specifically improve their vocabulary acquisition skills.
Furthermore, with the data collected, the investigation is also beneficial for English teachers in general and those who teach undergraduate students at HUTECH in particular
Teachers can assess their vocabulary teaching strategies and understand their students' vocabulary learning techniques, allowing them to adjust their instruction and update their English language syllabi By implementing effective methods, educators can enhance their students' overall English proficiency and specifically improve their vocabulary skills.
Theoretically, the findings may provide additional evidences with respect to language researchers for references in relating to the perception and use of vocabulary learning strategies
Definitions of key terms
According to Hatch and Brown (1995), a vocabulary can be defined as a collection of words specific to a particular language or the set of words utilized by individual speakers In the context of the current study, it specifically pertains to the identification and examination of new English vocabulary for non-English majors.
According to Smith (2000), vocabulary learning strategies can be defined as approaches of facilitating vocabulary learning They include cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, memory strategies, and social communication strategies
In Latin, the term for perception is "perceptio" or "percipio," which translates to "receiving, collecting, taking possession, and mental or sensory apprehension" (Ou, 2017, p 18) This study aims to explore students' awareness and the significance they place on various strategies.
Organization of the thesis
This study is composed of five chapters as follows:
Chapter 1 provides an overview of the study's background, focusing on students' perceptions and usage of vocabulary learning strategies It outlines the study's aims and objectives, presents the research questions, and discusses the scope and significance of the research Additionally, key terms are defined, and the chapter concludes with an overview of the thesis structure.
Chapter 2 examines existing literature and studies on vocabulary and vocabulary learning strategies, focusing on memory, cognitive, metacognitive, and social strategies This section highlights the most commonly discussed vocabulary learning strategies found in prior research, which serve as the conceptual framework for this study.
Chapter 3 presents the methodology, mixed-method approach with questionnaire and individual interview, and research design for the study This chapter involves the sampling, data collection and analysis procedures
Chapter 4 analyzes the data collected with SPSS to anwer the three research questions Discussions of the findings with follow the analysis of the data collected
Chapter 5 summarizes the key findings related to the research questions and discusses their implications for language education, specifically in the context of learning English vocabulary Additionally, the chapter addresses the study's limitations and concludes with recommendations for future research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Vocabulary acquisition
Proficient language skills are significantly influenced by vocabulary size, with Nation (1990) suggesting that learners need to know around 2,000 to 3,000 words for effective English use To engage with advanced, authentic, and academic texts, a vocabulary of at least 5,000 words is essential (Hirsh & Nation, 1992) Schmitt also supports the idea that a robust vocabulary is crucial for language proficiency.
Research indicates that a vocabulary limit of 5,000 words is essential for improving English language proficiency This presents a significant challenge for English learners, especially those who are non-English majors Understanding these obstacles faced by students has been a focus for many researchers in the field.
Researchers such as Gu & Johnson (1996), Kudo (1999), and Schmitt (1997, 2000) have developed vocabulary learning strategies aimed at enhancing students' ability to acquire vocabulary, which is essential for improving language proficiency.
Vocabulary can be categorized into two types: productive knowledge, which involves using words in speaking and writing, and receptive knowledge, which pertains to connecting words through listening and reading (Hiebert & Kamil, 2005; Hatch & Brown, 1995; Schmitt, 2000; Stuart, 2008) Nation (2001) further elaborates on these distinctions, highlighting their significance in language acquisition.
8 refers to the aspects involved to know a word
Table 2.1 What is involved in knowing a word (Nation, 2001)
Aspect Component Receptive knowledge Productive knowledge
Spoken What does the word sound like?
How is the word pronounced?
Written What does the word look like?
How is the word written and spelled?
Word parts What parts are recognizable in this word?
What word parts are needed to express the meaning?
What meaning does this word form signal?
What word form can be used to express this meaning?
What is included in this concept?
What items can the concept refer to?
Associations What other words does this make people think of?
What other words could people use instead of this one?
In what patterns does the word occur?
In what patterns must people use this word?
Collocations What words or types of words occur with this one?
What words or types of words must people use with this one?
Where, when, and how often would people expect to meet this word?
Where, when, and how often can people use this word?
Based on Nation’s description in Table 2.1, students should remember at least three aspects of a word, comprising form, meaning and use Regarding the form of a word, students are
To effectively understand a word, it is essential to grasp its three components: pronunciation, spelling, and word parts, which include prefixes, suffixes, and roots For example, the word "incredible" consists of the prefix "in-" indicating negation, the root "cred," and the suffix "-ible." Learning the meaning of a word should involve establishing a form-meaning link, along with understanding concepts, referents, and associations This link is crucial since many words may share similar forms but have different meanings Additionally, the usage of a word should be explored through its grammatical functions, collocations, and constraints.
Regarding the importance of lexis, Moeller, Ketsman and Masmaliyeva (2009) found that
Word knowledge is crucial, as it forms the foundation for learning According to Nation (2001), a strong vocabulary is essential for effective language use, and conversely, an expanded vocabulary enhances language engagement This viewpoint is echoed by researchers such as Laufer and Nation (1999), Maximo (2000), and Read (2000), who emphasize the interconnection between vocabulary knowledge and language proficiency.
Word knowledge is crucial for effective oral and written communication across various fields, as highlighted by Gu (2003a) and referenced by Alqahtani (2015) Additionally, Hirsch (2003) emphasizes that achieving adequate reading comprehension necessitates learners to understand 90 to 95 percent of the vocabulary within a text.
2.1.4.1 Intrinsic difficulties of the words
According to Schmitt (2000), factors such as age, cultural background, and motivation significantly influence students' vocabulary learning Additionally, Laufer (1997) identified other key elements that impact lexical acquisition.
Table 2.2 Intra-lexical elements that affect vocabulary learning
Facilitating factors Trouble-inducing factors Factors with no influence
Familiar phonemes Presence of foreign phonemes Phonotactic regularity Phonotactic irregularity
Fixed stress Variable stress and vowel change Consistency of sound- script relation
In congruency in sound- script relation
Word length Inflectional regularity Inflectional complexity
Part of speech Correctness/abstractness
Idiomaticity One form for one meaning One form with several meanings
Table 2.2 categorizes intra-lexical elements into three groups: facilitating factors, trouble-inducing factors, and neutral factors The facilitating factors consist of 10 distinct items, while the trouble-inducing factors include 12 different items Additionally, there are three factors—word length, part of speech, and correctness/abstractness—that have no significant influence.
Gairns and Redman (1986) argue that there are three stages of memory process such as encoding, storage, and retrieval Specifically, Atikah and Rezki (2018) interpret that
Encoding involves the initial presentation of information, while storage organizes words in the mental lexicon, and retrieval is the process of accessing stored information Memory plays a crucial role in enhancing vocabulary, as highlighted by Schmitt (2000), who notes that short-term memory is quick and adaptable but limited in capacity, whereas long-term memory has a vast storage potential but operates at a slower pace.
In order to avoid these above intrinsic obstacles and memorize words more effectively, vocabulary learning strategies are suggested for application in language learning
Schmitt (1997) identifies 58 diverse vocabulary learning strategies that can significantly aid students in their language acquisition To enhance vocabulary development, it is essential for teachers to introduce and clarify these strategies during lessons Additionally, students can benefit from exploring these methods through vocabulary books and online resources.
2.1.5 Teaching, learning and testing vocabulary
Pikulski and Templeton (2004) argue in their book “Teaching and developing vocabulary:
A rich vocabulary is essential for students' long-term success in education and life, as it equips them with vital skills for effective communication (p 1) However, research indicates that students often struggle to retain vocabulary when learned in isolation (Nation, 2009) To address this, teachers should implement engaging and authentic activities, such as warm-ups involving songs, stories, or games, to reinforce previously learned words Additionally, incorporating creative teaching strategies can make vocabulary learning more enjoyable Understanding students' unique characteristics can further aid teachers in selecting the most effective methods for vocabulary instruction.
According to Sokmen (1997), repeated activities enhance cost-effectiveness in language learning, making it essential to connect and manipulate words for better retention Teachers can reinforce vocabulary by incorporating repetition in various contexts, which helps students commit words to memory For instance, when teaching the word "hungry," a flashcard can feature the word on one side and a picture of Steve Jobs on the other The teacher can first introduce the word, then reveal the image while explaining Jobs' famous motto, "Stay hungry, stay foolish." This approach encourages students to vocalize the phrase collectively, facilitating the retention of multiple words simultaneously and benefiting both short-term and long-term memory.
In terms of assessing vocabulary knowledge, Schmitt (2000) noted that the importance of
Classroom materials are often evaluated based on their presence in subsequent tests, a phenomenon known as backwash, which can have both positive and negative effects According to Read (2000), a vocabulary test that incorporates lexical assessment procedures is recommended to enhance evaluation methods.
Table 2.3 Dimensions of vocabulary assessment
A measure of vocabulary knowledge or use as an independent instrument
A measure of vocabulary which forms part of the assessment of some other, larger construct
A measure in which specific vocabulary items are the focus of the assessment
A measure which takes account of the whole vocabulary content of the input material (reading/ listening tasks) or the test-taker’s response (writing/speaking tasks)
A vocabulary measure in which the test- taker can produce the expected response without referring to any context
A vocabulary measure which assesses the test-taker’s ability to take account of contextual information in order to produce the expected response.
Vocabulary learning strategies
2.2.1 The importance of vocabulary learning strategies
According to Goundar (2015), effective strategies are crucial for language learning as they promote active and self-directed engagement (p 293) While students can acquire vocabulary without specific strategies, employing vocabulary learning techniques significantly enhances their lexical knowledge Oxford (1990) emphasizes that such strategies foster greater proficiency and self-confidence in language use Additionally, Ahmed (1989) and Sanaoui (1995) highlight that successful learners employ diverse strategies, organize their vocabulary acquisition, and consistently review and practice their skills.
Effective vocabulary learning strategies are crucial for students, as research indicates that successful learners possess awareness and control over their methods (Schmitt, 2000) While students can select strategies that work best for them, employing multiple approaches can enhance their vocabulary acquisition.
Incidental learning refers to acquiring knowledge unintentionally while focusing on a different task (Richards & Schmitt, 2002) This method encompasses various activities such as identifying synonyms and antonyms, word substitution, multiple-choice questions, crossword puzzles, and scrambled words It is recognized as an effective strategy for learning vocabulary through context (Ahmad, 2012; Hulstijn, 2001) According to Hulstijn (2001), students who engage in incidental vocabulary learning are more likely to retain word knowledge in their long-term memory.
According to Schmitt (2000), explicit learning is proposed that:
Effective learning requires direct focus on essential information, which maximizes the likelihood of successful acquisition However, this method can be time-consuming and may prove overly challenging for all but the most dedicated students to master a sufficiently large vocabulary.
In other words, explicit learning is a direct and intentional strategy that concentrates on word forms and meanings (Nation, 1990) such as affixes and suffixes learning, vocabulary explanation, and semantic mapping
2.2.2.3 Taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies
There are numerous published studies describing vocabulary learning strategies According to Kudo (1999) and Istvan (2016), a summary of various VLS is described as follows:
Table 2.4 Taxonomies of vocabulary learning strategies
Authors Year Taxonomies of vocabulary learning strategies
Nation 1990 1) planning/choosing words, choosing the aspects of word knowledge, choosing strategies, planning repetitions/
2) sources/analyzing the word, using context, consulting a reference source in NL and FL, using parallels in NL and FL/
Stoffer 1995 1) strategies involving authentic language use (e.g speaking with native speakers)
3) strategies used for self-motivation
4) strategies used to create mental linkages
8) strategies used to overcome anxiety
9) strategies used to organize words
Gu and Johnson 1996 1) metacognitive regulation
7) activation strategies Schmitt 1997 1) discovery-determination
6) consolidation-metacognitive Kudo 1999 1) social strategies
3) affective-social strategies Tseng, Dornyei and Schmitt
5) self-regulatory environment Pavičič 2008 1) strategies of formal vocabulary learning and practicing
2) self-initiated independent vocabulary learning
3) spontaneous (incidental) vocabulary learning Schmitt 2008 1) determination
Nation's groundbreaking research in 1990 laid the foundation for vocabulary learning strategies (VLS), serving as a pivotal reference for subsequent studies He identified three key groups of VLS that offer straightforward guidelines for vocabulary acquisition and enhancement Building on Nation's work, Stoffer (1995) expanded this framework by introducing nine distinct groups of VLS, encompassing a range of cognitive and physical activities to support effective vocabulary learning.
Between 1990 and 1999, vocabulary learning strategies evolved from simple techniques to more structured approaches, as highlighted by various researchers Gu and Johnson (1996) introduced new strategies, including guessing and note-taking, while Schmitt (1997) categorized them into discovery and consolidation strategies Kudo (1999) further condensed these into four main groups: social, memory, cognitive, and metacognitive strategies Lin (2001) refined this framework by eliminating memory strategies and focusing on cognitive, metacognitive, and affective-social strategies A significant shift occurred in 2006 when Tseng, Dornyei, and Schmitt emphasized self-regulatory strategies in vocabulary learning In 2008, Pavicic identified three types of vocabulary learning strategies, while Schmitt presented five, merging some categories Ultimately, after nearly two decades, the predominant groups of strategies identified were memory, social, cognitive, and metacognitive strategies, reflecting the ongoing development and refinement in vocabulary learning approaches.
Therefore, with this essential element, these four groups of strategies were applied in the current investigation with the situation of non-English majors in HUTECH
In Schmitt's 1997 study, 58 vocabulary learning strategies were identified, building on his earlier work from 1990 These strategies are divided into two main categories: the discovery group, which includes determination and social strategies, and the consolidation group, which encompasses social, memory, cognitive, and metacognitive strategies In a subsequent 2000 study, Schmitt further refined his classification, presenting 31 concise examples of vocabulary learning strategies.
Firstly, based on major classes, the list of strategies includes two types:
Strategies are useful for the initial discovery of the meaning of a word
Strategies are useful for remembering that word once it has been introduced
Secondly, the strategies are divided into five groups such as determination strategies, social strategies, memory strategies, cognitive strategies, and metacognitive strategies
To compare VLS of Schmitt (1997) and Schmitt (2000), metacognitive strategies (Schmitt,
In Schmitt's 1997 study, metacognitive strategies were maintained, while determination strategies were reduced from nine to six by 2000 Notably, word list and flashcard strategies were excluded from Schmitt's later findings.
In Schmitt's 2000 framework, bilingual and monolingual dictionary strategies were combined into a single dictionary usage strategy Similarly, determination, social, memory, and cognitive strategies were reclassified into new strategies, reflecting a more cohesive approach to language learning.
In this study, the researcher utilizes Schmitt’s vocabulary learning strategies (1997) to investigate four groups through a questionnaire, as the original version aligns well with the current activities of HUTECH students The first strategy examined is memory strategies, referred to as “MEM.”
Mnemonics are effective strategies for enhancing vocabulary retention, as they connect new words to previously learned experiences and visual representations of their meanings According to Schmitt (2000), these memorable processes play a crucial role in language learning Additionally, Oxford (1990) highlights the importance of cognitive strategies in this context, emphasizing their effectiveness in facilitating language acquisition.
Cognitive strategies in language learning involve the manipulation or transformation of the target language by learners, focusing on repetition and mechanical processes rather than elaborative mental activities (Schmitt, 2000) Metacognitive strategies serve as methods for students to review and evaluate their vocabulary knowledge, incorporating activities such as utilizing English-language media, spaced practice, self-testing, and periodic assessments of vocabulary knowledge throughout a course (Schmitt, 2000) Additionally, social strategies enhance vocabulary acquisition through interactions with teachers, classmates, and others, fostering a collaborative learning environment (Schmitt, 2000).
Four investigated groups of vocabulary learning strategies in the current study are presented in the figure 2.1 as follows:
Figure 2.1 Schmitt's Vocabulary learning strategies 2.2.4 Training in the use of vocabulary learning strategies
According to Oxford (1990), while learning is inherently a self-directed activity, it is essential to train both learning skills and strategies Oxford identifies three effective methods for teaching language learning strategies: awareness training, one-time strategy learning, and long-term strategy training Additionally, Oxford presents an eight-step model for strategy training that outlines a structured approach to enhance language learning.
Connectthe word to its synonyms and antonyms
Use new words in sentences
Say new words aloud when studying
Use physical action when learning new words
Put English labels on physical objects
Use English- language media (songs, movies, newscasts, etc.)
Ask teachers for an L1 translation of new words
Ask teachers for synonym of new words
Ask teachers for a sentence including the word
Discover new meaning through group work activities
Study and practice meaning in a group
1 Determine the learners’ need and the time available
3 Consider integration of strategy learning
Training vocabulary learning strategies is crucial for enhancing students' vocabulary acquisition By introducing various strategies, students can select the ones that best suit their individual learning styles for greater effectiveness.
Perception of vocabulary learning strategy
Regarding definitions, perception in Latin is perceptio or percipio that means “receiving, collecting, action of taking possession, and apprehension with the mind or senses” (Ou,
Perception, as defined by the Oxford Dictionary, encompasses three main aspects: it is an idea, belief, or image shaped by how individuals understand or view something; it involves the way people notice things through their senses; and it reflects the ability to grasp the true nature of a situation or object.
The perception process consists of three stages: selection, organization, and interpretation The first stage, selection, involves focusing on significant features of the world through our senses—sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch—according to Watts (1966) Singer (1987) notes that due to the overwhelming amount of information encountered, only essential stimuli are chosen during this stage Following selection, the second stage, organization, pertains to the structure and stability of human perception, as highlighted by Ou (2017).
19) It means the people, objects, events are arranged and put into typical patterns as shape, color, size, characteristic, etc All received things are organized immediately as cognitive
The perception process involves three key stages: selection, organization, and interpretation After selecting and structuring information, individuals store it in long-term memory, where interpretation assigns meaning to the perceived patterns Cultural background and personal experiences significantly influence how people evaluate and interpret stimuli, leading to varied perceptions For instance, while both Westerners and Vietnamese may agree on the physical characteristics of durian, their interpretations diverge, with many Westerners deterred by its smell, unlike the Vietnamese, who relish the fruit Perception encompasses both physical and psychological dimensions; the former focuses on how stimuli are transformed into recognizable forms through the senses, while the latter involves attitudes, beliefs, values, and interests that shape individual interpretations Ultimately, psychology plays a crucial role in determining how people assign meaning to their experiences.
Figure 2.2 The process of perception
This study explores students' perceptions regarding vocabulary learning strategies, focusing on their awareness of these strategies and their recognition of their significance in the learning process.
Perception, organization and interpretation of stimuli
Use of vocabulary learning strategy
A survey of strategies in language learning identified four main groups: memory strategies, social strategies, cognitive strategies, and metacognitive strategies Research by Bernardo and Gonzales (2009) found that Filipino college students predominantly utilized determination and social strategies for learning English vocabulary Similarly, studies conducted at Mouloud Mammeri University of Tizi Ouzou (Nacera, A., Algeria, 2010) and University Putra Malaysia (Safian, N H., Malakar, S., & Kalajahi, S A R.) revealed comparable trends among their students.
In 2014, research highlighted the use of metacognitive strategies to enhance vocabulary among Iranian students Amirian and Heshmatifar (2013) found that students frequently employed determination, memory, cognitive, metacognitive, and social strategies However, Yazdi and Kafipour (2014) revealed that memory strategies were the most commonly used, while cognitive strategies were the least utilized Additionally, Maghsoudi and Golshan (2017) noted that metacognitive strategies were predominantly used, with social strategies being the least employed (as cited in Atifnigar, Zaheer, and Alokozay, 2020) The current study investigates the application of Schmitt's (1997) four groups of strategies: cognitive, metacognitive, memory, and social strategies.
Previous studies
Recent research on effective vocabulary learning strategies has garnered interest from linguistic scholars globally Asyiah (2017) found that both teachers and students recognized the importance of these strategies in vocabulary instruction and acquisition Similarly, Gu and Johnson (1996) studied 112 second-year English majors, revealing that students utilized a combination of metacognitive, cognitive, and social communication strategies to enhance their vocabulary acquisition These findings underscore the significance of varied vocabulary learning approaches in educational settings.
Research indicates that increased use of learning strategies enhances students' reading comprehension Schmitt (1997) studied 600 Japanese EFL learners across various educational levels, including junior high, high school, university, and adults The investigation identified several vocabulary learning strategies, such as discovery-determination, discovery-social, and various consolidation methods University students predominantly employed strategies like orally repeating words (cognitive), asking classmates for word meanings (social), and vocalizing new words during study sessions (memory) Conversely, the strategy of using physical actions to learn new words was less frequently utilized among university students.
Connecting words to their synonyms and antonyms, along with asking teachers for example sentences, proved to be effective methods for enhancing vocabulary knowledge University students particularly benefited from techniques such as saying new words aloud, writing repeated words, inquiring about synonyms, taking class notes, and orally repeating words These strategies significantly contributed to their vocabulary learning process.
The investigations’s result showed that the strategies selected by learners concentrate on three groups of vocabulary learning strategies, comprising memory strategies (MEM), cognitive strategies (COG), and social strategies (SOC)
Another examination in the vocabulary learning strategies was taken by Nilforoushan
A study conducted in 2012 investigated the impact of semantic mapping on vocabulary acquisition among EFL learners, revealing significant improvements in students' vocabulary knowledge through collocation learning The research highlighted the development of learners' awareness in both general and deep vocabulary knowledge as a result of using semantic mapping Additionally, Tosun (2015) explored the effectiveness of a blended learning strategy in vocabulary instruction and gathered students' perceptions regarding their vocabulary learning process in a blended environment Interviews with students indicated positive feedback on the blended learning experience.
A recent study revealed that while participants were interested in blended learning environments for their future education, their vocabulary knowledge did not improve significantly through this method In contrast, Vela and Rushidi (2016) found that maintaining vocabulary notebooks positively impacted vocabulary acquisition and learner autonomy at the South East European University Language Center in Macedonia The findings indicate that students who used vocabulary notebooks were more successful in learning new words compared to those who did not utilize this resource.
In Vietnam, educators are actively exploring effective vocabulary acquisition strategies for students Vo Thi Thu Thao's 2011 study at Quy Nhon University examined the vocabulary learning strategies of non-English majors, revealing that both male and female students recognize the importance of these strategies Despite this awareness, the actual application of vocabulary learning strategies was found to be low, with female students utilizing them more frequently than their male counterparts Consequently, there is a need for instructional support in vocabulary learning strategies to encourage students to expand their vocabulary.
In her 2018 study, Vi Van Huong emphasized the crucial role of vocabulary in the English language learning process for students at Tay Bac University She proposed the integration of diverse strategies, methodologies, and authentic activities to enhance vocabulary acquisition, including motivating students to engage with new words, recognize their meanings, and utilize dictionaries effectively This research aligns with other studies in Vietnam that highlight the significance of vocabulary learning strategies, although they overlook the importance of consistent usage in vocabulary development.
25 vocabulary learning strategies and the correlation between students’ perception in terms of the level of the importance of VLS and students’ use in terms of frequency
Based on the results of previous studies, while the studies from overseas as Gu and Johnson
Research has shown that vocabulary learning strategies are effective, with studies by Nilforoushan (2012) and Vela and Rushidi (2016) highlighting their positive impact on vocabulary acquisition Metacognitive, cognitive, and social strategies also significantly enhance students' vocabulary and reading skills (Gu and Johnson, 1996), while semantic mapping and maintaining vocabulary notebooks further support successful learning (Nilforoushan, 2012; Vela and Rushidi, 2016) However, despite encouragement in their use, the application of these strategies remains low among students (Vo Thi Thu Thao, 2011) There is a call for a combination of various strategies and authentic activities to improve usage (Vi Van Huong, 2018) Additionally, the body of research from foreign scholars has been more extensive than that from Vietnam, leading to a gradual recognition of the importance of vocabulary learning strategies in the educational process by Vietnamese researchers.
Conceptual framework of the study
This thesis research aims to explore the influence of vocabulary learning strategies on students' perceptions and usage The study is grounded in Schmitt's (1997) framework, which encompasses cognitive, metacognitive, memory, and social strategies These strategies have been the focus of various previous studies (Nation, 1990; Stoffer, 1995; Gu & Johnson, 1996; Kudo, 1999; Schmitt), highlighting their significance in vocabulary acquisition.
This study focuses on Schmitt's theory (1997) as the foundation for designing a questionnaire, incorporating strategies and sub-strategies to minimize biases Specifically, for memory strategies (MEM), the sub-strategies include connecting new words with previously learned words and vocalizing new words during study sessions.
Incorporate new vocabulary by crafting sentences that utilize these words effectively Visualize the placement of letters within each word to enhance memory retention Engage with sentences that feature new terms to reinforce learning Employ cognitive strategies such as labeling physical objects in English to create real-world connections Utilize images to illustrate word meanings, aiding in comprehension and recall.
“use flash cards”, “keep a vocabulary notebook following A, B, C,… letter”, “keep a vocabulary notebook with different topics”, “repeat words orally”, “take notes in class”,
Utilizing smartphone applications can enhance language learning through various metacognitive strategies These strategies include searching for information on English websites, watching English news on television or radio, viewing English television programs, reading English news in print or online, and enjoying English movies Additionally, social strategies play a crucial role in language acquisition, which encompasses asking classmates for meanings, engaging in group activities, requesting L1 translations from teachers, participating in English clubs, and seeking synonyms or example sentences for new vocabulary from instructors.
This study, based on Schmitt’s 1997 research, investigates vocabulary learning strategies among non-English major sophomores at HUTECH to understand their perceptions and usage It aims to clarify any correlation between these two aspects Data collection is conducted through a questionnaire featuring a five-point Likert scale and structured interviews.
The conceptual framework of the current study is illustrated by the figure below
Figure 2.3 The conceptual framework of the current study
Chapter 2 concentrates on the essential features related to vocabulary acquisition, vocabulary learning strategies, perception Additionally, vocabualry acquisition points out vocabulary size, word knowledge, the role of vocabulary, factors affecting vocabulary acquisition Next, the current study concentrates on the importance of vocabulary learning strategies, taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies, Schmitt’s vocabulary learning strategies, and training in use of vocabulary learning strategies In details, the majority of Schmitt’s vocabulary learning strategies are applied in the investigation of the study, including memory strategies, cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, and social strategies An important part is perception which is the main point throughout the current study as student’s perceptions towards vocabulary learning strategies, which involves students’ awareness and their opinion about the level of importance of the strategies Furthermore, the former studies of vocabulary learning strategies play an important role in exposing the factors and developing the conceptual framework for the current study Specifically, the conceptual framework is summarized the main points of the investigation, including students’ perceptions involved awareness and opinion about the level of important role towards four groups of vocabulary learnning strategies, students’ use of
Preference of use Level of importance
28 vocabulary learning strategies in terms of frequency and preference, and the correlation between students’ perception and their use of four groups of vocabulary learning strategies.
METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research design
Research site
The research was conducted at Ho Chi Minh University of Technology (HUTECH), where English is uniquely offered by the Foreign Language Centre This center oversees the General English program, English for Communication programs for undergraduate non-English majors, university transfer students, and prepares postgraduate students for English entrance exams.
Regarding the English course books for the sample under investigation, the series of
American Headway has been used for undergraduate students, who are non-English majors
Sophomores utilize the American Headway 2 course book in their learning program, earning three credits per semester The book comprises 12 units, with students expected to complete six units within a 45-period academic semester To graduate, non-English majors must achieve an intermediate English level, assessed by their teachers Consequently, enhancing vocabulary is essential for students using the American Headway 2 course book to fulfill their English proficiency requirements.
Moreover, this course book also concentrates on guiding to learn English vocabulary effectively.
Sample and sampling procedures
According to Mesa, Chica, Duquia, Bonamigo and Bastos (2016), sampling is defined as
Sampling is the process of selecting individuals or units from a sample frame, categorized into two main types: probabilistic and non-probabilistic sampling Probabilistic sampling methods include simple random sampling, systematic random sampling, stratified sampling, and complex sampling In contrast, non-probabilistic sampling encompasses convenience sampling, purposive sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling When selecting a sample proves challenging, convenience sampling is often recommended, as it relies on the availability of individuals who can easily participate in the study (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2008).
Besides, according to Kaufman and Kaufman (2005), population is defined as “all individuals of interest to the researcher” while sample is a “subset of the population” (p
The current study utilized convenience sampling due to time constraints, limiting the involvement of all non-English majors at HUTECH Support from teachers of English courses for non-majors facilitated this process.
A total of 350 students from the fields of Business Administration and Marketing, Pharmacy, and Mechanical and Electronic Engineering expressed their willingness to participate in the study after being provided with all pertinent information regarding the research.
Table 3.1: The distribution for 350 students
According to Comrey and Lee's (1992) sampling scale, a participant count of 300 is considered good, which applies to the current study's selection of sophomore non-English majors After a year of tertiary education, these students have likely engaged with various English learning strategies, particularly in vocabulary acquisition, making them an appropriate sample for this investigation.
To gather qualitative data, ten sophomores were interviewed individually, comprising five from Business Administration, two from Marketing, two from Pharmacy, and one from Mechanical and Electronic Engineering Following the analysis of questionnaire two, these face-to-face interviews were conducted with different participants than those involved in the main survey.
Research instruments
There are two instruments, namely questionnaire and structured interview employed in the study
According to Brown (2001), questionnaires are written tools that require respondents to answer a series of questions or statements Dornyei (2003) highlights the advantages of questionnaires, noting their ability to collect large amounts of data efficiently and economically within a short timeframe With technological advancements, Bucevska (2007) points out that questionnaires can now be administered online as well as on paper However, this study opted for a paper-and-pencil survey due to concerns about securing responses from students in an online format The Prevention Research Center (2006) also suggests that paper-and-pencil surveys may be more effective for reaching captive populations, yielding immediate responses and quickly gathered information.
Before data collection commenced, the questionnaire underwent a pilot test to ensure clarity and relevance of all items, in line with the RSS Ordinary Certificate in Statistics This process aimed to identify any practical issues that could lead to biased responses (Office for National Statistics, 2010) To enhance response quality and minimize language barriers, careful consideration was given to the wording used in the questionnaire.
34 time limitation, the questionnaire should be written or translated into the participants’ mother tongue (Nemoto & Beglar, 2014)
The study utilized a close-ended five-option Likert-scale questionnaire to assess students' perceptions and usage of vocabulary learning strategies within a quantitative framework The collected data were analyzed using regression analysis and principal component analysis to identify key strategies, providing insights into students' awareness, perceptions, and frequency of use regarding various vocabulary learning techniques.
The study utilized two questionnaires based on Schmitt's (1997) vocabulary learning strategies, categorized into MEM, COG, META, and SOC The first questionnaire was administered at the start of the semester to assess students' awareness and perceived importance of these strategies Following this, students were encouraged to implement the strategies identified in the first questionnaire for vocabulary learning At the end of the semester, the second questionnaire gauged students' frequency and preferences regarding the vocabulary learning strategies From the 58 strategies proposed by Schmitt, 19 were selected based on their relevance to students' recent vocabulary learning activities, alongside five additional strategies identified through discussions with students A total of 350 sophomores participated in both questionnaires.
In Part A, five questions concerning students’ demographics were asked, including age, gender, whether using VLS in learning vocabulary or not, and their major Students had to
In Part B, students’ awareness towards four groups of vocabulary learning strategies were clarified with five-option Likert scale from not aware to fully aware with 30 items
In Part C of the study, a survey consisting of 30 items, based on the five-option Likert scale ranging from "not important" to "very important," was utilized to assess students' perceptions regarding the significance of vocabulary learning strategies.
In Part A, five questions concerning students’ demographics were asked, including age, gender, whether using VLS in learning vocabulary or not, and major Students had to tick the relevant boxes
Part B includes 30 items using a five-option Likert scale ranging from "not frequent" to "very frequent," aimed at assessing the frequency of vocabulary learning strategies utilized by students Additionally, students have the opportunity to contribute their own vocabulary learning strategies.
Before administering the adapted questionnaire from various authors (Nation, 1990; Stoffer, 1995; Gu & Johnson, 1996; Kudo, 1999; Schmitt, 1997, 2000), a pilot study was conducted to ensure participants comprehended the items correctly and to select valid and reliable items for the research Following the recommendations of Nemoto and Beglar (2014), at least 10-12 items were piloted to identify 6-8 effective items within each construct Consequently, the present study included 30 items categorized into four factors.
Goodhue and Loiacono (2002) highlight that Cronbach's alpha can be artificially inflated when questions are placed next to one another To mitigate this effect, the items in the questionnaire were organized into four factors—MEM, COG, MET, and SOC—and randomly intermixed, ensuring that adjacent questions do not influence each other.
A total of 55 copies of Questionnaire 1 were distributed to students, with 20 minutes allocated for completion After collecting the responses, 5 copies were discarded due to incomplete answers The remaining responses were analyzed for item reliability using SPSS, adhering to a Cronbach’s alpha threshold of 0.700 and an Item-total correlation coefficient of over 0.300 All items met the Cronbach’s alpha requirement; however, Items #1, #2, #6, #12, #13, and #16 fell below the acceptable Item-total correlation threshold and were subsequently removed from the questionnaire (see Appendix A) Ultimately, 24 items that passed both the Cronbach’s alpha test and the Item-total correlation coefficient were selected for the final version of the research questionnaire.
Following the pilot study, a 24-item questionnaire was administered to assess students' awareness and perceptions of the importance of vocabulary learning strategies Additionally, a second questionnaire was conducted at the end of the first semester to evaluate the frequency of use and preferences regarding the 24 vocabulary learning strategies previously identified.
2 was not piloted because 24 items in questionnaire 1 ensured students’ understanding, and reliability of items after pilot
In qualitative research, collection procedures typically involve four key approaches: observation, interviews, document analysis, and audio-visual materials (Creswell, 2014) This thesis employed structured individual interviews to explore students' preferences for vocabulary learning strategies, allowing them to share their opinions, feelings, and experiences while enabling the researcher to maintain control over the questions posed (Creswell).
In a study conducted in 2014, an interview protocol featuring five open-ended questions was developed to investigate students' preferences and strategies for vocabulary learning Prior to the main interviews, the protocol was piloted with two random students to ensure clarity and comprehension of the questions Subsequently, face-to-face interviews were conducted with ten sophomore students, each lasting between five to thirteen minutes, to gather qualitative data The responses from these interviews were then summarized for presentation in the following chapter.
Statistic tools
Descriptive statistics, as highlighted by Kaur, Stoltzfus, and Yellapu (2018), effectively summarize data by illustrating the relationships between variables within a sample or population In SPSS, key components of descriptive statistics include Mean, Median, Mode, Standard Deviation, Standard Errors, Minimum, Maximum, Skewness, and Kurtosis (Carsten & Aek, 2018) This study utilizes the Mean to identify significant strategies across four groups of vocabulary learning strategies, with Carsten and Aek (2018) defining the Mean as the average of all values divided by the total number of values.
In this study, reliability statistics are employed to validate the data gathered from the questionnaire for subsequent analysis Two key components are used to interpret these reliability statistics: Cronbach’s alpha value and Item-total correlation value.
This study presents reliability statistics on two occasions: initially, each factor from the pilot research questionnaire is transformed into research items Subsequently, after conducting regression analysis, the principal items are utilized to develop a regression model that assesses students' perceptions of vocabulary learning strategies across four groups: MEM, COG, MET, and SOC.
Cronbach’s alpha is a key reliability coefficient that measures the degree of positive correlation among items in a test, with values closer to 1 indicating greater internal consistency According to George and Mallery (2003), specific guidelines can help interpret these values effectively.
Table 3.2: Rules of thumb for Cronbach’s Alpha
Cronbach’ alpha Internal consistency α ≥ 0.9 Excellent
In this study, items are eliminated if the Cronbach’s alpha value falls below 0.700, ensuring the integrity of the results This process continues until an acceptable Cronbach's alpha is achieved Conversely, if the Cronbach’s alpha exceeds 0.900, further evaluation is warranted.
39 correlation statistics of item-total is run to carry out the most correlative item with others
Wang, Batt, Kessler, Neff, Iyer, Cooper and Kempton (2017) consider item-total correlation statistics as the contribution of each item to instrument consistency Kumar
(2015) confirms item-total correlation should be reckoned to decrease bias in the investigation significantly In other words, all the items must be correlated with the total
In addition, Field (2009) demonstrates if any item’ values are less than 0.3 in correlation, they would be eliminated; in contrast, those ones are acceptable for further steps.
Data collection procedures
To ensure clarity and comprehension, second-year non-English majors were conveniently selected to pilot the initial questionnaire According to De Vaus (1993), it is crucial to conduct a pilot test to mitigate risks, as it provides valuable insights into potential failures of the main research project This pilot study can identify issues such as non-adherence to research protocols and the inappropriateness or complexity of proposed methods and instruments (Teijlingen & Hundley).
In 2001, the researcher meticulously arranged and analyzed data following the pilot of the questionnaire To enhance the reliability of the study, Vanderoost et al (2018) emphasized the removal of duplicate and incomplete responses The reliability of the items was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, which should exceed 0.7, along with item-total correlation coefficients that must be greater than 0.3 Furthermore, two sophomores participated in face-to-face interviews after completing the pilot questionnaire.
In the first semester, a pilot study was conducted using Questionnaire 1, distributing 350 copies to students across five classes: two in Business Administration, one in Marketing, one in Pharmacy, and one in Mechanical and Electronic Engineering The in-class teachers provided valuable support, facilitating the researcher's engagement with students and clearly communicating the study's purpose.
On November 6th and 7th, 2019, a survey was conducted, allowing students 20 minutes to complete the questionnaire The schedule of the survey is detailed in the table below.
Business Administration (2 classes) 6 May 2019 Morning
Mechanical and Electronic Engineering 7 May 2019 Afternoon
In the second semester, a total of 350 copies of Questionnaire 2 were distributed to students across five classes, mirroring the first semester's distribution These classes included two from Business Administration, one from Marketing, one from Pharmacy, and one from Mechanical and Electronic Engineering The survey was conducted on May 16 and 17, 2019, allowing students 20 minutes to complete the questionnaire The schedule of the survey is summarized in the accompanying table.
Table 3.4: Quantitative data collection schedule
Business Administration (2 classes) 16 May 2019 Morning
Mechanical and Electronic Engineering 17 May 2019 Afternoon
The researcher introduced herself and outlined the purpose of the investigation, requesting the cooperation of participants in completing the questionnaire She personally administered the survey to ensure clarity in addressing any questions from the student participants After gathering the responses, the researcher collected data from 10 students across various disciplines: 5 from Business Administration, 2 from Marketing, 2 from Pharmacy, and 1 from Mechanical and Electronic Engineering.
Engineering (1 student) were interviewed to collect data for qualitative research with both writing and recording The schedule of interview was summarized as the below table:
Table 3.5: Qualitative data collection schedule
Major No Date Time Duration
S1 16 May 2019 Morning 8.37 S2 16 May 2019 Morning 13.20 S3 16 May 2019 Morning 8.02 S4 16 May 2019 Morning 11.06 S5 16 May 2019 Morning 10.90
S9 16 May 2019 Morning 9.39 Mechanical and Electronic Engineering S10 17 May 2019 Afternoon 8.45
Data analysis procedures
The data collected from the questionnaires were manually input into Excel and analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software, following a structured five-step process for component extraction.
The quantitative data collected through the questionnaire was analyzed using SPSS 24.0, a software developed by SPSS Inc and acquired by IBM in 2009 Additionally, Microsoft Excel was utilized to create visual representations of the data, including pie charts and column charts.
Step 1: eliminating inadequate questionnaire as well as those with the same answers for all items
In Step 2, we will code quantitative responses regarding students' awareness and perception of the importance and frequency of four vocabulary learning strategies using a five-option Likert scale The collected data will then be input into SPSS for analysis.
In Step 3, we assess the reliability of the data by analyzing all available values If Cronbach’s alpha exceeds 0.700 and the item-total correlation falls below 0.3, the items are considered reliable and can proceed to further testing.
In Step 4, we analyze the mean values for each group of vocabulary learning strategies (MEM, COG, META, SOC), highlighting students' awareness and perceptions regarding the significance and frequency of their use of these strategies.
The researcher analyzed and compared four groups of VLS using statistical data, including tables and figures, to address the research questions Additionally, the significance and distribution of the students’ responses were interpreted to provide deeper insights.
Mixed methods research, as defined by Creswell (2014), combines both quantitative and qualitative data, utilizing surveys for quantitative insights and structured face-to-face interviews for qualitative understanding Qualitative data is characterized by its open-ended nature, lacking predetermined responses (Creswell, 2014, p 14) In this study, qualitative data was gathered through five open-ended questions aimed at exploring students' preferred strategies for four categories of vocabulary learning strategies O'Connor & Gibson (2003) outline a six-step process for producing qualitative data, which informs the methodology of this research.
Step 1: transcribing or typing interview records and retyping notes After that qualitative data collected are sorted and arranged in four groups of vocabulary learning strategies.
Step 2: reading all qualitative information organized in Step 1 The thesis researcher underlines, classified, and codes main points, keywords of students’ responses into four
43 groups of vocabulary learning strategies (MEM, COG, META, SOC), and their meaning towards interview questions Moreover, general meaning is also identified
Step 3: making a list of whole main points of students’ perception in terms of preference as well as students’ own strategies towards vocabulary learning strategies
Step 4: extracting the theme of students’ perception and finding the relationship between students’ perception and the qualitative research question
Step 5: reviewing and interpreting the theme of students’ perception towards the qualitative research question.
Validity and reliability
Validity and reliability are essential for ensuring the credibility of participant feedback in research (Dornyei, 2007; Alshenqeeti, 2014) Validity refers to the accuracy and truthfulness of research components (Drost, 2011), while reliability denotes the consistency of measurements (Bollen, 1989) There are three primary types of validity: face validity, content validity, and construct validity Face validity focuses on the feasibility, readability, consistency, and clarity of questionnaire items, which must also be pertinent, explicit, and rational (Taherdoost, 2016; Oluwatayo, 2012).
According to Kimberlin and Winterstein (2008), content validity refers to the extent to which items designed to measure a construct adequately represent all potential items related to that construct, while construct validity involves evaluating the evidence from various studies that utilize a specific measurement tool The current study's validity and reliability are outlined in detail.
A pilot study involving 55 students was conducted to assess the comprehension, feasibility, and readability of items in two questionnaires Unsatisfactory items were subsequently removed, replaced, or revised based on the feedback gathered Additionally, an interview protocol was utilized to further enhance the study's effectiveness.
44 piloted with 2 students for checking comprehension and feasibility After that, vague words and phrases were modified
Using descriptive statistics in SPSS, this study analyzed and compared students' awareness and perceptions regarding the importance and frequent use of vocabulary learning strategies across four groups (MEM, COG, META, SOC) proposed by Schmitt (1997) The findings presented in Chapter 4 support the content validity of the research.
The pilot test of questionnaire 1 revealed a high reliability, with a Cronbach’s alpha value exceeding 0.700 and item-total correlations above 0.300 Out of the 30 items tested, only 24 met the necessary criteria for inclusion in the research questionnaire, ensuring the integrity of the study's findings.
Summary
A mixed methods approach was utilized to investigate students' perceptions and usage of four categories of vocabulary learning strategies: Cognitive (COG), Metacognitive (MET), Social (SOC), and Memory (MEM) The quantitative aspect involved 350 sophomore students who completed a 24-item questionnaire to assess their awareness and frequency of using these vocabulary learning strategies In contrast, qualitative data were gathered through face-to-face interviews with 10 sophomores, distinct from the main survey participants, using five structured questions to delve into their preferences regarding vocabulary strategy usage.
