Effects of cognitive strategy training on english vocabulary learning of 9th graders at nguyen tri phuong secondary school

INTRODUCTION

Background to the study

English has established itself as a global language, widely utilized across both native and non-native English-speaking countries It plays a crucial role in various settings, including schools, workplaces, and homes The absence of English would significantly hinder progress in economic, political, social, and cultural development.

The significance of English is widely recognized across various sectors, including finance, tourism, business, medicine, education, music, entertainment, computing, and engineering Proficiency in English is essential for individuals pursuing advanced studies in scientific research Additionally, companies can effectively expand their operations into international markets when both managers and employees possess strong English language skills.

To effectively learn a foreign language, learners must develop four essential skills: speaking, reading, writing, and listening Mastery of these skills requires a significant investment of time, starting with a foundational understanding of English As learners progress, they can engage in more advanced training courses The implementation of effective teaching strategies is crucial for enhancing vocabulary acquisition and overall language proficiency These strategies play a vital role in motivating and encouraging learners to improve their English language skills, particularly in vocabulary development.

In Vietnam, a report from the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) reveals that only a small percentage of students who studied English for ten years, from grade 3 to grade 12, achieved a score above 5.0 on the 2020 university entrance exam.

Recent statistics indicate that 36.87% of students achieve below a passing score in English, with 49.25% scoring under 5.0 on the high school entrance exam, as reported by HCMC DOET Nguyen Quoc Hung (2014) highlights that a majority of Vietnamese students struggle with basic English communication Additionally, Lâm (2011, as cited in Nguyen Thi To Hoa & Pham Thi Tuyet Mai, 2016) notes that many students face challenges in vocabulary usage and idea organization in writing This reflects the ongoing issues in English teaching and learning in Vietnam, primarily due to inadequate teaching and learning methods Teachers often rely on traditional, teacher-centered instruction (Phan Thi Tuyet Nga, 2018), while students lack motivation and effective learning strategies (Souriyavongsa, 2013).

Mastering a second language requires a rich and diverse vocabulary, as it significantly aids learners in understanding information from texts, listening exercises, and interpersonal communication (Graves and Ringstaff, 2018) Consequently, developing a foundational vocabulary is crucial for all students, particularly those who struggle, making it an essential aspect of English teaching and learning in high schools.

Nguyen Tri Phuong High School (NTPS) prioritizes English education and collaborates with various domestic organizations to enhance students' English proficiency The school continually updates its teaching and learning strategies to optimize English learning outcomes Understanding the impact of these strategies on English vocabulary retention is crucial for improving educational effectiveness.

Cognitive strategies are essential for enhancing learners' understanding of linguistic systems, enabling them to derive word meanings from context and connect new information with their existing knowledge (Oxford, 1990) These strategies play a significant role in teaching English skills and expanding vocabulary According to Raximovna et al (2020), cognitive strategies are particularly effective for helping learners memorize new words, facilitating long-term retention of vocabulary.

Statement of the problem

Mastering a foreign language requires learners to enhance their vocabulary and language skills, which can be particularly challenging for non-native English speakers Common difficulties include understanding the meanings of new words, spelling, pronunciation, selecting the appropriate words, and inferring meanings from context Various factors contribute to these challenges, making vocabulary acquisition a complex process.

Despite some shortcomings in teaching and learning strategies, the demand for English proficiency in Vietnam has surged, as it is essential for career opportunities and is a key factor in the country's political, educational, social, and technological advancement Consequently, learners need to master vocabulary to showcase their English proficiency effectively.

One significant factor contributing to the challenges in language acquisition is the reliance on native languages in teaching and learning methods Research indicates that both teachers and students frequently use their mother tongue instead of the target language, which negatively impacts student performance (Al-Seghayer, 2015).

Addressing the challenges of vocabulary acquisition among students is a significant challenge for educators It is crucial to highlight the vocabulary-learning difficulties faced by students and to introduce effective strategies that enhance their comprehension and retention of new words Students at Nguyen Tri Phuong Secondary School, along with many others in Vietnam, struggle with understanding meanings, spelling, pronunciation, and proper usage of new vocabulary, which hampers their learning experience Despite the implementation of innovative teaching methods, the outcomes have not met expectations Therefore, it is essential to explore the impact of cognitive strategy training on improving English vocabulary learning for 9th graders at Nguyen Tri Phuong Secondary School.

Aims and objectives of the study

This study investigates the impact of cognitive strategy training on English vocabulary acquisition among 9th-grade students at NTPS The primary objective is to evaluate how these strategies enhance vocabulary learning effectiveness.

- To explore the effects of cognitive strategy training on English vocabulary retention of 9 th grade students at NTPS;

- To explore the students’ attitudes towards cognitive strategy training in learning English vocabulary at NTPS

Research questions

This study mainly focuses on addressing the following two research questions:

1) What are the effects of cognitive strategy training on improving NTPS students’ English vocabulary learning?

2) What are the students’ attitudes towards cognitive strategy training in English vocabulary learning?

Scope of the study

This study explores the impact of cognitive strategy training on English vocabulary learning among 9th graders at NTPS in Ho Chi Minh City It aims to assess how this training enhances students' vocabulary acquisition and to examine their attitudes towards such strategies in English classes NTPS was chosen for this research due to its reputation as a high-quality secondary school that employs innovative teaching methods in English education.

58 students of two classes 9/3 and 9/4 were chosen to participate in the study These

In a quasi-experimental study conducted in September 2020, 58 students participated in both pre-tests and post-tests, along with a questionnaire From this group, ten students were selected for semi-structured interviews to gather qualitative insights The research aimed to analyze varying levels of English proficiency among participants, with data collected quantitatively and qualitatively The researcher finalized the writing of the study in the first quarter of 2022.

Significance of the study

Research on cognitive strategy training in vocabulary teaching techniques enables teachers to enhance vocabulary instruction in middle schools by organizing engaging practice activities This approach not only improves the effectiveness of vocabulary teaching and learning but also equips students with essential vocabulary skills, allowing them to utilize their vocabulary effectively.

This research offers valuable insights for future generations learning English as a second language, as well as for educators seeking effective strategies to enhance vocabulary retention By identifying and applying successful teaching methods, individuals can improve their effectiveness in teaching English vocabulary.

This thesis research serves as a valuable resource for those seeking insights into the effectiveness of cognitive strategy training for enhancing English vocabulary retention.

Definitions of terms

Cognitive strategy encompasses the methods used to learn, retain, and communicate ideas in a reflective and analytical manner This internally organized skill significantly influences learners' intellectual processes, including their understanding of problems, learning capabilities, memory, and overall thinking skills, as highlighted by Gagne and Briggs (1979).

9th graders: 9 th graders are students learning in last year of secondary school in Vietnam

Organization of the thesis

There are five chapters in this thesis, including introduction, literature review, research methodology, results and discussion, and conclusion In details:

Chapter 1 aims to describe the rationale of the study, statement of the problem, the aims and objectives of the study, two research questions Moreover, the scope, significance and definitions of key terms are provided

Chapter 2 presents various theories and concepts related to language learning and vocabulary learning strategies, along with discussions on vocabulary retention and cognitive strategy training It also includes a revision and analysis of previous studies, concluding with a summary of the literature review and the conceptual framework of the study Chapter 3 outlines the research methodology, detailing the research design, site, sample and sampling methods, instruments used, data collection procedures, data analysis techniques, and considerations for reliability and validity.

Chapter 4 presents the results of pre-tests, post-tests, questionnaires, and interviews, highlighting the impact of cognitive strategy training on English vocabulary acquisition among 9th grade students at Nguyen Tri Phuong Secondary School Chapter 5 concludes the research with a summary, discusses implications, acknowledges limitations, and offers recommendations for future studies.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Language learning strategies

2.1.1 Definitions of language learning strategies

Language learning strategies are essential tools that empower learners to engage actively and adapt their learning processes (Oxford, 1990) Extensive research has highlighted the effectiveness of these strategies in enhancing language proficiency (Oxford & Nyikos, 1989; Aliakbari & Hayatzadeh, 2008; Aslan, 2009; Nguyen & Trinh, 2011) To fully leverage these benefits, it is crucial to first grasp the definitions of language learning strategies.

The language learning strategy has been defined in many different ways Rubin

Language learning strategies are defined as actions that learners employ to facilitate the development of their language systems and enhance their learning experiences (1987, p.23; Oxford, 1990, p 8) These strategies not only promote learner autonomy but also expand the teacher's role and encompass various aspects beyond mere perception (Oxford, 1990) They are flexible, problem-solving oriented, and influenced by multiple factors (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990, p 1) Learning strategies consist of specific methods that help learners receive, retain, and utilize information effectively (Dansereau, 1985) According to Nunan (1999, p.55), these strategies involve mental and communicative processes that significantly impact second language acquisition, with active strategies correlating to higher proficiency Ellis (1994) describes them as essential steps in developing interlanguage, while Cohen (1998) emphasizes that they involve conscious or semi-conscious behaviors aimed at achieving clear objectives Lu (2001) further notes that these strategies encompass various actions taken by learners to effectively learn and use language.

In this research, we choose the definition of Oxford (1990) because it has a general nature and is more suitable for studies that describe the learning strategy of Vietnamese language learners

2.1.2 Taxonomies of language learning strategies

Since 1980, extensive research on second language learning strategies has emerged, highlighting the importance of learner involvement Various strategies have been introduced and classified through different frameworks O’Malley and Chamot (1990) identify three primary types of learning strategies based on information processing theory: metacognitive, cognitive, and social/affective strategies Meanwhile, Wenden (1991) categorizes language learning strategies into cognitive strategies and self-management strategies.

According to Rubin's classification (1981, 1987), language learning strategies are categorized into three main types: learning strategies, communication strategies, and social strategies Learning strategies encompass cognitive and metacognitive approaches, which Rubin explains are essential for effective language acquisition Cognitive strategies involve the analysis, transformation, and synthesis of learning materials, while metacognitive strategies focus on self-directed learning processes, including planning, goal setting, and self-management Additionally, Naiman et al provided insights into these strategies through observations, tests, and interviews with both successful and unsuccessful university learners.

(1978) identify five major learning strategies, including active task approach; realization of language as a system; realization of language as a means of communication; management of affective demands; and self-monitoring

Stern (1975) investigates strategies used by good language learners, and identified language learning strategies, including:

- Planning strategy: a personal learning style or positive learning strategies;

- Active Strategy: an active approach to the learning task;

- Empathic strategy: a tolerant and outgoing approach to the target language and empathy with its speakers;

- Formal strategy: technical know-how about how to tackle a language;

- Experimental strategy: a methodical but flexible approach, developing the new language into an ordered system and constantly revising it;

- Semantic strategy: constant searching for meaning;

- Practice strategy: willingness to practice;

- Communication strategy: willingness to use the language in real communication;

- Monitoring strategy: self-monitoring and critical sensitivity to language use; Internalization strategy: developing a second language as a separate reference system and learning to think in it

Oxford (1990) has divided the learning strategies into six groups: memory strategies, cognitive strategies, compensation strategies, metacognitive strategies, and affective strategies and social strategies

Memory strategies are essential tools for learners, enabling them to effectively remember and recall new information By integrating newly acquired knowledge in the target language with pre-existing information, these strategies enhance the learning process and improve overall retention.

Cognitive strategies empower learners to engage with language effectively by utilizing techniques such as inference, analysis, note-taking, summarization, synthesis, and sketching These strategies also involve organizing information and practicing in real communication settings, as well as focusing on the correct structure and pronunciation.

Compensation strategies enable learners to bridge gaps in their knowledge by utilizing context clues to infer the meanings of unfamiliar words encountered during listening or reading activities These strategies encompass context-based guessing to enhance listening and reading skills, employing synonyms to clarify meanings, engaging in discussions about unknown words to bolster speaking and writing abilities, selecting topics within the learner's comprehension to facilitate discussion while minimizing the use of unfamiliar vocabulary, and incorporating sign language or alternative words for effective communication.

Metacognitive strategies empower learners to manage their language learning process effectively These strategies encompass identifying personal learning styles, interests,

Affective strategies are essential for language learners as they help manage emotional and anxiety levels These strategies include self-rewarding for achievements, practicing deep breathing to alleviate fear of communication, and using positive self-talk to boost confidence Additionally, discussing feelings about learning a non-native language with others can further support emotional well-being By implementing these techniques, learners can effectively navigate the psychological challenges of language acquisition.

Social strategies enhance language learning by facilitating communication and cultural understanding, allowing learners to actively engage with the target language Through participation in various activities, learners can showcase and apply their knowledge, gaining valuable exposure to the language However, it's important to note that these strategies contribute indirectly to the learning process, as they do not directly lead to the acquisition, retention, or usage of the language (Wenden & Rubin, 1987).

Table 2.1 Classification of language learning strategies

Empathic strategy Formal strategy Experimental strategy Semantic strategy

Realization of a language as a system

Realization of a language as a means of communication

Learning strategies Communication strategies Social strategies

Metacognitive strategies O’malley and Chamot

Cognitive strategies Metacognitive strategies Social/ affective strategies

Memory Cognitive Compensation Metacognitive Affective Social Wenden

Cognitive strategies Self-management strategies

Effective vocabulary learning strategies empower learners to take greater control and responsibility for their educational journey.

2001, p 222) Among classifications of language learning strategies by various authors, Oxford’s (1990) classification has been considered the most comprehensive

In this research, we focus on cognitive strategies as a kind of strategies developed by Rubin (1987), O’malley and Chamot (1990), Oxford (1990) and Wenden (1991)

Vocabulary learning

2.2.1 Vocabulary learning and language acquisition

Vocabulary is essential for effective communication, encompassing not just individual words but also phrases like "post office" and "mother-in-law" that convey single ideas (Neuman & Dwyer, 2009; Hornby, 1995) It is more accurately referred to as "items" in vocabulary, acknowledging that these can consist of multiple words Furthermore, vocabulary is a crucial component of language teaching, as students need to continually acquire new words alongside learning grammatical structures and practicing phonetics (Edward & Vallette, 1997).

According to Zimmerman (as cited in Coady & Huckin, 1998), vocabulary is central to language and is crucial for effective language learning Diamond and Gutlohn (2006) further emphasize that vocabulary encompasses the knowledge of words and their meanings Thus, it can be concluded that a robust vocabulary is essential for conveying ideas and expressing the speaker's intended meaning, highlighting the significance of vocabulary acquisition in language development.

Researchers categorize vocabulary into two main types: active and passive According to Neuman and Dwyer (2009), vocabulary can be divided into spoken words, known as expressive vocabulary, and listening words, referred to as receptive vocabulary Harmer (1991) further distinguishes these lexical types, with receptive vocabulary encompassing words that students are taught and expected to use, while productive vocabulary includes words that students can recognize when spoken but may not be able to use themselves.

Receptive vocabulary refers to the words that learners can recognize and understand in context, but do not actively use in speaking or writing This type of vocabulary is identified by learners when they encounter it in reading, although they may not incorporate it into their own language production (Stuart, 2008).

Productive vocabulary encompasses words that learners not only understand and pronounce accurately but also use appropriately in both speaking and writing It involves the ability to articulate thoughts effectively, going beyond mere comprehension As a constructive process, developing a productive vocabulary enables learners to communicate their ideas clearly and confidently (Stuart, 2005).

Mastering vocabulary is crucial for acquiring a foreign language, as the significance of new words is emphasized in both educational materials and classroom settings Vocabulary instruction plays a vital role in language learning, yet many educators struggle with teaching it effectively due to a lack of confidence and uncertainty about where to begin (Berne and Blachowicz, 2008).

In conclusion, vocabulary learning is necessary to help learners be able to acquire a particular language

2.2.2 The importance of vocabulary in language learning

Vocabulary is a crucial component of language acquisition, significantly impacting learners' language development (Cameron, 2001; Harmon et al., 2009; Linse & Nunan, 2005) Recent research has revitalized interest in vocabulary development, highlighting its importance in enhancing overall language proficiency (Carter & McCarthy, 1988; Nation, 1990; Arnaud & Bejoint, 1992).

Vocabulary knowledge is crucial for second language development, as limited vocabulary can impede effective communication Schmitt (2000) highlights that vocabulary is central to communication competencies, while Nation (2001) describes the reciprocal relationship between vocabulary and language use In educational settings, students benefit from acquiring a comprehensive vocabulary, which is essential for creating coherent spoken and written texts, as noted by researchers like Laufer and Nation (1999) and others In both English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL), vocabulary is vital across all language skills A robust vocabulary is necessary for successful communication; without it, learners struggle to utilize language structures and functions, making lexical knowledge a significant barrier to their progress.

This research highlights the crucial role of vocabulary in language learning, particularly for 9th graders preparing for their significant entrance exam into 10th grade A strong vocabulary is essential for these students to succeed in their upcoming assessments.

Vocabulary learning strategies

2.3.1 Definitions of vocabulary learning strategies

According to British linguist Wilkins (1976), effective communication is impossible without syntax and vocabulary, as words are essential for expression Vocabulary encompasses not only the building blocks of language but also reflects the culture associated with it For language learners, mastering vocabulary is crucial, as it supports pronunciation, grammar, and discourse, ultimately serving as the foundation for all language skills.

Vocabulary learning strategies are essential tools that enable learners to acquire, retain, and effectively use new words in language production (Naveh & Kafipour, 2011; Catalan, 2003) These strategies can be employed both consciously and unconsciously, impacting the overall learning process Research by Hong-Nam and Leavell (2006) indicates that successful second language learners are more adept at employing purposeful learning strategies compared to their less successful counterparts.

Vocabulary learning strategies are a crucial component of language learning, as highlighted by Riankamol (2008) and Nation (2001), who categorize them as part of general learning strategies Khatib et al (2011) emphasize their importance in the language acquisition process According to Cameron (2001, p 92), these strategies encompass the actions learners engage in to enhance their understanding and retention of vocabulary.

According to O’Malley, Chamot, et al (1985a), vocabulary-learning strategies are utilized more frequently than other language learning activities These strategies encompass various techniques that learners consciously and subconsciously apply to enhance their vocabulary acquisition This broad definition includes a range of methods such as rote learning, keywords, association, grouping, context, guessing, dictionary use, application, and affixation, all of which contribute to the ongoing process of vocabulary learning.

In summary, vocabulary learning strategies involve techniques designed to enhance vocabulary acquisition This study focuses on 9th graders utilizing these strategies to effectively master vocabulary appropriate for their grade level.

2.3.2 Taxonomies of vocabulary learning strategies

Vocabulary learning strategies can be categorized into four main types according to Gu and Johnson (1996): memory strategies, cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, and activation strategies Each type plays a crucial role in enhancing vocabulary acquisition and retention.

According to Schmitt (1997), vocabulary learning strategies can be categorized into determination strategies and consolidation strategies Determination strategies are further divided into determination and social strategies, while consolidation strategies include cognitive, metacognitive, memory, and social vocabulary learning strategies Nation (2001) also classifies vocabulary-learning strategies into three main categories: planning, sourcing, and processing Planning strategies focus on how, where, and how often to direct attention to vocabulary items, source strategies involve obtaining information about words, and processing strategies pertain to developing word knowledge through noticing, retrieving, and generating techniques.

Oxford's (1990) taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies is recognized as a comprehensive framework, consisting of six key strategies: compensation, cognitive, metacognitive, memory, affective, and social vocabulary learning strategies This study aims to adopt Oxford's model to explore these diverse approaches to vocabulary acquisition.

Cognitive vocabulary learning strategies are essential techniques that learners employ to comprehend and effectively use a target language When it comes to vocabulary acquisition, learners must exert significant effort to grasp the meanings of new words and apply them in various contexts.

Metacognitive vocabulary learning strategies empower learners to enhance their language acquisition by activating their cognitive processes By employing these techniques, learners gain insight into their learning roles and explore various methods to achieve their vocabulary goals These strategies encompass planning, monitoring, evaluating, and adjusting their vocabulary learning approaches, ultimately leading to improved language performance.

Compensation vocabulary learning strategies are essential for beginners in language acquisition, as they help learners compensate for their limited vocabulary When faced with unfamiliar words, learners often rely on gestures, signs, and educated guesses to convey meaning effectively (Schmitt, 1997) This approach not only fosters communication but also encourages creative problem-solving in language learning.

Memory vocabulary learning strategies are techniques that help learners effectively remember and retrieve new vocabulary items These strategies focus on memorizing the spelling and pronunciation of words by creating mental linkages, employing imagination, and utilizing mechanical repetition By integrating these methods, learners can connect the spelling and pronunciation of new words, reinforcing their knowledge through repeated writing and practice.

Affective vocabulary learning strategies focus on helping learners maintain motivation and manage negative emotions during vocabulary acquisition Educators can support students struggling with vocabulary by encouraging them to engage in positive thinking, listen to music, reward themselves for achievements, and utilize checklists to organize their learning tasks effectively.

Social vocabulary learning strategies involve collaborative efforts among learners to enhance their vocabulary acquisition By interacting with peers, students can ask for definitions and verify their understanding of new words This cooperative approach fosters a deeper comprehension of vocabulary through shared knowledge and discussion (Oxford, 1990).

Table 2.2 Taxonomies of vocabulary learning strategies

(Gu and Johnson, 1996; Schmitt, 1997; Nation, 2001; Oxford, 1990 )

Activation vocabulary learning strategies Schmitt (1997) Determination strategies Consolidation strategies

Social vocabulary learning strategies learning strategies learning strategies learning strategies learning strategies learning strategies Nation (2011) Planning vocabulary learning strategies

Processing vocabulary learning strategies Oxford (1990) Memory vocabulary learning strategies

Acquiring diverse vocabulary learning strategies empowers students to choose their preferred methods for tackling new words Schmitt (1997) highlights that many learners utilize these strategies, particularly when compared to language tasks that require multiple linguistic skills, such as oral presentations, which involve composing content, ensuring clear pronunciation, and responding to questions.

In this study, we focus on cognitive strategies for learning English vocabulary In details, the effect of cognitive strategies on learning English vocabulary is presented

In general, there are many types of vocabulary learning strategies that learners can use in learning vocabulary This research will adopt cognitive strategies to help learners learn vocabulary

Vocabulary learning strategies training

Vocabulary strategy training is essential for learners, as it equips them with various vocabulary learning strategies Teachers are encouraged to implement this training, supported by models proposed by researchers such as Oxford (1990), O'Malley and Chamot (1990), Cohen (1998), Chamot et al (1999), and Macaro (2001) These models provide empirical guidance for educators on planning and executing vocabulary strategy instruction, focusing on key components and step-by-step procedures to enhance students' vocabulary learning The benefits of these frameworks include raising learners' awareness of their vocabulary acquisition processes, suggesting effective strategies, facilitating practical application, and providing opportunities for modeling and evaluating the use of these strategies.

Vocabulary strategy instruction plays a crucial role in enhancing learners' vocabulary training effectiveness There are two main types of vocabulary strategy instruction: implicit and explicit Explicit vocabulary strategy instruction significantly boosts learners' awareness of their strategy use, introduces new strategies, creates practice opportunities, provides models for effective strategy application, and aids in evaluating their strategy use In contrast, implicit vocabulary strategy instruction lacks specific guidance on learning outcomes from language tasks Research indicates that explicit vocabulary strategy instruction is more advantageous than its implicit counterpart (Wenden, 1987; Chamot & O'Malley, 1987; Oxford & Leaver, 1996; Cohen, 1998; Chamot et al., 1999).

To achieve success in language learning, it is crucial for learners to understand the significance of conscious learning, a concept supported by various researchers, including Chamot et al (1988), O’Malley & Chamot (1990), and Cohen.

In 1998, it was emphasized that learners should be aware of vocabulary strategy usage and adapt these strategies to meet the requirements of various vocabulary tasks Therefore, it is crucial to educate learners on the appropriate methods, timing, and rationale for employing vocabulary learning strategies By doing so, teachers can effectively empower students to utilize these strategies across different language activities and apply them to new vocabulary challenges during their training.

Vocabulary learning strategy training can be implemented either separately or integrated into the course content, with integrated training proving to be significantly more effective Research by Weden (1987), Chamot and O’Malley (1987), Oxford and Leaver (1996), and Chamot et al (1999) supports the incorporation of vocabulary learning strategy instruction into regular language curricula, emphasizing its greater value and effectiveness compared to isolated training This integrated approach engages learners in actual vocabulary tasks over an extended period, facilitating the internalization of strategies and enhancing their ability to apply these strategies to new vocabulary challenges.

Numerous researchers have conducted intervention studies in both first- and second-language contexts to explore the benefits of vocabulary strategy instruction on enhancing vocabulary skills These studies typically assess learners' progress following the implementation of such instructional strategies Additionally, comparisons have been made between the language performance of students who received vocabulary strategy instruction and those who did not The findings consistently indicate that strategy training positively impacts vocabulary instruction, highlighting its effectiveness and potential for promoting vocabulary development.

Mizumoto and Takeuchi (2009) conducted a study on explicit vocabulary strategy training, which resulted in significant improvements in vocabulary learning Their findings revealed that learners who received explicit vocabulary strategy training outperformed those who did not, highlighting the effectiveness of this teaching approach in enhancing vocabulary acquisition.

In conclusion, effective vocabulary acquisition can be achieved through targeted vocabulary strategies This study will implement cognitive strategies to train ninth graders, as supported by previous research demonstrating their effectiveness in enhancing vocabulary retention.

Cognitive strategies

The contextual guessing strategy enhances vocabulary learning by encouraging students to infer the meanings of unknown words using available clues This approach allows learners to piece together information, grasp the overall context, and effectively communicate messages, making it a purposeful alternative to traditional dictionary methods.

Gu and Johnson (1996, p 650) distinguish between two types of guessing among cognitive strategies: “guessing using a background or broader context, and guessing using linguistic or linguistic clues or instant scene”

In guessing strategy, learners enhance their reading skills by deducing the meanings of unfamiliar words through context clues (Knight, 1994) They can effectively guess new words by examining their parts of speech, roots, and affixes, as well as by considering cognates from their native language, allowing for a deeper understanding of vocabulary in context.

Dictionary strategies are essential for learners seeking to understand unfamiliar words When faced with a new term that cannot be inferred from context, students have the option to either overlook it or consult a dictionary Traditional grammar translation methods have long promoted the frequent use of dictionaries as a valuable resource As highlighted by Nation (2001, p 263), the effective use of dictionaries plays a significant role in language acquisition.

“intentional vocabulary learning methods rather than guesswork, often involves random vocabulary learning”

Many studies have shown that using a dictionary can improve reading comprehension and can lead to vocabulary development In three studies by Summers

Research indicates that English learners utilizing dictionaries achieve better scores in reading comprehension and vocabulary assessments A study of 112 Spanish learners revealed that those with dictionary access performed significantly better on vocabulary and comprehension tests post-reading While the differences in comprehension scores among more proficient learners are less pronounced, Gu and Johnson (1996) found that Chinese students actively engage with dictionaries, employing various "lookup" strategies that positively influence their lexical outcomes.

Note-taking strategies (NTS) are defined as the process of recording key ideas or specific points (Oxford, 1990) O'Malley and Chamot (1990) further describe NTS as capturing key words and concepts through words, images, or abbreviations to enhance comprehension during linguistic tasks Importantly, NTS is viewed as a cognitive strategy in language learning, distinguishing it from other methods like guessing or translation Research indicates that NTS is among the most commonly utilized cognitive strategies by second language (L2) learners (White, 1996).

A rehearsal strategy involves the repetitive practice of information to enhance learning When students are tasked with memorizing specific details, such as a list, they often resort to repetition to commit the information to memory This can include verbalizing words or recalling small pieces of information aloud Such repeated practice boosts familiarity with the material For many individuals, the need to remember important numbers, like social security or phone numbers, or even grocery items, serves as motivation to employ this effective drill strategy.

Encoding strategy: Encoding involves various techniques for moving new words into memory, such as analyzing, linking, and grouping

Analyzing target words through their Latin roots and affixes enhances vocabulary recall This method aids in learning unfamiliar words by linking them to familiar terms or known affixes Additionally, it serves as a tool to verify if a word has been accurately inferred from its context (Nation 1990, p ).

Nation (1990) identifies three essential skills for effectively utilizing vocabulary strategies: breaking down a new word into its components, understanding the meaning of each component, and recognizing how these meanings relate to the dictionary definition of the word This approach aligns with the keyword technique, which highlights the connection between a word's form and its meaning.

Linking new words to existing knowledge, such as prior experiences or familiar terms, enhances the memorization process Customizing images associated with these words can also aid in their retention, making it easier to recall new vocabulary effectively (Schmitt 2000).

Grouping words can enhance recall, as learners instinctively organize them into categories Arranging words strategically before memorization significantly boosts their memorization abilities (Cofer et al., 1966).

Activation is a cognitive strategy defined by Gallo-Crail and Zerwekh (2002, p.60) that emphasizes the importance of repetition and practice It involves engaging with sounds and writing, applying new language skills in diverse authentic scenarios, and utilizing references to enhance learning.

Diffuse activation refers to the process of activating a concept in long-term memory, which in turn activates related concepts based on meaning or usage According to O’Malley and Chamot (1990), "the availability of connections in long-term memory makes new information meaningful" (p 232) This strategy is crucial as it hierarchically links related concepts to the original idea, with activation depending on their relationships within the propositional network Anderson proposed that memory work could be defined as the range of nodes activated through propagation activation (O’Malley & Chamot, 1990, p 232) Ultimately, the trigger for this process is a learned response developed over time.

In conclusion, there are six cognitive learning strategies applied in learning language They are contextual guessing strategy, dictionary strategy, note-taking strategy, rehearsal strategy, encoding strategy, activation strategy

2.5.2 Cognitive strategy training in learning vocabulary

To ensure student success in vocabulary learning, teachers must implement effective vocabulary instruction, as emphasized by Feldman and Kinsella (2005) This includes providing students with various word learning strategies and enhancing their word consciousness Direct strategy teaching is crucial, as it highlights the importance and objectives of the strategies being taught Ultimately, educators should focus on fostering word consciousness and teaching effective vocabulary learning strategies, rather than simply delivering lists of words.

Effective cognitive strategy training for vocabulary acquisition goes beyond merely consulting a dictionary or using context clues; it requires a comprehensive approach This includes extensive reading of both fiction and non-fiction texts, direct instruction of key vocabulary, teaching strategies for independent word learning, and promoting awareness of words.

Table 2.3 Specific stages of the cognitive vocabulary strategy instruction

Effective vocabulary instruction is more than just

-Looking up words in the dictionary

-Using written context to figure out word

-Wide reading of fiction and non-fiction texts meanings

-Direct teaching of important individual words

-Teaching independent word learning strategies

Cognitive strategy training emphasizes that the learning process is active, constructive, cumulative, and self-directed, relying on learners' mental activities (Shuell, 1986) This training specifically targets learners' cognitive functions and vocabulary comprehension However, as Wipf (1984) notes, vocabulary learning is challenging to define due to its nature as an invisible mental process.

It shows that cognitive strategy training has positive relationship with vocabulary comprehension

Vocabulary retention

Vocabulary refers to the understanding of words and their meanings, encompassing both spoken sounds and their written representations Essentially, a word is a sound or a combination of sounds that conveys a specific meaning through communication.

Mastering a word involves understanding its meaning as well as its register, associations, collocations, grammatical behavior, written and spoken forms, and frequency of use These aspects collectively define what is known as "word knowledge" (Schmitt, 2000, p.5).

To enhance vocabulary learning and retention, instruction must involve thoughtful processing by learners Teachers should evaluate their vocabulary teaching methods and consider adopting a 'levels of processing' approach, as suggested by Craik and Tulving (1975), which emphasizes the importance of the depth of thoughtfulness in vocabulary acquisition.

Teachers should assess if students focus on multiple aspects of vocabulary, demonstrate creativity in word usage, and connect new words to their existing knowledge (Nation & Newton, 2009) Similarly, Schmitt and McCarthy (1997) emphasize that articulating reasons for word choices, verbalizing thought processes, and linking new vocabulary to familiar terms and personal experiences enhance deep processing, leading to more effective learning and retention.

The concept of 'encoding elaboration' was introduced to address the limitations of the 'depth of processing' theory The key distinction between these two frameworks is in their encoding operations; depth of processing emphasizes a continuous sequence of analyses aimed at learning, whereas elaboration prioritizes the quality of processing.

Retention of information is more closely related to the depth of processing rather than the duration it remains in primary memory (Craik & Tulving, 1975) Despite extensive empirical research on depth of processing and elaboration, these concepts have yet to be clearly defined and operationalized (Laufer & Hulstijn, 2001; Keating, 2008; Marmol & Sanchez-Lafuente, 2013).

In conclusion, vocabulary retention is essential for learners as it allows them to effectively remember and utilize words, facilitating language mastery This study employs cognitive strategies to enhance vocabulary retention among 9th graders.

Previous studies

In a study by Banisaeid (2013), the impact of memory and cognitive strategies on vocabulary acquisition was compared among a group of 60 intermediate Iranian learners of English as a foreign language The participants were split into two experimental groups, with a pre-test conducted to assess their vocabulary knowledge The first group of 30 students received training in mnemonic strategies, including keyword and semantic maps, while the second group underwent a different training approach The study utilized questionnaires to gather additional data on the participants' learning experiences.

A study involving 30 students demonstrated that teaching a new English word through cognitive training, specifically using memorization and repetition cards, yielded no significant difference in word learning outcomes between cognitive and memory strategy training for intermediate EFL learners The findings indicate that both memory strategy training and cognitive strategy training effectively enhance memory retention and the use of cognitive strategies in language learning.

Suyitno et al (2017) conducted a qualitative study to explore the cognitive learning strategies employed by foreign students in the BIPA program while learning the Indonesian language The research involved interviews and observations of participants, allowing the researchers to collect, classify, and interpret data effectively Findings revealed that BIPA students utilized a range of cognitive strategies, from understanding language structure and punctuation to more complex thought processes, adapting their approaches based on the specific learning tasks they faced Additionally, personal factors and the learning environment significantly influenced the students' choice of learning strategies.

Raximovna et al (2020) conducted a study to explore the impact of cognitive theory on vocabulary retention among ESL learners, focusing on memory challenges and solutions for recalling words in a second language The research highlights that systematic forgetfulness can arise from various factors, including interference and blocking processes The study involved seventeen-year-old students who often struggle with remembering English vocabulary, testing the hypothesis that visual texts or stories enhance both short-term and long-term vocabulary retention Findings indicate that using text or picture stories significantly aids in vocabulary preservation and improves speaking skills.

Yao (2020) examined the cognitive processes involved in vocabulary learning among English learners, summarizing key theories such as lexical knowledge, information processing, memory, and psychological transformation Based on these theories, a new teaching model focused on the cognitive aspects of vocabulary acquisition was developed A comparative study involving 60 freshmen at a Beijing university demonstrated that only the experimental group taught with this model showed significant improvement in vocabulary learning The findings identified three main cognitive processes: attention, perception, and output, indicating that the cognitive process-based teaching model effectively enhances learning strategies and vocabulary acquisition This research provides valuable insights for improving English vocabulary instruction in Chinese universities.

Tran and Gi (2018) conducted a study to explore English vocabulary learning strategies among Vietnamese high school students, utilizing both qualitative and quantitative methods for data analysis Data was collected through a questionnaire featuring open and closed questions, with participation from eighty 10th-grade students The findings revealed that students occasionally employed vocabulary-learning strategies in their English studies, with a notable preference for cognitive strategies These strategies included guessing word meanings through objects or pictures, contextual memorization, watching movies with English subtitles, and consulting peers for definitions.

Lac et al (2019) investigated the impact of cognitive reading strategy training on the reading performance of Vietnamese EFL students in an upper secondary school in Vinh Long province, Vietnam The study utilized an experimental research design involving 69 students, divided into a control group of 37 and an experimental group of 32 Data were collected through pre-tests, post-tests, questionnaires, and interviews The findings revealed that instruction in cognitive reading strategies significantly improved the reading comprehension of EFL students, who also expressed a positive perception of the necessity for reading strategy training.

Previous research highlights the effectiveness of cognitive strategies and other approaches in enhancing language learning, particularly vocabulary acquisition The findings indicate that these strategies contribute positively to the overall learning experience, with each method offering varying degrees of improvement for learners.

Previous studies have highlighted the impact of various strategies on enhancing language learning However, there has been a lack of research on learners’ attitudes toward these strategies This study aims to investigate the effects of cognitive strategy training on English vocabulary acquisition and to explore learners’ perceptions of using such strategies.

Conceptual framework of the study

Learners can enhance their vocabulary retention by employing various learning strategies This research focuses on the implementation of cognitive strategy training for acquiring English vocabulary, based on Gu’s (2010) theory Gu's framework emphasizes several effective strategies, such as contextual guessing, dictionary use, note-taking, rehearsal, encoding, and activation The selection of Gu’s theory is due to its comprehensive steps and straightforward approach, making it accessible for learners.

Summary

In summary, this chapter has examined theories related to language and language learning strategies, highlighting various strategies identified by numerous researchers This study specifically concentrates on the application of cognitive strategy training in language acquisition.

Students’ attitudes towards the effects of cognitive strategies Cognitive strategy training

Contextual guessing, dictionary, note – taking, rehearsal, encoding, activation Teaching and learning English vocabulary

This chapter explores various cognitive strategies that enhance vocabulary retention among learners, focusing on six key training methods: guessing, dictionary use, note-taking, rehearsal, encoding, and activation strategies It reviews previous research to highlight the impact of cognitive strategy training on vocabulary acquisition Additionally, this study uniquely examines learners’ attitudes towards cognitive strategy training, an aspect overlooked in earlier studies A conceptual framework is also included at the chapter's conclusion.

METHODOLOGY

Research design

This study aims to investigate the impact of cognitive strategy training on enhancing English vocabulary acquisition among grade 9 students at Nguyen Tri Phuong Secondary School, as well as their attitudes towards utilizing cognitive strategies in vocabulary learning A quasi-experimental design was employed to conduct this research.

Quasi-experimental research, as defined by Cook and Campbell (1979), resembles experimental research but lacks random assignment of participants to conditions This design is particularly valuable in human growth and development studies, as it allows researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables By applying a treatment to one group and comparing the outcomes with a control group, quasi-experimental designs offer a practical and feasible alternative to true experimental designs, making them more applicable in real-world contexts.

Experimental research enables researchers to evaluate the impact of quasi-independent variables in natural settings This process is structured into five key phases: identifying the research problem, planning the study, conducting the experiment, analyzing the data, and documenting the findings in a written report.

This study investigated the impact of cognitive strategy training on English vocabulary acquisition among 9th grade students at Nguyen Tri Phuong Secondary School, utilizing pre-test and post-test assessments, questionnaires, and interviews to gather data on the effectiveness of the training.

This study involved two groups: a control group that received no treatment and an experimental group that engaged in vocabulary learning using cognitive strategies The participants were not randomly assigned, and the experiment lasted for eight weeks.

A pre-test was administered prior to the treatment, followed by a post-test to evaluate students' vocabulary memorization abilities and overall progress in learning vocabulary The comparison of pre-test and post-test results aimed to assess students' responses to the teaching method Ultimately, these results provided insights into the effects of cognitive strategy training on enhancing NTPS students' English vocabulary learning.

The illustration of pre-test and post-test was presented in the model below:

To assess students' attitudes toward cognitive strategy training in vocabulary learning, the experimental group utilized a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews These methods aimed to gather insights into how students perceive the effectiveness of cognitive strategies in enhancing their English vocabulary acquisition.

Research site

The research took place at Nguyen Tri Phuong Secondary School, located at 42 Nguyen Lam, Ward 6, District 10, Ho Chi Minh City The school comprises two blocks, A and B, and features six professional groups, with a total of 89 teachers and staff members It serves 1,395 students across four grades and is equipped with 36 classrooms and 12 functional rooms to support its educational activities.

Experiment effective teaching and learning

The school's mission is to become the national standard in the coming years A study conducted within the English department, which consists of seven teachers, involved 288 ninth-grade students, focusing on two classes (9/3 and 9/4) with a total of 58 students The researcher, who is also the teacher for these classes, found that the current vocabulary teaching methods are ineffective, relying heavily on traditional, teacher-centered approaches Vocabulary is taught alongside other skills, with teachers writing new words on the board in both English and Vietnamese, requiring students to memorize them passively This method leads to student fatigue and hinders the development of independent and creative thinking, ultimately compromising the effectiveness of vocabulary retention.

Description of English textbook

The English program for grade 9 consists of 70 lessons throughout the academic year, with 36 lessons in the first semester and 34 in the second semester It is organized into 10 learning units, each featuring sections such as Getting Started, Listen and Read, Speak, Listen, Read, Write, and Language Focus Each unit typically spans 5 to 6 lessons, providing a comprehensive approach to language learning.

The "Getting Started" and "Listen and Read" sections provide students with a comprehensive overview of the unit's content Meanwhile, the "Speak, Listen, Read, and Write" sections focus on enhancing children's skills in common topics, and the "Language Focus" section reinforces essential grammar points for the lesson.

This study engaged students over 8 weeks, covering 4 lesson units (unit 2 to unit 5) and emphasizing the "Getting Started," "Listen and Read," "Speak," and "Listen, Read, Write" lessons, as these sections frequently introduce new vocabulary.

Certainly, learning and teaching vocabulary must be practiced through skills listening, writing, reading, and speaking In other words, through listening, writing, reading, and speaking lessons; vocabulary development was applied.

Sample and sampling procedures

This study focused on a sample of 288 ninth-grade students from Nguyen Tri Phuong Secondary School, specifically selecting two classes, 9/3 and 9/4, for analysis.

Purposive sampling, as defined by Taherdoost (2007), is a non-probability sampling technique also referred to as judgmental, selective, or subjective sampling This method depends on the researcher's judgment to choose specific subjects for study, such as 9/3 and 9/4 in this instance Typically, the sample size is relatively small compared to probability sampling methods.

For this study, the researcher focused exclusively on the 9/3 and 9/4 classes, as both exhibited similar traits, including limited vocabulary and a lack of cognitive knowledge The vocabulary test results from the first semester of the 2019-2020 school year indicated that students in these classes performed poorly (see Appendix H).

Due to the large population size, the research was limited to two classes, 9/3 and 9/4, which had varying levels of English proficiency Most students in these classes were found to have weak vocabulary skills and lacked cognitive knowledge The researcher implemented English language instruction based on the curriculum provided by the Ministry of Education and Training.

The study involved two groups of participants, each consisting of 29 memers aged 15 years The experimental group comprised 18 males and 11 females, while the control group included 14 males and 15 females All participants had over five years of experience in learning the English language The demographic details of the participants are summarized in the table below.

Table 3.1 Demographic information of participants

Variable Categories Number of participants

Research Instruments

To gather both quantitative and qualitative data for the research, three instruments were utilized: pre-test and post-test assessments, a questionnaire, and semi-structured interviews The pre-test assessed students' vocabulary knowledge prior to the treatment, while the post-test evaluated their vocabulary knowledge afterward The questionnaire aimed to explore students' attitudes toward cognitive strategy training in English vocabulary learning, and the semi-structured interviews served to validate the findings from the questionnaire.

A test is a numerical assessment of an individual's abilities, knowledge, or performance in a specific area (Brown, 2004) Conducting a pre-test serves to evaluate the dependent variable prior to applying the independent variable (Gay et al., 2009) In this study, the pre-test was utilized to assess students' vocabulary knowledge and their ability to complete exercises before the treatment was administered.

The pre-test consisted of 20 questions organized into three sections: 10 multiple-choice questions, 5 word form questions, and 5 reading text questions These questions focused on key vocabulary from Units 2 to 5 of the Grade 9 textbook The test was based on the Grade 9 English Practice exercise book, initially edited by the Vietnamese Education Publisher, which aligns closely with the format of the 10th-grade entrance exam This resource is a collaborative effort between the Education Publisher and the Department of Education and Training in Ho Chi Minh City.

Conducting an experiment is a crucial step in experimental research, where researchers must adhere to established and validated procedures (Cohen et al., 2007) In this study, the researcher focused on teaching essential vocabulary within the unit.

2 to unit 5 Each unit included five lessons, steps implemented in the process of teaching vocabulary as below:

Step 1 - Guessing strategies: the teacher came up with a list of new words, and asks students to work in groups They were required to identify the word type in the text, identify the prefix / suffix (if any), and look for surrounding words/ sentences to support them in word guessing

Step 2 - Dictionary strategies: the teacher asked the students to look up new words in dictionary The students should pay attention to word types, pronunciation, accent marks, synonyms/antonyms, derivatives, examples, expressions in the dictionary Step 3- Note-taking strategies: the teacher asked the students to write new words in their books, took note word types, accent marks, definitions, Vietnamese meanings, synonyms/antonyms (if any), expressions/ collocations (if any) In addition, the students should write an example with the adoption of new words

Step 4- Memory strategies - Rehearsal: the teacher required the students to read the new words together ; then read silently themselves

Step 5- Memory Strategies - Encoding: the teacher suggested students some such ways to memorize new words as linking new word to a known word, using mental image; or decomposing words into pre/suffix and stem The teacher required the students to give their ideas about each word

Step 6- Activation strategies: the students were asked form sentences with the new words they just learned or apply to the conversation

Students were assigned homework to enhance their vocabulary by copying each new word with three lines in English and one line in Vietnamese, a method known as rehearsal strategy However, in certain lessons, the initial step of guessing strategies was omitted due to a lack of contextual information for students to utilize effectively.

In term of number of vocabularies taught in each strategy, the research listed that total 145 words were taught in strategies of cognitive strategy training Specifically,

122 words, occupying 84.13% were taught in guessing strategy Total 145 words

(100%) were taught in dictionay strategy; note-taking strategy; memory strategy; and activation strategy

Table 3.2 Number of vocabularies taught in each strategy

The procedure of teaching vocabulary in each lesson lasts about 20 minutes

To investigate the impact of cognitive strategies on students' vocabulary retention, a post-test was employed as an effective measurement tool for assessing the dependent variables following the application of the independent variable (Gay et al.).

The post-test mirrored the pre-test in format and task types, featuring a total of 20 questions divided into three sections: 10 multiple-choice questions, 5 word form questions, and 5 reading comprehension questions Key vocabulary from Units 2 to 5 of the Grade 9 textbook, covered during training, was incorporated into the test Additionally, the Grade 9 English Practice exercise book served as a reference for question design.

Questionnaires are an effective data collection tool that allows individuals to complete them independently, minimizing the need for direct researcher intervention (Salkind, 2003) This method not only saves time and effort for both researchers and participants but also aims to gather insights into students' attitudes towards cognitive strategy training in English classes.

The questionnaire serves as the primary and effective tool in this study, enabling data collection from a large number of participants within a specific timeframe This written list of questions allows respondents to provide recorded answers, facilitating comprehensive analysis.

In 2015, it was highlighted that the decision to utilize a questionnaire is influenced by several key factors: the characteristics of the target respondents, the significance of reaching specific individuals, the need for untainted and accurate responses, the required sample size considering the anticipated response rate, the nature of the questions necessary for data collection, and the total number of questions to be asked.

To gather data for this study, 29 questionnaires were distributed to students in the experimental group to assess their attitudes towards the cognitive approach in teaching English vocabulary The questionnaires utilized a five-point Likert scale ranging from "Strongly disagree" to "Strongly agree" and were divided into two main sections Part 1 collected personal information, including age, gender, and years of English study, while Part 2 focused on the attitudes of participants towards cognitive strategy training, further categorized into two groups: (1) attitudes towards cognitive strategy training and (2) attitudes towards specific cognitive strategies In total, Part 2 contained 34 items, with 9 items in Group 1 and 25 items in Group 2, aimed at determining the effectiveness of various cognitive strategies for enhancing vocabulary learning.

The questionnaire was created in both English and Vietnamese to assist students in understanding the content of each question It was adapted from the studies of Gu (2010) and Vo Thi Ngoc Huyen (2019), with the researcher utilizing the questionnaire structure proposed by Vo Thi Ngoc Huyen (2019) for this study The questionnaire is organized into two sections, represented by Roman numerals, and incorporates statements related to various cognitive strategies as outlined in the research.

Gu (2010) to design the statements of each type of cognitive strategy in this study

Certainly, the researcher selected some suitable statements from the research by Gu

Semi- structured interview was employed in this current study at aim to cross check the data collected from experiment and questionnaire According to Guion

(2007), a semi - structured interview is a type of interview with an individual that aims to collect detailed information beyond initial and surface-level answers Great attention is paid to probing answers

Data collection procedures

Prior to the study, a pre-test was administered to three teachers and subsequently evaluated in a separate class of 30 students The findings from this pilot study informed the researcher’s decision to proceed with the official experiment.

In the first week, both two groups took the pre-test to ensure the same level The students worked within 15 minutes

Between weeks 2 and 9, the researcher conducted experiments involving two groups: an experimental group receiving cognitive strategies training and a control group using traditional methods The cognitive strategy training was implemented based on Gu's (2010) framework for vocabulary learning Students followed the English 9 textbook from the Ministry of Education and Training at Nguyen Tri Phuong Secondary School The lesson objectives, crucial for aligning with test aims, were identical for both groups, ensuring that the vocabulary items taught were the same Additionally, the lesson plans for both groups included consistent elements such as class description, time allocation, objectives, assumed knowledge, and anticipated challenges.

In week 10, both groups conducted a post-test that lasted 15 minutes Following this, the experimental group filled out a questionnaire, and five students from this group took part in interviews The test results were analyzed using SPSS software version 20.0.

The procedure of the experiment class is shown in detail in the table below:

Table 3.3 The procedure of the experiment group

Week 1 Pre-test on vocabulary Two groups 15’

Week 2-9 Instruct vocabulary learning with cognitive strategies training

Instruct vocabulary learning without cognitive strategies training

Week 10 Post-test on vocabulary retention

Questionnaire on the students’ attitudes Semi-structured interview

The experiment was specifically implemeted as below (Gu, 2010):

In the guessing strategies approach, students listen to a text before the teacher introduces key vocabulary They then work in small groups to identify the part of speech, prefixes, and suffixes, using context clues to infer meanings After discussing, students record the new words, and the teacher provides feedback on their understanding.

In the dictionary strategies approach, students utilized dictionaries to explore new vocabulary through various guessing techniques, focusing on aspects such as part of speech, stress, pronunciation, meaning, derivatives, and synonyms/antonyms Additionally, the teacher provided feedback on the students' responses to enhance their learning experience.

Note-taking strategies: The students were required to make notes of the new words

Students enhanced their vocabulary by repeating new words both after the teacher and independently The teacher introduced various memory strategies, including linking new words to familiar English terms, visualizing the words, analyzing their structure, and understanding word formation rules to aid memorization.

Activation strategies involve teachers posing questions related to the topic, encouraging students to collaborate in pairs to share their opinions This approach also prompts students to independently create sentences using new vocabulary, fostering engagement and deeper understanding of the material.

The author administered a questionnaire to an experimental group of 29 students at the end of their morning learning session, ensuring they felt comfortable while completing it Participants were given 15 minutes to answer the questions, and the researcher later collected the data from each class The return rate was impressive at 96.55%, with 28 valid responses received Students were encouraged to ask questions about any unclear items in the questionnaire.

The researcher conducted one-day semi-structured interviews with five students from the experimental group at NTPs to explore their attitudes and perceptions of cognitive strategies in vocabulary learning To foster a supportive environment, the researcher outlined the study's objectives and procedures, beginning with warm-up questions Each interview lasted between 10 to 15 minutes, held in a separate room to minimize interruptions The researcher encouraged questions from the students and utilized a smartphone to record their responses for accurate data collection.

Data analysis procedures

In a study examining the impact of cognitive strategy training on vocabulary improvement, students were randomly assigned to either a control group or an experimental group Both groups underwent a pre-test before receiving different instructional treatments Following the lessons, a post-test was administered to evaluate the results Descriptive Statistics were employed to assess the effectiveness of the cognitive strategy training, while the Independent samples t-test was utilized to compare the mean scores and standard deviations between the two groups in both pre-test and post-test assessments Additionally, the researcher applied the Dependent t-test to analyze the mean score differences within each group before and after the treatment, focusing on the same subjects for a comprehensive understanding of the training's impact.

This study involved documenting and analyzing students' responses to assess their attitudes toward cognitive strategy training in English classes The findings were summarized to provide a clearer understanding of the implementation of cognitive strategy training for vocabulary instruction among ninth-grade students at Nguyen Tri Phuong Secondary School.

The analysis of quantitative data was conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.0 Data collected from student questionnaires underwent a thorough process of inspection, sorting, cleaning, verification, and coding before being entered into the computer for descriptive analysis The primary focus of the data analysis involved descriptive statistics and Cronbach’s Alpha to derive insights related to the research questions.

The meaning of the mean scores for the students’ perceptions towards using cognitive strategy training for learning English vocabulary was interpreted as follows:

All responses from semi-structured interviews with students were translated and transcribed for analysis The qualitative data were organized into themes based on the study's variables and subsequently coded A content analysis approach was employed, involving three steps: familiarizing and organizing, coding and recoding, and summarizing and interpreting Students were identified by codes S1 to S5.

Ethical issues

Following the Examination Council's approval from Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, the researcher met with the principal and seven teachers at NTPS Secondary School to outline the research objectives and request permission to proceed After an hour of discussion, all parties reached an agreement, expressing enthusiasm and commitment to provide full support for the research The researcher assured adherence to ethical standards throughout the study.

The researcher ethically implemented cognitive strategy training to enhance vocabulary learning for the experimental group (class 9/4), while the control group (class 9/3) did not receive this training All treatment activities were conducted rigorously to ensure the integrity of the study.

Students are required to provide complete and accurate responses when filling out the questionnaire The research monitored the participants' progress from the beginning to the end of the questionnaire process, ensuring confidentiality as no one can view individual answers.

For the interview, each interview was required to come to the room and answer the questions from the interviewer The interviewing process was also implemented strictly and fully.

Reliability and Validity

3.9.1 Pre-test and post-test

Reliability is the consistency and dependability of an instrument, encompassing stability, internal consistency, and equivalence (Neuman, 2012) The validity of both the pre-test and post-test is confirmed through an examination of their accuracy (Chiang, Jhangiani, & Price, 2015) These tests maintained identical formats and requirements, consisting of three parts: selecting the best word or phrase, providing the correct form of words in brackets, and completing a passage with given words To ensure validity and reliability, two English teachers piloted the tests, followed by a rechecking process After administering the tests to students, the researcher, alongside the teachers, scored the results, with the researcher entering the data into Excel for further verification by the teachers.

To ensure the reliability and validity of the questionnaire, it was initially designed in English and then translated into Vietnamese for participant comprehension The researcher utilized the Vietnamese version to facilitate quick and accurate responses Prior to distribution, two English teachers reviewed the translation for accuracy Additionally, a pilot questionnaire was administered to 30 non-sample students to assess its appropriateness; any unclear questions were revised or removed based on their feedback.

The questionnaire utilized a four-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree), chosen for its practicality and accessibility This closed-ended format allows respondents to quickly express their opinions without the need for elaboration, facilitating the collection of quantitative data from large samples Additionally, the scale enables neutral responses, making the survey efficient and time-saving The questions were adapted from the studies of Gu (2010) and Vo (2019), aligning with the research objectives to ensure relevance and clarity.

A 2019 study explored attitudes towards cognitive strategy training by dividing the questionnaire into two subsections: one focusing on general attitudes towards cognitive strategy training and the other on specific types of cognitive strategies The interview questions were designed to assess participants' perspectives on cognitive strategies and their various forms.

To ensure the validity of the semi-structured interview questions, they were initially crafted in English and subsequently translated into Vietnamese The researcher conducted the interviews using the Vietnamese version to eliminate any language barriers for the interviewees, facilitating a smoother interview process.

Interviews were conducted to validate the experimental results and questionnaire findings while exploring interviewees' attitudes towards cognitive strategy training in English vocabulary learning Prior to the official semi-structured interviews, a pilot interview was performed with three students to assess the suitability of the questions.

The researcher utilized an iPhone to record all participant responses during the interviews, subsequently transcribing them onto paper To ensure accuracy, two English teachers were consulted to verify the transcriptions Prior to analyzing the data for the research paper, the responses underwent a thorough rechecking process.

In this research, reliability statistics were utilized twice: initially to select items from the pilot questionnaire for inclusion in the main questionnaire, and subsequently to eliminate items that lacked consistency with other items within their respective factor groups.

3.9.5 Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of questionnaire

The reliability of the questionnaire items was assessed using Cronbach’s Alpha in SPSS, with a threshold of 0.70 or higher indicating reliability, as per Johnson and Christensen (2012) Consequently, any items with a coefficient below 0.70 were removed To further ensure reliability, all collected information from literature and interviews was verified by students, teachers, and the head of the Foreign Language Faculty.

As can be seen from table 3.4, Cronbach’s Alphas of questionnaire were 0.765, which showed higher 0.70 This meant that the research was reliable

Table 3.4 Cronbach’ s Alpha of questionnaire

Instruments Cronbach’s Alpha Number of items

Questionnaire piloting is essential for researchers to identify and address potential issues with the survey instrument before its official use Through trial runs, feedback is gathered on the questionnaire's functionality (Cohen et al., 2007; Dornyei, 2003 & 2007; Mackey & Gass, 2005) Based on insights gained from piloting, adjustments were made to finalize the questionnaire A pilot test was conducted with 30 ninth-grade students from NTPS, excluding classes 9/3 and 9/4, to ensure the reliability of the items for the main study Reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha via SPSS 20.0, with most items adapted from the works of Gu (2010) and Vo Thi Ngoc Huyen (2019) It is important to note that the data from the pilot questionnaire was not utilized in the main study.

Table 3.5 Reasons for conducting a pilot test (Cohen et al, 2007)

Issues addressed at the pilot test

1 To check clearness and adequaness of instruction

2 To check clearness of layout

3 To check clearness of he questions

4 To examine the types of the questions and their format

5 To check adequacy of the response categories provided for the close questions and multiple choice items of the questionnaire

6 To know which questions are too difficult, too complex, and too remote from the respondents’ experience

7 To understand the overall appearance and attractiveness of the questionnaire

8 To check time and mental effor required for completing the questionnaire

Thirty students from class 9/5 at NTPS participated in a pilot questionnaire consisting of 36 items This questionnaire assessed students' attitudes towards cognitive strategy training, with 9 items focusing on cognitive strategy training and 27 items on various types of cognitive strategies After conducting the pilot, two items from the second section (items 26 and 27) were removed due to students' lack of understanding.

As a result, the main questionnaire included 34 items (I included 9 items; and II included 25 items)

3.9.6.2 Pilot pre-test and post-test with two English teachers

Two English teachers collaborated with the researcher to conduct a pilot pre-test and post-test The pilot pre-test comprised 25 questions, divided into three parts: 15 questions in Part I, five in Part II, and five in Part III However, after analyzing the pilot pre-test results, it was determined that questions four and eight needed revision.

Due to the inappropriateness of questions 10, 11, and 15 in Part I, a total of five questions were removed Consequently, the official pre-test now consists of 20 items, with Part I containing 10 items, Part II featuring 5 items, and Part III also comprising 5 items.

For the pilot post-test, the pilot test also included 25 questions (part I included

The official post-test was finalized to include a total of 20 items, structured into three parts: Part I with 10 items, Part II with 5 items, and Part III with 5 items Following a pilot post-test, five questions were deemed inappropriate and subsequently removed, specifically questions 1, 3, 5, 9, and 11.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

th grade students at NTPS

CONCLUSION