INTRODUCTION
Introduction
This introductory chapter outlines the essential components of the study, including the background and rationale that justify its importance It details the aims and objectives, presents the research questions guiding the inquiry, and defines the scope of the study Additionally, it highlights the significance of the research and clarifies key terms, culminating in an overview of the thesis structure.
Background to the study
In Vietnam, English is taught as a foreign language and has gained significant importance due to globalization and internationalization It is a core subject in the National Educational Curriculum, being elective from grades 3 to 5 and compulsory from grades 6 to 12 The curriculum emphasizes the integration of four language skills; however, current testing practices primarily focus on reading, grammar, and vocabulary.
Writing is a crucial language skill for EFL learners, significantly influenced by the use of transitions to connect ideas This is particularly evident in academic writing forms such as paragraphs and essays The English language offers a diverse array of transitions, each with specific contextual applications Conjunctions, which serve to link sentence elements, are a focal point for English writing instructors Within this category, subordinating conjunctions, which express various relationships within sentences, are often the most challenging for students to learn and apply effectively in their writing.
Errors in language learners' performance, particularly in writing, have long intrigued educators, linguists, and curriculum developers Such errors are a natural part of the learning process for those acquiring English as a second or foreign language Understanding these mistakes is essential in language teaching.
Errors in language learning should be viewed as facilitators of the learning process (Harmer, 2007; DeCarrico & Larsen-Freeman, 2010) Linguists are increasingly providing valuable insights into the reasons behind errors and their significance for both language acquisition and teaching methodologies.
The use of subordinating conjunctions is crucial in learners' writing, yet errors are common among EFL learners (Wu, 2019) While previous studies have emphasized teaching these conjunctions to improve speaking and writing skills, few have examined how EFL learners actually apply them in writing or their perceptions of their effectiveness This suggests a potential gap between learners' understanding of the role of subordinating conjunctions and their practical application, which this study aims to explore.
In Vietnam, the application of English teaching materials at schools is not effective After
Despite 12 years of English study, many students struggle with fluency in listening, speaking, reading, and writing due to examination pressure that prioritizes passing tests over practical language skills This focus on exams leads to a lack of emphasis on English as a vital skill for life and work, resulting in learners who can read and understand texts but cannot write coherent passages or communicate effectively Additionally, inadequate teaching facilities and outdated equipment, particularly in rural and remote areas, significantly contribute to the limited language proficiency among students.
At Thang Long High School, students studying English as a Foreign Language face challenges in practicing their writing skills due to limitations in the official national curriculum This lack of opportunities hinders both students' improvement in productive language skills and teachers' ability to provide timely feedback Consequently, students are particularly focused on enhancing their writing, with an emphasis on mastering English subordinating conjunctions.
Rationale of the study
The study was initiated due to the writing challenges faced by students at Thang Long High School, particularly their poor cohesion in sentence construction Understanding their perception and application of English subordinating conjunctions is crucial for enhancing their writing skills and performance in tests, including the national high school examination Despite the similarities with peers from other schools, there has been a lack of research focused on this specific group Therefore, a targeted study on 12th-grade students is essential for the benefit of both students and their teachers Additionally, examining the relationship between students' perceptions and their usage of conjunctions will provide further insights.
Aims and objectives of the study
This study focuses on enhancing the writing skills of twelfth graders at Thang Long High School in Lam Dong Province, who face challenges in English proficiency, particularly in syntax A key element for achieving cohesion in English writing is the effective use of conjunctions Therefore, examining the understanding and application of English subordinating conjunctions among these students is essential to address their writing difficulties and improve overall writing quality.
The specific objectives of this study are:
(1) To explore the perception of the use of English subordinating conjunctions among twelfth graders at Thang Long High School
(2) To analyze the use of English subordinating conjunctions of twelfth graders at Thang Long High School in their writings
(3) To examine whether there is a correlation between the perception and the use of twelfth graders at Thang Long High School in their writings
Research Questions
In order to achieve the above aims and objectives, the research is guided by the following questions:
(1) What is the perception of the use of English subordinating conjunctions among Twelfth Graders at Thang Long High School?
(2) How do the students use English subordinating conjunctions in their essays?
(3) Is there any significant correlation between the students’ perception and their use of English Subordinating Conjunctions in their essays?
Scope of the study
This study investigates the use of English subordinating conjunctions by twelfth graders at Thang Long High School in their essay writing It specifically examines the students' perceptions and application of these conjunctions, excluding other writing elements such as lexical knowledge, coherence, and idea organization The focus is solely on twelfth graders, thereby omitting students from other grades and teachers at the school Research methods include a questionnaire and an analysis of a corpus of writing texts.
Significance of the study
This study offers significant practical and theoretical contributions, particularly in enhancing students' writing and grammar skills through the effective use of subordinating conjunctions in English By integrating these conjunctions, students can diversify their sentence structures, ultimately improving their essay writing abilities.
This study enhances the understanding of English subordinating conjunctions (ESCs) and offers valuable insights for teachers in effectively instructing their students By grasping the nuances of ESCs, educators can provide clear explanations and support learners in using these conjunctions accurately and coherently to connect ideas within their writing.
Definitions of the key terms
To enhance reader understanding, key academic terms that may lead to confusion will be briefly defined here A comprehensive discussion of these terms and their related literature will follow in the next section.
Conjunctions refer to a set of words that connects parts of sentences together As stated by Arts (Aarts, 2001): “Conjunctions belong to a closed class of words that have a linking function”
Subordinating conjunctions, also named as subordinators, are words that “join an independent clause and a dependent clause” (Dictionary of Language Teaching and
Errors are an essential aspect of language learning, serving as linguistic flaws produced by learners These errors can be categorized into grammatical, lexical, and pronunciation errors at a basic level, while more complex categories include semantic, syntactic, pragmatic, and sociolinguistic errors Often referred to as intermediate forms, these errors occur frequently among EFL learners as they progress toward mastering correct language patterns (De Carico & Larsen-Freeman, 2010) This study specifically focuses on errors related to the use of English subordinating conjunctions.
Overview of the thesis
The thesis includes five chapters as follows
The first chapter introduces background to the study, statement of the problem, research objectives, research questions, and the overview of the thesis
The second chapter reviews essential literature on conjunctions, focusing on English subordinating conjunctions and their functions It addresses common challenges faced by learners regarding subordinating conjunctions, explores the nature of their errors, and outlines the error analysis procedure Additionally, it discusses previous research findings, highlighting a gap that the current study aims to fill.
The third chapter shows all important information about research designs; participants, sampling, and site; instruments; data collection and data analysis
The fourth chapter reports main findings of the two research questions
The final chapter concludes the thesis by remarking key notes after data collection and data analysis Research limitations and recommendations for future research are also stated in this chapter
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This chapter outlines the theoretical framework for the study, focusing on conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions in English, alongside previous research on their role in language teaching and learning It begins with standard definitions of conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions, followed by an overview of key categories The significance of these conjunctions in English language education, particularly in EFL writing, is emphasized Additionally, the chapter reviews past studies to critically compare findings and identify existing research gaps.
English Conjunctions
According to Dictionary of English Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, a conjunction, or a connective, has two underlying definitions
A conjunction is defined as a word that links words, phrases, or clauses, such as "but" and "and" (2002, p.107) It plays a crucial role in combining essential components of a sentence or utterance, including words, phrases, and clauses For example, in the sentence “Mary sang beautifully, but her sister didn’t,” the word “but” serves as a conjunction that connects the two clauses, “Mary sang beautifully” and “her sister didn’t.”
The second is “the process by which such joining takes place” In this case, we refer “a conjunction” to the process of combining such above language units together
Hence, the study uses the first definition; that is, the term used in this study refers to the connecting words that link words, phrases, and clauses together
Traditionally, conjunctions are classified into two large groups – coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions (Dictionary of Language Teaching and
Coordinators are words that connect linguistic units of equal rank, categorized into one-word and two-word coordinating conjunctions (Carter & McCarthy, 2011) The one-word coordinating conjunctions are famously represented by the acronym FANBOYS, which stands for For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, and So.
- FOR: used to give reasons
For example: I do morning exercise every day, for I want to keep fit
- AND: used to give addition
For example: I do morning exercise every day to keep fit and relax
- NOR: used to add a negative idea to the negative idea mentioned earlier
For example: I do not like listening to music, nor do I like reading books
- BUT: used to show a general contrast
For example: He works quickly but accurate
- OR: used to present another option
For example: You can play games or watch TV
- YET: used to show a contrast, usually with surprise
For example: She studies very hard, yet she failed the exam
The conjunction "so" is used to indicate the result or effect of a previously mentioned action, such as in the sentence, "I won the lottery yesterday, so I can raise funds to help the poor now." Additionally, correlative conjunctions, which are a type of coordinating conjunction, consist of paired phrases like both…and, neither…nor, and either…or Other examples include not only…but also, whether…or, and such…that, which serve to connect related ideas in a sentence effectively.
- EITHER OR: Used to describe the choice: either this or the other
For example: I want to either the pizza or the sandwich
- NEITHER NOR: used to describe double negation: neither this nor that
For example: I want not the pizza nor the sandwich I just need some biscuits
- BOTH AND: Used to describe dual choice: both this and the other
For example: I want both the pizza and the sandwich I really very hungry now
- NOT ONLY BUT ALSO: Used to describe dual choices: not only these but also the other
For example: I’ll eat them both: not only the pizza but also the sandwich
- WHETHER OR: used to describe questions between two objects: whether this or that
For example: I did not know whether you wanted the pizza or the sandwich, so I got you both
- AS AS: used to compare parity: by, like
For example: Bowling is not as fun as skeet shooting
- SUCH THAT / SO THAT: used to describe human relations - results: so much that
For example: The boy has such a good voice that he can easily capture everyone's attention
- SCARCELY WHEN / NO SOONER THAN: used to describe the time relationship: right
For example: I had scarcely walked in the door when I got the call and had to run right to my office
- RATHER THAN: used to describe choices: rather than, instead
For example: She’d rather play the drums than sing
- JUST AS…SO: used to link two similar things or two things having the same theme For example: Just as she loves dancing so she adores singing as well
The second group of conjunctions, which is the focus of the current study, is discussed in the following section
Subordinating conjunctions, also named as subordinators, are words that “join an independent clause and a dependent clause” (Dictionary of Language Teaching and
Applied Linguistics, 2002, p.107) Particularly, to understand the meaning of subordinators, it is necessary to know the meaning of dependent and independent clause
A dependent clause, or subordinate clause, is defined as a grammatical structure that cannot stand alone and must be paired with another clause to create a complete sentence This type of clause relies on the main clause to convey its full meaning.
An independent clause, also known as a main or principal clause, stands alone without relying on another clause, although it can be linked to other independent or dependent clauses A subordinating conjunction is a word that connects a dependent clause, which lacks complete meaning, to an independent clause, which expresses a complete thought For example, in the sentence “Before Peter studied abroad, he had obtained his IELTS certificate,” the word “Before” functions as a subordinator, linking the dependent clause “Before Peter studied abroad” to the independent clause “he had obtained his IELTS certificate.”
English subordinating conjunctions (ESC) are typically categorized based on their semantic features, which reflect various meanings These conjunctions express several types of semantic relationships, including adversative, causal, temporal, and conditional, as noted by Sorensen (1997, as cited in Wu, 2019, p 626) A summary of these common subordinating conjunctions can be found in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Common English subordinating conjunctions and their semantic relationships (Sorensen (1997, as cited in Wu, 2019, p 626)
Adversative (or contrast) although, though, even though, while, whereas
Causal (or reason and result/ purpose) because, since, as, now that, seeing that, inasmuch as, such…that, so that, in order that, lest
Temporal (or time) when, whenever, while, before, after, since, once, as soon as, until,
Condition if, provided that, supposing, unless, in case, as long as, on condition that
Syntactic features of English subordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions, as noted by Azar (2014), connect independent and dependent clauses, forming specific patterns A clause consists of a group of words that includes a finite verb and conveys a particular meaning, either complete or incomplete An independent clause has a complete meaning and can function independently.
11 alone whereas a dependent clause has incomplete meaning and has to connect with another clause
Independent clause + Subordinating Conjunction + Dependent clause
Ex: The phone rang while she was eating dinner
Subordinating Conjunction + Dependent clause + Independent clause
Ex: While she was eating dinner, the phone rang
Functions of English subordinating conjunctions and EFL learners’ problems
Embedded sentence connectors (ESCs) function as conjunctions, serving to express logical relationships between ideas and marking the structure of discourse in written language (Geva, 1992) In English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts, ESCs are primarily recognized for their ability to link ideas within a sentence Additionally, they enhance the emphasis on specific parts of a sentence, particularly the independent clause, thereby elevating the importance of that clause (Carter & McCarthy, 2011).
Chafe (1994) emphasized that conjunctions play a crucial role in connecting text segments and enhancing the flow of information, thereby promoting coherence and clarity in discourse Geva (1992) further highlighted the relationship between conjunctions and textual comprehension, suggesting that they can significantly aid L2 readers by directing their focus to essential textual elements and assisting in memory retention However, misunderstandings of conjunctions' semantic or syntactic features can lead to difficulties in comprehension, negatively impacting learners' ability to use these linking words correctly.
EFL learners often face challenges when using English sentence connectors (ESCs), as noted by Wu (2019) While they tend to use a limited range of these connectors more frequently than native speakers, their application primarily revolves around basic conjunctions and specific subordinating conjunctions This tendency reflects their familiarity with common language structures in both spoken and written contexts.
Nishimura, Tamura and Hara (2017) also added that syntactic and semantic features of these conjunctions might cause certain difficulties to EFL learners The discrepancies
The transfer of linguistic elements between a learner's first language (L1) and second language (L2) can lead to significant challenges, resulting in errors in both written and spoken communication Common issues arise from the misuse of conjunctions, often stemming from incorrect lexical choices and syntactic mistakes.
Wu (2019) also presented that the lack of appropriate learning strategies might be one of the factors that prevent learners from accomplish their use of logical connectors (or conjunctions).
The important role of conjunctions in learning writing
Writing is often regarded as the most complex of the four English skills, yet it is essential for students to master Proficient writing enables students to communicate their ideas clearly and effectively Furthermore, strong writing skills provide a competitive edge in the job market, particularly for positions in private sectors and international companies.
Conjunctions play a crucial role in written language by illustrating the logical relationships between ideas and structuring discourse (Geva, 1992) In English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts, the primary function of conjunctions is to connect ideas within a sentence Additionally, they enhance the prominence of specific parts of a sentence, typically highlighting the independent clause, thereby elevating the significance of one clause over another (Carter & McCarthy).
Chafe (1994) emphasized that conjunctions are essential for connecting text segments and enhancing the flow of information, contributing to coherence and clarity in discourse Similarly, Geva (1992) highlighted the link between conjunctions and textual comprehension, noting that they can aid second language (L2) readers by directing attention to key textual elements and assisting in memory retention However, difficulties in understanding text can adversely affect learners' use of conjunctions, as misinterpretation of their semantic or syntactic properties may lead to errors in employing these linking words.
Problems encouraged by students in the use of English subordinating conjunctions 133 1 Definitions of errors
Errors in the writing process of language learners have garnered significant attention from educators, linguists, and curriculum developers Such errors are a natural part of acquiring a second or foreign language, particularly English In the context of language teaching and learning, it is essential to view these errors as opportunities for growth and improvement, as emphasized by Harmer (2007) and DeCarrico & Larsen-Freeman.
2010) The linguists particularly are finding reasonable explanations for occurrence of errors and their implication towards the learning and teaching of a language
Errors can be viewed from multiple perspectives; Lennon (1991) connects them to native-speaker utterances, yet the diversity among self-identified native speakers complicates the establishment of a standard In contrast, James (1998) evaluates errors based on grammatical correctness and acceptance, suggesting that they stem from ignorance He posits that error analysis (EA) examines linguistic ignorance, focusing on what individuals do not know and their strategies for managing that lack of knowledge.
DeCarico and Larsen-Freeman (2010) highlight that errors are a natural and systematic part of language learning, especially for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners These errors facilitate the learning process, as learners often retain intermediate forms until they acquire the correct usage.
According to Pham Vu Phi Ho and Pham Nguyen Thuy Duong (2015), writing errors are unavoidable and represent a significant challenge for both EFL teachers and learners.
Throughout history, errors have been a part of second or foreign language learning In any skills, errors tend to be systematic and uniform among learners
2.4.2 The role of error analysis (EA) in EFL teaching and learning
For decades, Error Analysis (EA) has received a great deal of interest from a number of scholars in the field of second language acquisition The following are the definitions of
EA given by some of the scholars
Corder (1967) who has been considered the father of EA contended that those errors are
“important in and of themselves" Hence, it can be said that errors made by language learners make it possible to determine areas that need reinforcement in teaching
EA has two key objectives: the theoretical aspect focuses on what and how learners acquire a language, while the practical aspect emphasizes leveraging existing knowledge to enhance language learning.
Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1982) emphasized that error analysis is a crucial method for examining the mistakes made by EFL and ESL learners during language acquisition This approach not only uncovers the strategies learners employ but also provides valuable insights for educators and stakeholders to understand the challenges faced by students, ultimately enhancing teaching effectiveness.
James (1998) defined Error Analysis (EA) as the process of examining learners' mistakes by contrasting their acquired knowledge with their deficiencies This approach not only identifies errors but also provides explanations to effectively minimize them Additionally, Crystal offers another perspective on EA, emphasizing its role in understanding language learning challenges.
(1999) is the study of language learners’ language forms which deviate from those of the target language
Error analysis, as highlighted by Matsuda & Silva (2010, p 239), is commonly employed in controlled composition classrooms that prioritize form accuracy and error correction This approach significantly influences habit formation and the frequency of specific linguistic features among learners.
When conducting error analysis, EFL teachers must adapt their teaching methods flexibly, as emphasized by Harmer (2007) An excessive emphasis on either form-focused or meaning-focused instruction can lead to significant challenges in the learning process.
Errors found in ESL and EFL learners’ pieces of writing are analyzed and categorized into various categories According to Corder (1974), errors are divided into four categories:
Learners often omit complex linguistic forms, particularly in morphology This includes the third person singular morpheme -S, the plural marker -S, and the past tense inflection -ed.
Learner not only omits elements but they also add redundant elements
For example: I hopes, instead of ‘I hope’
Learners commit error in pronunciation, morphology, syntax and vocabulary due to the selection of the wrong phoneme, morpheme, structure, or vocabulary item
Mis-ordering can occur in morphological level and mis-ordering of bound morpheme in English is perhaps less frequent, given their limited number
In the late 1990s, James (1998) identified five categories of errors in language use: grammatical errors, which encompass issues with adjectives, adverbs, articles, nouns, possession, pronouns, prepositions, and verbs; substance errors related to capitalization, punctuation, and spelling; lexical errors involving word formation and selection; syntactic errors concerning coordination, subordination, sentence structure, and ordering; and semantic errors that lead to ambiguous communication and miscommunication.
A study by Hengwichitkul (2006) analyzed errors at the sentential level, categorizing them into various types including subject-verb agreement, tenses, and punctuation Similarly, Runkati (2013) identified two main error types: sentential errors like fragments and run-ons, and word-level errors involving articles, prepositions, and word choices.
In the current study, the Taxonomy of Error Analysis designed by James (1998) is employed Categories and sub- categories are used to classify students’ errors as following:
(a) Grammatical (prepositions, articles, reported speech, singular/plural, adjectives, irregular verbs, tenses, concord and possessive case);
(b) Syntactic (nouns and pronouns, and word order);
(d) Semantic and substance (capitalization, and spelling)
2.4.4 The procedure of error analysis
In order to analyze students’ errors, Corder (1974) proposes the following five stages model of EA proceeding:
(a) Selection of a corpus of language
(b) Identification of errors in the corpus
(c) Classification of the errors identified
(d) Explanation of the psycholinguistic causes of the errors
(e) Evaluation (error gravity ranking) of the errors
In the research, steps taken are: selecting paragraphs, identifying errors, making classification of the errors and finding sources of the errors
James (1998) noted that there are four stages of the source of error, they are as follows
Interlingual transfer is a significant source of error for all learners The beginning stage of learning a second language is especially vulnerable to interlingual transfer from the native language or interference
Interlingual transfer can be called mother tongue interference It has a great deal in learning target language directly It is a common error that students translate the L1 into L2
Dao Van Dan (2008) explored the errors commonly made by Vietnamese EFL learners, highlighting their tendency to omit the copula "be," misplace participial phrases, and incorrectly inflect verbs These errors primarily stem from first language (L1) transfer, influenced by cultural factors.
Learner language research has significantly contributed to understanding error sources in second language acquisition, highlighting that errors extend beyond interlingual transfer Intralingual transfer, which occurs within the target language, plays a crucial role in second language learning Additionally, overgeneralization serves as a key source of error, often referred to as negative intralingual transfer Intralingual errors can be further categorized, as noted by Richards (1971, 1992).
Interference, that is an error resulting from the transfer of grammatical and/or stylistic elements from the source language to the target language
Overgeneralization ,that is an error caused by extension of target language rules to areas where they do not apply
Performance error, that is unsystematic error that occurs as the result of such thing as memory lapses, fatigue, confusion, or strong emotion
Markers of transitional competence, that is an error that results from a natural and perhaps inevitable development sequence in the second language learning process (by analogy with first language acquisition)
A communication strategy often leads to errors when attempting to convey messages in a target language without fully mastering the necessary grammatical structures.
Teacher-induced error that is an error resulting from pedagogical procedures contained in the text or employed by the teacher
Previous studies
Ahmad Joni Prawoto (2016) conducted a descriptive study on the mastery of conjunctions among fourth-semester English Education students at IAIN Surakarta during the 2015/2016 academic year The study revealed that students faced significant challenges, particularly with correlation conjunctions, where 14 students demonstrated low proficiency The analysis indicated that students had a limited understanding of the functions of conjunctions and struggled to comprehend the context of sentences Additionally, the research found instances of repetitive word usage when combining sentences.
Research findings by Azar (2014) revealed that in English sentences English subordinating conjunctions are used to link two words, link a noun or a noun phrase with
20 a clause, link two clauses, and begin an independent clause Furthermore, subordinating conjunctions can be used at the beginning, middles and end of the sentences
In a study by Chen (2017), the written output errors of Chinese EFL learners concerning the subordinator "although" were analyzed using corpus data The research involved senior high school and university students, with daily writing assignments and examinations serving as the primary data sources The findings revealed four key error trends: students often incorrectly added "but" or "yet" in the middle of sentences, exhibited punctuation errors, and frequently misused the subordinator.
“although” Fourth, they wrongly omitted and blended although
Nishimura, Tamura, and Hara (2017) investigated the syntactic complexity in the argumentative essays of 28 Japanese EFL graduate students, focusing on various clause types, including main, coordinate, adverbial, relative, complement, and non-finite clauses The study involved two tasks: describing a cartoon with six complex sentences and writing an argumentative essay Results revealed a strong correlation between learners' language proficiency and their use of non-finite clauses Notably, subordinate clauses posed significant challenges for all learners, regardless of proficiency, making them more difficult to use than coordinate clauses.
In 2018, authors Tagor Pangaribuan, Elisa Haddina, and Sondang Manik conducted a study on students' errors in using conjunctions such as "because," "since," "as," and "in case" in complex sentences Their analysis revealed that high school students frequently struggle with subordinate conjunctions, resulting in a higher incidence of mistakes across various items The findings indicate that these errors often stem from carelessness or misunderstanding of context, particularly in the use of subordinate combinations Overall, the study highlights the challenges students face in mastering complex sentence structures, emphasizing the need for improved instruction in conjunction usage.
Errors in language use are often due to carelessness rather than misunderstanding of alternating causes Many students mistakenly translate subordinate conjunctions like "since" and "because" into Indonesian, leading to contextual errors This misuse highlights the importance of understanding the various meanings and applications of these conjunctions to avoid mistakes (Tagor, Elisa & Sondang, 2018).
Wu (2019) examined the spoken errors of 27 TESOL students at a Hong Kong university by having them watch a 5.5-minute video clip and retell the story Following this, participants completed a questionnaire detailing their demographics The findings revealed that these TESOL students favored coordinating conjunctions over subordinating ones and used fewer logical connectors than native speakers Additionally, they frequently misused the subordinator "in case." The study emphasized the need for enhanced pedagogical activities to improve students' comprehension of connector usage in context.
Conceptual framework
This study explored 12th grade students' perceptions and usage of subordinating conjunctions in their writing, identifying common errors The research aims to enhance students' ability to use subordinating conjunctions accurately and meaningfully in their written texts The subordinating conjunctions examined were based on a list by Sorensen.
The study examines students' use of English Sentence Connectors (ESC) by analyzing their types, frequency, position, and function, while also identifying errors through Corder’s five stages model of Error Analysis (1974) and adapting James' Taxonomy of Error Analysis (1998) This framework categorizes errors into two main areas: syntactic, which covers word order and sentence structure, and lexical, which focuses on the choice of conjunctions.
Figure 2.1: Conceptual framework of the current study
Summary
In summary, this study employs a theoretical framework centered on the fundamental principles of conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions in English, drawing upon previous research findings related to the application of subordinating conjunctions.
This article explores the essential role of conjunctions, particularly subordinating conjunctions, in English teaching and learning It begins by defining these grammatical elements and categorizing the primary types of subordinating conjunctions The discussion emphasizes their significance in enhancing students' understanding and application of complex sentence structures in both written and spoken English.
English in general and writing EFL in particular Past studies have also been notified to help compare findings seriously and bring the researcher to the research gap.
(Sorensen, 1997, as cited in Wu,
TYPES ERRORS FUNCTION POSITION FREQUENCY
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
Research methodology is crucial for any study as it establishes the framework for the research process (Brown, 1996) A robust and thorough methodology is essential to ensure the accuracy of data and the achievement of research goals and objectives This section provides a detailed overview of the research approach, data collection methods, sampling procedures, sample size, data analysis, and scope The selection of research methods in this study was guided by theoretical considerations, research goals, and the nature of the research problem, with an emphasis on factors such as ease of analysis, practicality, and validity.
Research design
Research can be conducted using three primary methods: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods (Creswell, 2014) According to Saunders et al (2009), selecting the right research method is crucial for research success, as it directly affects the collection and analysis of data to achieve the research's aims and objectives.
(2009) stated that the researcher can select whether quantitative, qualitative or mixed method depending on the nature and objectives of research
Quantitative research, as defined by Bryman and Bell (2015), involves the use of statistical and quantified data to test hypotheses and connect theories for generalization of results This method entails collecting and analyzing data to explore and measure variables and their relationships, ultimately aiming to establish causal relationships between defined variables However, Simon (2011) highlights several limitations of the quantitative approach, including potential data miscalculation, an excessively large sample pool, the influence of time and psychological factors on respondents' answers, and restricted outcomes due to the use of structured and close-ended questions.
24 questionnaire which is normally used as the research instrument in quantitative research; and (5) complexity in data analysis
Denzin and Lincoln (2005) highlight the key distinctions between quantitative and qualitative research methods, focusing on the types of data collected and analysis techniques used Quantitative research relies on statistical and numerical data, whereas qualitative research favors non-numerical data that reflect personal introspection Bryman and Bell (2015) note that qualitative research is often more suitable for exploring opinions, attitudes, and behaviors within their natural context However, Bowen (2006) points out several disadvantages of qualitative research, including time consumption, potential researcher bias, challenges in ensuring reliability and validity due to the lack of result verification, and difficulties in establishing causality among research issues.
Both qualitative and quantitative research methods have their own advantages and disadvantages; therefore, the researcher considers the research objectives to select the appropriate method
This study utilized a mixed-methods approach, integrating both quantitative and qualitative research methods To address the first research question, a quantitative method was employed, as defined by Creswell (2014), which involves collecting and statistically analyzing numerical data For the second research question, qualitative data was collected through students' essay writing to investigate errors related to subordinating conjunctions.
To ensure the success of the investigation, an appropriate research design was selected to facilitate valid findings According to Kerlinger (1989), research design serves as a comprehensive plan, structure, and strategy aimed at answering research questions This plan outlines the entire research process, from hypothesis formulation to data analysis Thyer (1993) describes traditional research design as a blueprint that provides a detailed framework for conducting a research study.
25 be completed operationalizing variables so they can be measured, selecting a sample to study, collecting data to be used, as a basis for testing hypothesis
This study employed a mixed-methods research design, integrating both descriptive and non-descriptive approaches It utilized a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods, with systematic quantitative research conducted to address the first research question.
To address the second research question, the researcher collected students' essay writings as qualitative data to investigate errors related to subordinating conjunctions For the third research question, a Pearson correlation test will be utilized to analyze the relationship between students' perceptions and their use of English subordinating conjunctions in their writing Detailed methodologies for data collection are provided in the methods section.
Research site
The study conducted at Thang Long High School during the first semester of the 2019-2020 academic year highlights the school's evolution since its establishment in 1979 in Lam Ha district, Lam Dong province Over more than 40 years, the dedication of both teachers and students has fostered a commitment to continuous improvement and adaptation to modern educational trends With 24 classes accommodating nearly 900 students, the school's facilities are modern and well-maintained Teachers actively pursue professional development, while students engage creatively in their learning processes As a result, Thang Long High School has emerged as a trusted institution for parents and a source of pride for its educators.
In Vietnamese high schools, English is predominantly taught using the Grammar Translation Method, despite attempts to adopt communicative language teaching This focus on grammar aims to prepare students for grammar-oriented exams, but it ultimately leads to fatigue and inadequate communication skills in English To enhance students' grammar knowledge and proficiency, it is essential to develop a conceptual framework that emphasizes the study of grammar in context Understanding English subordinating conjunctions is a crucial aspect of this approach.
Effective grammar teaching is essential for students to utilize writing skills meaningfully, yet at Thang Long High School, located in a rural area, the focus on foreign language instruction, particularly writing, falls short of expectations With class sizes ranging from 35 to 45 students, teachers struggle to provide individual attention for writing practice and error correction Consequently, writing skills are often neglected in regular assessments, where the emphasis is placed on grades rather than skill development Most teachers resort to model writing assignments, leading students to memorize rather than understand the material, which results in their inability to compose coherent and clear paragraphs The prevailing exam pressure further compels English teachers to prioritize test-taking strategies over comprehensive writing instruction.
Sampling and sampling procedures
Thang Long High School is a public high school in Lam Dong, consisting of 24 classes including grades 10, 11 and 12 The average number of classes for each class is from 35-
40 students The population is 896 students in 24 classes
Sampling is essential in research to make generalizations and draw accurate inferences Miller (1991) emphasizes that studies using representative samples can be more effective than those involving larger populations, as they avoid redundancy in gathering similar responses Moreover, strict probability sampling is often impractical in school settings (Bernard).
In 1990, a non-probability technique was utilized to selectively choose specific classes, ensuring a balanced representation across the high school The convenience sampling method was employed for two main reasons: the students were readily available for the research, and the selection facilitated effective data collection.
27 researcher wanted to explore the general situations among the students, without any special purposes Thus, no stratification was employed
The sample size in this study consisted of 67 twelfth graders from two classes, 12B1 and 12B7, at Thang Long High School Due to limitations in time, effort, and resources, a larger sample was not feasible Although the students were from different class units, they were treated as a single group for the purposes of the research These participants were specifically chosen because their recent test scores were lower than those of their peers, highlighting the need for targeted intervention by teachers and researchers Background information about the participants is detailed in Table 3.1.
The total number of students participating in this current study is 67 students who have currently learning at the 12th grade at Thang Long High School The researcher selected
Twelfth-grade students, who are preparing for their university entrance exams, are expected to have a strong command of English grammar, particularly in using subordinating conjunctions Having studied letter writing, paragraph writing, and chart descriptions in detail, these students are anticipated to demonstrate better conjunction usage compared to their peers in grades 10 and 11 Table 4.1 provides background information on the students involved in this study.
Table 3.1: Descriptions of participant demographics
Table 3.1 shows that out of 67 participants, 35 are female (52.24%) and 32 are male (47.76%), indicating minimal gender disparity in this study This balanced representation suggests that gender does not significantly affect students' perceptions and usage of English subordinating conjunctions in their writing.
In Vietnam, English is a mandatory subject beginning in the third year of primary education, leading to 88.06% of participants in this study having studied the language for 7 to 10 years Only 4.48% of students reported learning English for less than 7 years, while 7.46% have been learning it since their first year of primary school.
All of students state that they understand the definition and functions of subordinating conjunctions They also affirm their understanding of how to accurately use subordinating conjunctions in their writing
Subordinating conjunctions play a crucial role in grammar education, as highlighted in K-12 English textbooks A recent survey revealed that all participants confirmed they learned about the functions and usage of subordinating conjunctions starting from the 6th grade.
The researcher investigates students' comprehension of subordinating conjunctions by examining their understanding of specific English subordinating conjunctions and their meanings The findings will be detailed in the following sections.
Research instruments
As language knowledge is dynamic and contextualized, Spolsky is distrustful of using questionnaires as the sole method to collect data on such studies, and he stresses how
To gather comprehensive sociolinguistic data and personal insights from second language learners, it is essential to complement traditional methods with additional techniques (Spolsky, 2000) In this study, the researcher utilized both questionnaires and a corpus of written texts as key research instruments.
A questionnaire is a structured set of questions designed to gather responses from participants According to Saunders et al (1997), several factors influence the decision to utilize a questionnaire for data collection.
1) Characteristics of respondents from which the researcher wish to collect the data;
2) Importance of reaching a particular person as a respondent;
3) Importance of respondents’ answers not being contaminated or distorted;
4) Size of sample the researcher requires for the analysis, taking into account the likely response rate;
5) Type of questions the researcher needs to ask to collect the data;
6) Number of questions the researcher needs to ask to collect the data
In this study, self-administered questionnaires were utilized to gather information from 12th-grade students at Thang Long High School, as the target respondents were predominantly literate and distributed throughout the school The selected respondents were responsible for reading, interpreting, and providing written answers to the questions presented.
The study utilized a self-designed questionnaire informed by a literature review, which underwent a pilot test with 30 grade 12 students to gather constructive feedback To ensure the reliability of the scale, the researcher calculated Cronbach’s alpha, eliminating any inappropriate or unreliable items based on the results This process led to the development of the final version of the questionnaire.
The final questionnaire consists of two primary sections: the first focuses on gathering demographic information from respondents, while the second investigates students' usage and perceptions of English subordinating conjunctions in their writing Various types of questions are employed by the researcher to achieve this.
The initial section consists of four multiple-choice questions designed to gather students' background information, such as their gender, duration of English study, comprehension of subordinating conjunctions, and their education regarding subordinating conjunctions in school.
The second part of the study includes four sections featuring close-ended questions Each question utilizes a five-point Likert scale, allowing respondents to express their level of agreement from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree.
This article presents a comprehensive list of subordinating conjunctions categorized into four main types: adversative, conditional, temporal, and causal It aims to assess 12th grade students' understanding of the functions of these conjunctions through a questionnaire consisting of six items, numbered 2.1 to 2.6 The framework for this analysis is derived from Wu's (2019) study on subordinating conjunctions.
- Section 2 involves 6 items (ranging from 2.1 to 2.6) are used to examine the functions of English subordinating conjunctions perceived by respondents These questionnaire items are adjusted from the study by Azar (2014)
Section 3 features five closed-ended questions (3.1 to 3.5) that assess the significance of English subordinating conjunctions from the respondents' viewpoints These questions are based on the research by Carter & McCarthy (2011), which emphasizes that subordinating conjunctions are crucial elements in English sentences They play a vital role in improving the cohesion and logical flow of writing.
Section 4 explores the use of subordinating conjunctions among respondents, focusing on items 4.1 to 4.5, which are adapted from Wu's (2019) framework Wu's study indicates that students often use both familiar and unfamiliar English subordinating conjunctions to connect ideas in their writing Additionally, learners may apply translation techniques to effectively incorporate these conjunctions into their English compositions To ensure clarity, all questionnaire items have been translated into Vietnamese.
To address the second research question, the researcher employed writing texts as research instruments, analyzing data from a learner corpus that included 134 paragraphs authored by 12th-grade students at Thang Long High School during their writing assessments.
In a performance test for mandatory English classes, students who had been learning English since third grade wrote paragraphs using a MOET-designed textbook Given 45 minutes, they responded to prompts about the Internet's influence on their studies and the debate over high school uniforms, with a word limit of 250 words The tests were conducted on paper, prohibiting the use of dictionaries or textbooks An analysis of 134 paragraphs, totaling 33,317 words from 67 students, focused on the usage of conjunctions This corpus building was informed by the study of Nishimura, Tamura & Hara (2017), which examined data collection methods for error analysis related to English subordinating conjunctions.
Data collection procedures
In the academic year 2019-2020, data was collected from 67 12th-grade students at Thang Long High School through a paper-based questionnaire, achieving a 100% return rate Prior to completing the questionnaire, students were informed about the study's purpose and the items within the questionnaire Each student dedicated at least fifteen minutes to this task The questionnaire, adapted from prior research on relevant topics, was piloted with 30 students not involved in the study It was originally designed in English and subsequently translated into Vietnamese to enhance comprehension among the students.
In the first semester of the 2019-2020 academic year, a dataset was gathered on writing skills through two tests administered before and after a lesson on English subordinating conjunctions The initial test focused on the influence of the Internet on students' studies, while the second addressed the debate on whether high school students should wear uniforms.
32 were paper based tests within 45 minutes Students’ writing texts were collected and then retyped to build a corpus for the analysis.
Data analysis procedures
The analysis of the questionnaire and writing tests utilized descriptive and error analysis methods Responses from the questionnaire were coded and analyzed using SPSS v 25.0, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of the dataset through descriptive statistics (Bryman & Bell, 2015) Key components of the exploratory data analysis included the calculation of quartiles, central tendency measures (mean and median), and dispersion measures (range, standard deviation, variance, minimum, and maximum) To assess the reliability of the measurement scale and its dimensionality, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was computed The interpretation of the mean score from the descriptive statistics provides valuable insights into the data.
As for the correlation between the perception and the use of conjunctions both correct and incorrect ones, the Pearson correlation test was run
Error analysis is a crucial technique in understanding language acquisition for English as a second language learners, who may be unaware of specific rules in the language Researchers have long studied the errors made by these learners to gain insights into the learning process By analyzing both correct and incorrect utterances, error analysis helps identify problem areas, benefiting teachers, material designers, and learners alike This technique enables the development of targeted remedial exercises, focusing on the most challenging aspects of language learning According to Richards et al (1992), error analysis serves to identify the strategies learners employ in language acquisition, making it an essential component of language learning research.
33 causes of learners’ errors, and finally (3) obtain information on common difficulties in language learning as an aid to teaching or in development of teaching materials
This study focuses on analyzing the errors made by foreign language learners, specifically in the use of English subordinating conjunctions By identifying these linguistic difficulties, educators can better understand the specific needs of learners in their language acquisition process Overall, error analysis plays a crucial role in effectively addressing and managing learners' errors within the classroom setting.
1) Devising remedial measures for errors of use of English subordinating conjunctions
2) Preparing a sequence of target language items in class rooms and text books with the difficult items coming after the easier ones
3) Making suggestions about the nature or strategies of foreign language learning employed by language learners
The initial phase of analyzing the learner corpus involved identifying the most frequently used English subordinating conjunctions in writing These conjunctions are classified into four categories: adversative, conditional, temporal, and causal After compiling a frequency list, the most commonly used conjunctions were scrutinized to uncover errors made by 12th-grade students at Thang Long High School The researcher assessed these errors, which were subsequently verified by an experienced English teacher at the same school to ensure accuracy and reduce potential bias.
Validity and reliability
According to Meadows (2003), validity refers to the effectiveness of a questionnaire in measuring its intended constructs It is essential to evaluate whether the questionnaire accurately reflects the content, is suitable for the target sample, and sufficiently captures all necessary information To ensure content validity, the questionnaire was piloted with 12th grade students from Thang Long High School, who share similar characteristics and levels as the intended sample.
In terms of reliability, Meadows (2003) states that reliability refers to how well data collected by using a questionnaire can be reproduced The researcher applied Cronbach’s
The Alpha technique, utilizing SPSS Version 25, assesses the internal consistency reliability of the questionnaire According to Johnson and Christensen (2012), a reliability coefficient of at least 0.70 is required for the scores to be considered reliable In the pilot test, 20 items were used to gather quantitative data; however, 4 items were deemed invalid due to coefficients below 0.2 Consequently, 16 valid items remained after removing the invalid ones The reliability of these 16 items was then retested using Cronbach’s Alpha, with the results detailed in the accompanying table.
Table 3.2: Reliability results of adjusted questionnaire
Students’ perception of functions of English subordinating conjunctions
Students’ perception of importance of English subordinating conjunctions
Students’ use of English subordinating conjunctions
Table 3.2 shows that Cronbach’s Alpha for all questionnaire categories exceeds 0.70, with values ranging from 0.889 to 0.934, indicating that the questionnaire items are reliable for assessing 12th-grade students’ perceptions and usage of English subordinating conjunctions in their writing at Thang Long High School.
An English teacher with over a decade of experience at Thang Long High School participated in the evaluation of paragraphs written by 12th-grade students to ensure the reliability of the error analysis conducted by the researcher.
Summary
This chapter outlines the study's methodology, detailing the data collection instruments and analysis techniques used A questionnaire was created with two sections: background information and students' perceptions of English subordinating conjunctions Data was gathered through two methods, resulting in two samples: 67 twelfth-grade students and a corpus of 134 writing texts from these students The researcher employed a mixed-method approach, integrating descriptive statistics and error analysis to address the research questions To ensure the reliability of the scale, Cronbach’s alpha was calculated The subsequent chapter will present the results derived from these methods.