INTRODUCTION
Backgrounds of the study ããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããã 1
The demand for English proficiency among learners has increased, yet many face significant challenges, particularly in achieving fluency during interactions and idea expression Fluency is a key criterion in speaking assessments, reflecting the ability to communicate effectively within time constraints Many learners struggle with fluency due to the influence of their mother tongues and conventional language use, which hampers their speaking abilities In contrast, native speakers often utilize a variety of formulaic chunks and collocations in their speech Consequently, there has been a growing focus among educators and researchers on the teaching and learning of collocations, highlighting their crucial role in enhancing learners' academic speaking performance.
Collocations present challenges for both teachers and learners due to their complexity (Peccina, 2008) They involve the combination of two or more words to form a meaningful chunk (Celcia-Murcia, 2010) This integration plays a crucial role in generating natural meaning within utterances However, the meanings of specific collocations cannot always be deduced from their individual components, and cultural factors may hinder learners from grasping the intended message fully.
Interpersonal communication encompasses both speaking and writing, as noted by Zaalabawi and Gould (2017) This perspective challenges the principle of compositionality, which suggests that the meaning of an utterance is derived from the meanings of its individual components, as proposed by Fromkin et al (2017).
Burns and Seidlhofer (2010) highlight that speaking is a crucial productive skill in language education, presenting challenges for both teachers and learners Effective communication necessitates not only linguistic proficiency but also socio-cultural understanding (Byram, 1997; Nguyen and Nguyen, 2019) The concept of intercultural communicative competence emphasizes the ability of language users to adapt their communication styles to meet the needs of speakers from diverse social and cultural backgrounds (Byram, 1997) This competence involves anticipating, analyzing, and generating suitable interactions within the target culture (Nguyen & Nguyen, 2019), requiring authentic cultural exposure to effectively adjust language and behavior in real-world contexts.
Collocation knowledge significantly enhances language competence, enabling learners to use vocabulary naturally within the context of the target language culture (Farrokh, 2012; Choice et al., 2018; Richards & Rogers, 2001) Despite its importance, many learners struggle to memorize and apply collocations effectively in their writing and speaking (Nguyen Thi My Hang & Webb, 2017) As productive skills, writing and speaking increasingly require soft skills for effective communication, mastering speaking remains particularly challenging for most learners.
3 taking process to foster the cognition of speaking and produce the suitable expressions with little hesitation or just a few pauses.
Statement of the problem ãããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããã 3
The lack of focus on productive skills, particularly speaking performance, has led to a deficiency in competent English speakers, as noted by Hoang (2018) At DongNai Technology University, this issue is evident, with ineffective EFL teaching practices failing to meet the desired outcomes for high school graduates (Winstone et al., 2020) The emphasis on reading, grammar, and vocabulary has created an imbalance, leaving learners confused and anxious when transitioning to higher education Many students, accustomed to grammar translation methods in high school, struggle with memorizing words in isolation, influenced by Vietnamese culture, which results in unnatural expressions and inappropriate socio-linguistic usage Consequently, despite extensive instruction in grammar and vocabulary, learners' speaking performance remains inadequate.
The rationales behind this study are threefold Learners’ spoken fluency has been inhibited by many factors; one of which has been the use of English collocations which
The study investigates the differences between native and second language users, focusing on how collocation instruction can enhance spoken fluency and communicative performance in tertiary education within the private sector This insight will enable the educator to refine teaching methods and activities for long-term improvement Additionally, understanding learners' challenges is crucial for the teacher/researcher to assess and enhance the overall teaching process, particularly in light of the observed disparities in speaking performance among students in previous courses.
This research aims to enhance English speaking performance among learners at DongNai Technology University by investigating the effects of collocation instruction within the framework of the IELTS test, a highly regarded assessment aligned with the Common European Framework for Reference (CEFR).
Research aims and objective ããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããã 4
This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of teaching collocations on learners’ academic speaking performance at DongNai Technology University The objectives of this study are mentioned as follow:
- To examine the impact of teaching collocations on learners’ academic speaking performance
- To explore the learners’ perception towards the usefulness of collocation training in academic speaking development
- To identify the challenges in learning English collocations from learners’ perspective
Research questions ããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããã 5
To achieve the objectives above, this study endeavours to answer the following research questions:
Research question 1: What are the effectiveness of teaching collocation on EFL learners' speaking performance?
Research question 2: What are EFL learners' perceptions towards the effectiveness of teaching collocations for speaking performance?
Research question 3: What are possible challenges in learning collocations from learners’ perspective?
Significance of the study ãããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããã 5
In today's globalized world, language learners face heightened expectations to excel in communicative performance Merely focusing on linguistic competence falls short in facilitating effective interpersonal communication.
The shift from teacher-centered to learner-centered approaches in education has gained traction across various institutions This study employs backward design, linking learning outcomes to delivery methods, and aims to enhance the TESOL field by addressing the research gap in teaching collocations to boost learners' speaking performance The findings on the impact of collocation training will serve as a crucial reference for educators and researchers in similar contexts, guiding the development of vocabulary training in collaborative programs Furthermore, the study offers valuable insights into learners' perceptions of collocation learning.
6 academic speaking for teachers Learners’ perceptions are significant as a source of motivation in second language acquisition (Swan, 2015)
This case study is crucial for helping teachers implement a model that enhances learners' communicative performance By utilizing collocations, educators can gauge students' ability to use language naturally for academic purposes Additionally, exploring the challenges learners face in mastering collocations enables teachers to tailor lessons that alleviate these difficulties Ultimately, these insights are vital for the effective teaching of English as a foreign language.
Scope of the study ãããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããã 6
This thesis focuses on the effects of teaching collocations on learners' oral communicative competence for academic purposes, given the constraints of time and human resources It does not address other language skills such as reading, listening, and writing, which fall outside the study's scope The sample population was selected based on specific criteria.
Definition of key terms
There are a number of key terms whose meanings are shaped in consideration of the scope of the study
Collocation: The group of words that appear together to form a natural version of meaning
Speaking performance: The learners’ ability in finishing the speaking section in the IELTS test
Fluency: The extent to which learners can perform in speaking without pauses or hesitation.
Preview of the organization ãããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããã 7
The structure of this thesis report includes five major chapters
Chapter 1 – Introduction, provides key backgrounds, problems, rationales, objectives, research questions, and thesis structure
Chapter 2 – Literature Review, reports key literature on collocations, speaking, collocational knowledge, teaching and learning approaches to collocations It also summarizes past studies concerning the features of collocations in learners’ spoken communication and the effects of collocation instruction on learners’ language development
Chapter 3 – Research Methodology, states the research methods, participants, instruments, data collection and data analysis procedure
Chapter 4 – Results, describes results of data collection, expresses further explications and shows links to previous studies
Chapter 6 – Conclusion, briefs key findings, limitations, and implications
LITERATURE REVIEW ãããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããã 9
Definitions of collocations ãããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããã 9
Teaching collocations is a well-established topic in academia, yet their interpretation varies geographically and over time According to the Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics (2002, p.87), collocations are defined as "the way in which words are used together regularly." For instance, in English, the verb "perform" is typically paired with "operation," as in "The doctor performed the operation," rather than with "discussion." This example highlights how certain word combinations are frequently used by language speakers Essentially, collocations represent the rules that learners must internalize for effective communication in everyday contexts.
From the linguistic perspective, Petrovic et al (2010) state that collocations are
Linguistic phenomena arise when words frequently appear together by chance, making their meanings difficult to interpret based solely on their individual components This highlights the challenges that collocations present for many second language learners, as they often struggle to grasp these common word combinations.
Many language learners struggle with the contextual inference of meaning, leading to word-for-word translations of English collocations (Fan, 2009) Unlike typical language use, collocations defy the principles of compositionality outlined by Fromkin et al (2017), where the meaning of a phrase is usually derived from its individual components For instance, while "tall" and "high" can be synonymous, native speakers prefer "tall man" over "high man," demonstrating that collocations are not just about grammatical correctness but also about practical appropriateness in real-world usage.
Hence, the linguistic analysis is not sufficient to explain the comprehension in spoken communication and word choice in English
The idea that collocations are correlated with the co-occurrence of words has been supported by many researchers such as Firth (1957), Halliday (1961), Nation
Cognitive linguistics and psycholinguistics provide insight into how collocations are stored and processed in the human brain These collocations help us organize our knowledge of words based on their frequency of use (Yule, 2010) Schmitt and Celcia-Murcia emphasize the significance of this organization in understanding language.
Collocations are defined as words that frequently occur together, such as "black coffee" and "strong coffee" (2010, p.9) These combinations are typically learned in chunks and are commonly used by native speakers Understanding collocations involves grasping the fixed rules governing their usage (Nation, 2001) However, merely recognizing collocations passively does not ensure effective application in practice, as a deep comprehension of their meanings is essential (Hunter & Smith, 2012).
Collocations, as defined by Pecina (2008), encompass five essential aspects: grammatical boundedness, lexical selection, semantic cohesion, language institutionalization, and frequency and recurrence These combinations of words form associations that language users find difficult to dissect or alter Grammatical boundedness highlights the constraints on collocation usage, which differ from traditional grammar rules; for instance, native speakers prefer "raise" over "increase" to convey awareness, despite both being correct Lexical selection emphasizes the importance of choosing appropriate words based on context rather than personal assumptions Semantic cohesion connects the form of an expression to its meaning, while language institutionalization reflects the varied usage of collocations across different native-speaking regions Finally, frequency and recurrence distinguish collocations from ordinary word choices, as they must appear regularly in spoken language to be recognized as collocations.
Hornby (2000, as cited in Zaalabawi & Gould, 2017) described collocations as an idiomatic feature of English, highlighting their unique role in language Unlike traditional idiomatic expressions, which often have a fixed meaning, collocations allow for flexibility in word choice while maintaining a specific form of expression Essentially, collocations are combinations of words that native speakers find natural, reflecting their co-occurrence in everyday language.
Collocations are specific combinations of words that sound natural to native speakers, while not all word combinations qualify as collocations This distinction highlights the importance of naturalness in language, which is often difficult to define but is generally recognized by its familiarity and acceptance within the English-speaking community (Jiang, 2000) Variations in these combinations can lead to unnatural sounds, underscoring the significance of using accepted collocations for effective communication.
Collocations refer to the combination of two or more words that commonly occur together in fixed phrases, frequently used by native speakers in both spoken and written contexts These combinations can vary in length and often include more than two words, such as combinations of verbs and nouns The consistent presence of collocations in native speech highlights their importance, leading researchers to focus on them This study specifically aims to emphasize lexical collocations over grammatical ones.
This selection is based on two main reasons: firstly, the definition aligns with the researcher's objectives, focusing solely on learners' use of collocations without delving into other linguistic aspects Secondly, as the participants are EFL learners, the emphasis is placed on primary collocations.
Classifications of collocations ããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããã 11
In terms of the nature of collocations’ components, Pecina (2008) mentioned that the associations between words tend to be categorized into semantic non-compositionality
(the exact meaning of collocations cannot be inferred from its components), syntactic non-modifiability (the syntactic structures are fixed), and lexical non-substitutability
(lexical components cannot be replaced) (p.2) Hence, collocations can be grouped
12 according to three aspects: semantic relationships, syntactical structure, and lexical components
Several attempts have been made to classify collocations and related concepts, as noted by Pecina (2008) Čermák (2001) identified two key linguistic distinctions for categorizing lexical combinations: stableness (stable vs unstable) and regularity (regular vs irregular) These distinctions can be further intermingled to form an additional category.
There are a number of examples that can represent the aforementioned diversity of collocational terms
-terminological collocations (multiword technical items)
Eg, travel agency, sulphuric acid
-proprial collocations (multiword proper names)
Eg, Canary Islands, Great Britain b irregular idiomatic collocations (idioms and phrasemes)
Eg, lie fallow, just to
-common collocations (grammatical-semantic combinations)
Eg, summer vacation, easy answer
-analytic form combinations (analytic forms)
Eg, would go, was subscribed
-individual metaphoric collocations (authors’ metaphors)
Eg, bitingly funny, viral games
-random adjacent combinations (adjacent occurrences)
Eg, inside an apartment, that in other combinations (babble)
Language/ Parole e common established collocations
Eg, wash hands, board the train”
Van der Wouden (1997, as cited in Pecina, 2008, p.20) classified collocations in another way He focused on word combinations and denote collocations as fixed expressions and free combinations
“a) free combinations – lexical components freely go together
Eg, a murder + verbs, like to analyze and to describe b) collocations – loosely fixed combinations between idioms and free combinations
Eg, commit a murder c) transitional combinations – fixed collocations whose components reflect the whole meaning
Eg, to catch one’s breath d) idioms -fixed collocations whose components cannot reflect the whole meaning
Eg, to kick the bucket e) proverbs/ sayings – fixed sentences whose meanings are more frozen than idioms
Eg, a friend in need is a friend indeed f) compounds – totally fixed phrases with no possible variations
Another classification was given by Moon (1998, as cited in Pecina, 2008, pp.20- 21) as follows
“a) anomalous collocations (problems of lexicogrammar)
+ ill-formed collocations- syntagmatically or paradigmatically unusual
Eg, at all, by and large + cranberry collocations – idiosyncratic lexical component
Eg, in restropect, kith and kin + defective collocations – idiosyncratic lexical component
Eg, in effect, foot the bill + phraseological collocations – occurring in paradigms
Eg, in/into/out of action, on show/display b) formulae (problems of pragmatics)
+ simple formulae – routine compositional strings with a special discourse function
Eg, alive and well, you know + sayings – quotations catch-phrases, truism
Eg, an eye for an eye, a horse, my kingdom for a horse + proverbs (literal/ metaphorical) – traditional maxims with deontic functions
Eg, enough is enough, you can’t have your cake and you eat it
Eg, as good as gold, live like a king c) metaphors (problems of semantics)
+ transparent metaphors – expected to be decoded by real-world knowledge
Eg, behind someone’s back, pack one’s bags + semi-transparent metaphors – special knowledge required for decoding
Eg, on an even keel, pecking order + opague metaphors – absolutely-compositional
Eg, bite the bullet, kick the bucket”
Sag et.al (2002, as cited in Pecina, 2008, pp.21-22) divided collocations according to two aspects: lexicalized phrases and institutionalized phrases
“A) lexicalized phrases – have at least partially idiosyncratic syntax or semantics, or contain words which do not exist in isolation
1 fixed expressions (e.g by and large, in short)
2 semi-fixed expressions a non-decomposable idioms (e.g kick the bucket, trip the light) b compound nominals (e.g car park, part of speech) c proper names (e.g San Francisco, Great Britain)
3 syntactically-flexible expressions -exhibit a much wider range of syntactic variability a verb-particle constructions (e.g write up, brush up on) b decomposable idioms (e.g let the cat out of the bag, sweep under the rug) c light verbs (e.g make a mistake, give a demo)
B) institutionalized phrases – syntactically and semantically compositional but statistically idiosyncratic, they occur with significantly high frequency (in a given context) (e.g traffic light)”
According to Jackson (2007, as cited in Zalaabawi & Gould, 2017, p.22), collocations can be categorized into two main types: lexical and grammatical Lexical collocations involve the combination of content words, including verb-noun pairs like "make a discussion," adverb-adjective pairs such as "deeply concerned," adjective-noun combinations like "heavy smoker," and verb-adverb pairs such as "whisper softly." In contrast, grammatical collocations focus on the pairing of content words with prepositions, exemplified by phrases like "interest in" and "independently of."
Collocations are categorized in various ways based on research objectives and language areas, focusing on their semantic and syntactic properties Researchers often classify collocations into sub-categories, considering morphological and pragmatic features for different grouping methods This study adopts a straightforward classification of collocations into lexical and grammatical types, as it facilitates easier data analysis and aligns with the primary goal of examining learners' spoken fluency rather than exploring the diverse types of collocations.
Speaking and its issues ãããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããã 16
According to Harmer (2007), speaking is a productive skill where learners generate their own oral output Traditional teaching methods often emphasize receptive skills like reading and listening, neglecting the importance of speaking in communication To effectively connect listening and speaking, both teachers and learners must make concerted efforts in the language acquisition process.
Burns and Seidlhofer (2010) highlighted that speaking is our basic skill necessary for daily communication but requires much more attention when it comes to teaching and
Learning a language involves understanding both linguistic elements, such as pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary, as well as paralinguistic elements, including social and cultural contexts These contexts contribute to the diversity of English usage across different English-speaking regions, with social norms influencing how expressions are formed according to cultural rules Furthermore, cultural identity plays a crucial role in enriching language use, adding unique variations to expressions.
Speaking poses a significant challenge for many EFL learners, as highlighted by Burns and Seidlhofer (2010), who note that spoken interaction requires a different approach to language production and negotiation compared to writing In these interactions, both speakers and listeners—referred to as interlocutors—actively engage in the creation and comprehension of language They utilize both verbal and non-verbal cues, often adjusting their language to fit specific contexts and time constraints, all aimed at ensuring that listeners fully grasp the intended messages.
When it comes to teaching speaking, there has been two contrasting views (Burns and Seidlhofer, 2010, pp.207-212) as follows
Speaking pedagogy primarily focuses on sentence-level analysis, as highlighted by Cook (1989, cited in Burns & Seidlhofer, 2010) This approach emphasizes the importance of formal grammatical knowledge and sub-skills essential for effective communication It involves diagnosing and evaluating specific speaking elements rather than real-life communication Additionally, it utilizes isolated sentences for learner training and lacks the ability to assess speaking performance beyond the sentence level.
The opposing perspective emphasizes the importance of practical communication skills in speaking classes This approach prioritizes communicative competence, utilizes scripted dialogues as authentic materials for learners to observe and practice spoken language in context, and aims to enhance learners' communicative repertoire, equipping them for real-life interactions.
Effective speaking is closely linked to a learner's understanding of collocations (Shin & Nation, 2007) The ability to effortlessly use collocations directly correlates with higher speaking proficiency levels This relationship is evident in the Band Descriptors of various language proficiency speaking assessments, such as the Lexical Resource criteria in IELTS Speaking.
Test takers can achieve a band score of 8 to 9 by effectively utilizing less common vocabulary and idiomatic expressions, which are closely tied to their understanding of collocations The use of collocations significantly impacts speaking performance (Nguyen Thi My Hang & Webb, 2017).
The significance of collocations in speaking performance ããããããããããããããããããããããã 18
The application of high frequency collocations is essential to enhance the foreign language speakers’ fluency in interpersonal communication Wolter & Yamashita
Research indicates that both first and foreign language speakers process multiword sequences more quickly than single words (2018) Fluency, defined as the ability to produce speech in real-time with minimal pauses or hesitation (Ellis, 2012), is assessed through analytical rubrics that measure factors like production rate, pause frequency, and pause duration (Mueller, 2011) Familiarity with collocations enhances processing speed and response rates in communication, enabling speakers to produce utterances more rapidly than when relying solely on single words.
2.4.2 The vocabulary development in collocation training
Understanding collocations is essential for language learners, as approximately 70% of English expressions involve these word combinations Mastery of lexical collocations enhances speaking proficiency by exposing learners to common patterns and chunks, ultimately broadening their semantic understanding Lexical competence serves as a key indicator of language proficiency, requiring learners to select the most suitable words for effective communication Furthermore, collocations play a vital role in enriching vocabulary acquisition, influencing learning strategies for improved performance in real-world contexts.
2.4.3 The driver for cultural sensitivity
There are no fixed rules for collocation establishments in English as collocations emerge in the frequencies of habitual uses of the combinations of words (Yule, 2010)
Collocations vary due to dialects and colloquial expressions, arising from groups of words that frequently occur together Learning collocations enhances the naturalness of expression, making it more “native-like” (Nation, 2004, p 38) Additionally, the inference of meanings is influenced by context, with contextual meanings often differing from the primary definitions of words (Gablasova et al., 2017; Harmer, 2015) Consequently, using low-frequency collocations can lead to misunderstandings among speakers who use English as a lingua franca.
2.5 Possible issues in learning collocations
Collocational knowledge is crucial in EFL teaching and learning, as collocations make up about 70% of spoken language (Hill, 2000, as cited in Farrokh, 2012, p.66) Mastery of collocations is essential for achieving fluency in English (Bahns & Eldaw, 1993) and demonstrates a learner's ability to communicate like a native speaker (Shin & Nation, 2007; Basan, 2017) Effectively using collocations enhances both receptive and productive language skills, making learners sound more natural in their speech.
EFL learners often struggle with collocations, which can hinder their language acquisition (Nguyen Thi My Hang & Webb, 2017, p.5) Various studies have identified common collocation errors in both spoken and written work Specifically, learners frequently find verb-noun and adjective-noun collocations particularly challenging.
Cultural differences and diverse linguistic structures significantly impact language interpretation and communication The cultural background of a speaker influences how expressions are understood, often leading to biases rooted in personal experiences Additionally, the interference of a first language when learning a second language presents challenges for effective communication, particularly in academic speaking contexts, where clarity of ideas is crucial for successful exchanges.
Szudarski (2017) reported different learning approaches or strategies employed by EFL learners to acquire collocations These involve (a) intentional learning, (b) incidental learning, (c) psycholinguistic approaches, and (d) corpus approaches
Intentional learning encompasses diverse activities that enhance knowledge acquisition Learners can experience input flood or improvement, where they encounter numerous collocations in context, especially within texts, accompanied by a variety of exercises to reinforce understanding.
21 relating to the collocations They also experience input modification where the teachers modify the language input by highlighting or emphasizing to catch learners’ attention
Explicit instruction plays a crucial role in learning collocations, emphasizing the phonological and orthographic aspects of language By focusing on the sounds of word combinations, learners can effectively enhance their understanding of collocations Intentional learning aligns with this explicit instruction, as learners purposefully acquire collocations to improve their language skills.
Incidental learning occurs without prior awareness, as learners engage in communicative activities or meaning-focused tasks like listening and reading This learning process is influenced by various factors, including the frequency of exposure to collocations, interaction with L2 materials, cognitive strategies employed by learners, and the educational context While there is limited evidence on the most effective learning methods, some studies have shown the effectiveness of incidental learning.
Psycholinguistic approaches focus on the strategies learners employ to acquire collocations, utilizing methods such as eye-tracking, memory tests, and priming Additionally, direct translational equivalents between the first language (L1) and the second language (L2) can assist learners in differentiating between congruent and incongruent collocations.
Recent advancements in corpus-based approaches have emerged due to the growing popularity of corpora, with online tools proving beneficial for learners These tools provide access to lists of frequently-used collocations, a method known as data-driven learning (Sun, 2003, p.83) By utilizing authentic data from English cultural materials in both spoken and written forms, learners and teachers can reference expressions categorized by year, frequency, and context This approach enables learners to discern the existence of certain expressions within English culture, highlighting that while some grammatically correct phrases may not be commonly used or recognized.
Totally, there has no definite answer to the question what type of learning is more powerful, yet all the approaches help underpin the significance of collocations in L2 use
Rogers (2018) highlighted the lack of an optimal method for teaching collocation knowledge to learners, noting that EFL students often struggle with collocation fluency, which may be overlooked by teachers due to time constraints or limited resources While corpus-based word lists could be beneficial, there is a need for more extensive lists of high-frequency collocations The advent of new technologies, such as advanced corpora and concordance software, presents opportunities to enhance collocational teaching techniques.
The initial action should be made is that teachers select congruent collocations to teach
Achieving this goal can be challenging without a dependable tool An illustrative example can be found in the Corpus of Contemporary American English (Rogers, 2018, p.3).
19.2% early in the [ordinal/ cardinal number] century”
Teaching collocations requires an understanding of the frequency of specific phrase combinations It is essential to view colligation as a flexible grammatical category rather than just a single lexical item, which allows for a more effective approach to teaching collocations (Rogers, 2018, p.3).
Accordingly, frequency tends to be useful for teachers to directly instruct their learners Furthermore, the instruction should aim to learners’ not only fluency but also accuracy
To achieve both, Rogers (2018) recommended that teachers should consider the semantic transparency, clear meanings, of the collocations in addition to the frequency
To prevent collocation errors among learners, it is essential to provide clear explanations of the hidden meanings behind word combinations This is crucial because some collocations cannot be directly translated into the learners' native language and cannot be understood merely through their individual components.
Such key points lead the teachers to these following criteria in teaching collocations, stated by Rogers (2018, pp.4-6)
(a) Identify useful collocations to teach learners thanks to their high frequency, congruency, and semantic transparency
(b) Employ high-technical tools such as corpora or concordance software to consider the colligation of collocations
(c) Give one clear-cut example of collocations in case of short teaching time rather than delivering too many
(d) Provide learners with enough opportunities to learn and apply the collocations in specific contexts
(e) Combine useful materials with teachers’ teaching techniques, taking consideration of real educational contexts, to conduct a successful lesson
The empirical benefits of collocation instructions on speaking performance ãã 23
The analysis of collocations has been conducted in various institutional contexts with different approaches to figure out the most appropriate techniques or methods to
24 learners in English speaking performance, The studies have obtained certain positive and negative impacts on learners performance and their perception
2.7.1 The perceptions of learners in collocation training
Teaching collocation facilitated students to develop positive attitudes to English language learning First of all, they were able to learn more autonomously (Wu, 2015)
Wu's study examined the positive attitude shifts of 20 Taiwanese elementary EFL learners following explicit collocation training The learners showed a strong preference for collocation instruction, as highlighted by Antle (2015) This positive perception encourages actions aimed at improving speaking performance, as noted by Wu (2015) and Antle.
Antle (2015) conducted an action research study to investigate alternative methods for teaching verb-noun collocations to low-proficiency Japanese EFL learners The study aimed to assess learners' perceptions of how collocation instruction affects their spoken fluency, measure improvements in speaking performance after 15 weeks, and evaluate teaching procedures for collocations Utilizing questionnaires, field notes, and audio recordings, the research involved three groups of participants: Toyo 1 (41 students), Toyo 2 (153 students), and HUE 1 (43 students) Results revealed a strong preference among learners for collocation teaching, highlighting the necessity of productive tasks for enhancing speaking skills, although some students encountered challenges with specific types of collocations.
Wu (2015) investigated the shifts in perceptions of 20 Taiwanese elementary EFL learners following explicit collocation training, utilizing an online collocational database during instruction The study employed various instruments, including pre- and post-15-item 5-point Likert scales, semi-structured interviews, and cloze and multiple-choice pre/posttests Results revealed that participants exhibited more positive attitudes towards learning English and demonstrated improved learning outcomes.
25 autonomously Wu summarized that the instruction of collocations had a significant effect on learners’ language performance
A study conducted by Hoang Thi Dung (2016) at Son Tay High School in Vietnam examined the effects of teaching collocations on vocabulary retention among 46 11th graders The experimental group (EG) received collocation training, while a control group (CG) of the same size did not Utilizing pretests, posttests, and questionnaires, the research found that the EG significantly outperformed the CG in vocabulary test scores Additionally, the EG demonstrated a positive attitude towards collocation training, indicating that it enhanced their focus on learning collocations.
The use of collocation instruction across different patterns is crucial for exploring collocation accuracy and its relationship with language exposure (Marcis & Schmitt, 2016; Xu, 2015).
In addition, similar applications in different contexts have resulted in higher level of linguistic awareness and academic performance of EFL learners (Basan, 2017; Chen,
In a quantitative study conducted by Xu (2015), the relationship between collocation use and oral English proficiency among 356 Chinese EFL graduate students was examined through two speaking exams, TEACH and SPEAK, taken between 2006 and 2011 The research focused on ten specific syntactic patterns of lexical collocations, which include adjective-noun, adverb-adjective, adverb-verb, noun-noun, noun of noun, verb-noun, noun-verb, phrasal verb-adverb, noun-phrasal verb, and others.
Participants demonstrated improved collocation accuracy during their initial exam as teacher's assistants conducting demo-lessons Xu emphasized the necessity for examiners to closely analyze learners' collocational performance in spontaneous speech, noting that the connection between collocation usage and oral performance may differ across various contexts.
Marcis and Schmitt (2016) identified several reasons for the collocational errors made by Chilean EFL learners in their study involving 107 students from three universities Utilizing a mixed-method approach, the researchers conducted a meaning-recall test and a questionnaire, revealing that participants exhibited limited collocational knowledge, achieving only 33% correct answers A significant factor influencing this outcome was the learners' language experience; increased exposure to the language led to better recognition of collocations This language experience included the duration spent in English-speaking countries, time dedicated to reading, and academic study at universities.
Pham Thuy Dung (2016) conducted a study on the effectiveness of online collocational tools, specifically http://www.netspeak.org and http://www.linggle.com, in helping learners self-correct collocational errors in academic writing The research involved 25 sophomore English majors at Foreign Trade University Hanoi during the second semester of the 2015-2016 academic year Utilizing a survey design that included a pre-questionnaire and post-interview, the study aimed to assess how these websites could enhance learners' autonomy in revising collocational errors The findings revealed a positive shift in learners' willingness and self-efficacy to self-correct their collocation usage in writing.
The research by Basan (2017) demonstrated the effectiveness of using online tools to train learners to use collocation This quasi-experimental study employed four
In a study conducted during the 2013-2014 academic year at a Turkish state university, 53 upper-intermediate freshmen in an ELT department were divided into two groups to assess the impact of online tools on collocational knowledge The control group (CG), consisting of 6 males and 19 females, did not utilize any online resources, while the experimental group (EG), made up of 4 males and 24 females, engaged with 27 online instruments such as The Academic Word List and Google Docs To evaluate their performance, participants completed a pretest, an immediate posttest, and a delayed posttest consisting of 50 question items The results demonstrated that the EG significantly outperformed the CG in collocational knowledge, as indicated by statistically significant differences in test scores.
In a study by Chen (2017), the use of various collocation types among 194 Chinese EFL learners was examined through an analysis of their written compositions and follow-up interviews The research involved college freshmen, sophomores, and juniors, focusing on verb-noun, noun-noun, and adjective-noun collocations Findings revealed inconsistencies in the learners' collocational improvements, indicating that even advanced learners require greater awareness of low-frequency collocations The study highlights the need for enhanced instruction on collocation usage in EFL contexts.
2.7.3 The challenges in learning collocation
Research has identified negative effects on learners' understanding of collocation, including misconceptions (Makinina, 2017; Tran Minh Hoang, 2018) and complexities associated with collocation (Mohammadi & Enyanati, 2018).
Makinina (2017) conducted a mixed-method study to explore the factors influencing collocation recognition among L1 and L2 speakers, identifying potential constraints that hinder learners from using collocations fluently and accurately The research involved two stages: initially, five participants, including advanced bilinguals, emergent bilinguals, and monolingual English speakers, completed a reading comprehension test followed by interviews to uncover their strategies for identifying false collocations In the second stage, 90 L1 and L2 speakers took a reading comprehension test and a post-survey The findings revealed several factors impacting false collocation recognition, including the predominance of English, length of residence, vocabulary-learning strategies, attention focus, and inherent language patterns.
Tran Minh Hoang (2018) conducted a case study at a Vietnamese university's Faculty of English Linguistics and Literature to investigate learners' perceptions of academic verb-noun collocations The study involved 72 sophomore English majors, aged 19 to 23, from whom 6 voluntary interviewees were selected through purposeful sampling The findings from semi-structured interviews revealed that these intermediate-level English learners held misconceptions about both academic and non-academic verb-noun collocations, primarily due to insufficient instruction and practice.
Mohammadi and Enayati (2018) employed a mix-method study to investigate the impacts of lexical chunk instruction on Iranian EFL learners’ oral fluency Aged
In a study involving 29 intermediate EFL learners at Shebab Language Institute, participants were divided into two groups of 30 members each: a control group (CG) and an experimental group (EG) The control group was instructed using the grammar translation method alongside a textbook, while the experimental group received different instructional strategies.
The conceptual framework ããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããã 31
Figure 2.1.: The conceptual framework of internal relationships of factors in the study
Figure 2.1 depicts the internal relationships of factors analyzed in the study, highlighting the correlations and impacts of implementation This conceptual framework is derived from previous research on collocation instruction and its effects on learners' speaking performance The enhancement of oral communication skills among learners, facilitated by collocation instruction, is linked to extensive exposure to lexical and grammatical chunks, supported by authentic materials from a corpus-based approach and positive learner perceptions.
Teaching collocation in second language acquisition enhances fluency and lexical resource, allowing learners to engage with real-world corpus-based data from written and spoken materials This approach enables students to explore vocabulary through functions like frequency analysis, contextual usage, and collocation checking, which fosters natural language expression As learners improve their proficiency, they become more independent, reducing reliance on teacher support and increasing confidence in their learning processes The recall of collocations aids in producing contextually appropriate speech acts, emphasizing the importance of backward design in lesson planning for effective collocation instruction Despite challenges such as collocation complexity and time constraints, this model cultivates cultural sensitivity by utilizing authentic materials and contextualizing language use.
Summary ãããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããã 32
Previous studies have utilized various methodologies, with mixed-methods and quasi-experimental designs being prevalent in educational contexts To effectively report on learners' speaking improvements through collocation instruction, more investment in time and effort is essential, particularly in action research that allows for the manipulation of multiple data sources and deeper reflection Additionally, exploring the barriers to learning collocations is crucial for refining teaching procedures and enhancing long-term educational outcomes.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããã 33
Research design ããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããã 33
This study at DongNai Technology University explores the impact of collocation instruction on enhancing university learners' academic speaking performance Utilizing a mixed-method approach that combines qualitative and quantitative research, the study aims to deliver more precise and dependable data by analyzing multiple factors that affect the outcomes.
Mixed methods research provides valuable insights by integrating qualitative and quantitative data, as noted by Creswell & Creswell (2018) This approach leverages the strengths of both research dimensions to effectively address the complexity of the subject matter (Harris, 2020) Consequently, such a study can objectively track the progressive development of learners following the implementation of collocation instruction.
The study utilized a quasi-experimental design to examine the impact of collocation instruction on the academic speaking performance of the experimental group (EG), comparing it to the traditional teaching method used with the controlled group (CG) In the traditional approach, the researcher relied solely on the course book and supplementary materials, following the Presentation-Practice-Production (PPP) model.
In the study, the experimental group utilized COCA and focused on collocation instructions, contrasting with the traditional method where vocabulary was elicited for meaning and usage practice This traditional approach aligned with a weaker interpretation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), emphasizing increased exposure to enhance speaking performance through free and controlled practices Conversely, the experimental group employed a bottom-up, task-based method, encouraging learners to explore and identify vocabulary from corpora for communicative tasks like presentations and debates, thereby reinforcing the strong vision of CLT where language is learned through usage Following the identification of collocations, teacher consultations were available to address challenges, and peer assessments were implemented to enhance classroom management due to the large number of learners.
The study utilized a quasi-experimental design, involving convenient samples of students from the researcher, rather than random group assignments (Creswell & Creswell, 2018) A diagnostic test was administered to assess participants' speaking proficiency levels before the course commenced The experimental group (EG) received collocation instruction, while the control group (CG) continued with traditional teaching methods throughout the writing course At the course's conclusion, both groups took a post-test to evaluate their speaking proficiency improvements at DongNai Technology University Additionally, a questionnaire was conducted to gather insights on learners' perceptions of the effects of collocation instruction and the challenges faced in acquiring these skills.
35 speaking and a semi-structured interview to gain insights into the results of the questionnaire.
Research site ãããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããã 35
The study conducted at DongNai Technology University in Vietnam features a collaborative program divided into two semesters: Spring and Fall, each lasting four months Students with an IELTS score of 5.5 or higher are admitted directly into core subjects for Business Administration (BA) or Computer Science (CS) Those without an official IELTS transcript must take the test within a year of enrollment The English as a Foreign Language (EFL) program consists of five levels, from Intensive English 1 (IE1) to Intensive English 5 (IE5), with students placed in appropriate classes based on a placement test In Intensive English 1, students focus on fundamental language skills, and by Intensive English 5, they receive instruction aimed at achieving at least an IELTS score of 5.5.
The study involved first-year learners over an eight-week period, totaling sixty-four hours of instruction, with classes held four days a week for two hours each day The researcher delivered lessons focused on IELTS speaking skills, dedicating approximately 20% to 25% of the sixteen hours of speaking training to collocations Initially, the learners were at a pre-intermediate level according to the Common European Framework for Reference (CEFR) The course aimed to enhance the learners' speaking performance specifically for IELTS speaking part 2 (Individual long run), with expected outcomes targeting intermediate to upper-intermediate proficiency levels, equivalent to scores of 5.0 to 5.5 in IELTS speaking.
36 for the sample IELTS speaking test) The course book was Mindset for IELTS -
Student’s book 1 by Archer et al (2017) published by Cambridge University Press.
Sample and Sampling procedure ããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããã 36
The study initially included a maximum of 55 learners, with 54 in the experimental group (EG) and 52 in the control group (CG), exceeding the 30-participant threshold necessary for reliability (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2000) However, one student withdrew from the course, resulting in a final total of 29 participants in the study.
Table 3.1 Number of participants attended in each section of the study
Pre-test Post-test Questionnaire Interview
EG CG EG CG EG EG
No of participants in each section 54 52 54 52 54 5
The participants in the study were selected conveniently when the thesis author was assigned two classes for the term, ensuring that the author had not previously interacted with the learners, which minimized subjectivity in the sampling process The participants were organized into two classes based on their preferred schedules.
Participants were already familiar with the learning culture at the research site, having completed several previous courses there.
In order to enter the course, all those students had to pass the final test of Level
4 to prove their language proficiency of at least pre-intermediate (CEFR) to be
A total of 37 participants enrolled in this Level 5 intensive training program, highlighting the significance of English proficiency as a key factor influencing the success of the approach The background details of the participants are presented in the table below.
Table 3.2 General information of the research participants
School of study Public school 69 65%
Table 3.2 presents an overview of the research participants' backgrounds, highlighting their diverse demographic characteristics, including previous language training, age, and gender A total of 106 participants were involved in the study.
In the study, male participants comprised 30% of the total sample, while females made up 70% Most participants, 92%, had eight years of English learning experience and were 19 years old at the time of the research, with the remaining participants being 18 years old and having seven years of experience Additionally, 65% of the participants attended public schools, where English was a compulsory subject focused on reading and grammar, while those from private schools benefited from greater exposure to productive skills such as speaking and writing.
The participants were assigned to two classes without teacher intervention, based on their formal examination results This division facilitated the researcher's use of purposeful sampling for practical implementation (Harris, 2020).
Research instruments ãããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããã 39
This mixed-methods design adopted a number of qualitative and quantitative instruments in the study
Test (Pre-test/ Post-test)
At the start of the course, participants completed a diagnostic IELTS-style pre-test to gather data on their performance The speaking test lasted approximately 14 minutes and consisted of three parts, assessing four main criteria: fluency and coherence, lexical resource, grammatical range and accuracy, and overall fluency However, to align with the study's objectives, the focus was primarily on evaluating the frequency and accuracy of learners' use of collocations during their performance.
The marking criteria includes (1) fluency and coherence, (2) lexical resource, (3) grammatical range and accuracy, and (4) pronunciation
Fluency in speech involves maintaining normal levels of continuity, rate, and effort while effectively linking ideas to create coherent communication Key indicators of fluency include speech rate and continuity, while coherence is characterized by logical sequencing of sentences, clear transitions in discussions or arguments, and the use of cohesive devices such as connectors, pronouns, and conjunctions to enhance clarity within and between sentences.
This criterion assesses the breadth of vocabulary and the clarity of meaning conveyed Key indicators include the diversity of word choice, the suitability of the selected terms, and the ability to paraphrase effectively to bridge vocabulary gaps, whether with or without noticeable pauses.
Grammatical range and accuracy are essential for effective communication in spoken language Key indicators of grammatical range include the complexity and length of sentences, the proper use of subordinate clauses, and the variety of sentence structures to emphasize information Meanwhile, grammatical accuracy is measured by the frequency of errors in speech and their impact on communication.
This criterion assesses the ability to deliver clear and understandable speech during the Speaking test Key indicators include the level of difficulty experienced by the listener, the proportion of unintelligible speech, and the extent of influence from the speaker's first language (L1).
A analytical rubric in speaking assessment is attached in the appendix
Following the experiment, learners completed a post-test formatted similarly to the pre-test but covering different topics To maintain the assessment's reliability and validity, the researcher selected questions from authentic IELTS tests for both the pre-test and post-test This approach ensured a consistent level of difficulty, thereby guaranteeing a correlation between the pre-test and post-test results.
Following the pre-test, participants were divided into two groups: a controlled group (CG) that received traditional lexical training in speaking, and an experimental group (EG) that was taught collocation instruction in speaking The experiment spanned eight weeks, totaling sixteen hours of instruction.
The training structure consists of 41 hours of in-class instruction, complemented by homework and project assignments, emphasizing an outcome-based approach In this model, in-class training is designed to account for one-third of the total learning time, with self-study comprising the remaining two-thirds.
The classroom lessons were designed to align closely with the learning outcomes, ensuring a cohesive relationship between objectives, teaching methods, and assessment Learners were given themes and allowed to select their preferred topics for activities, which enhanced motivation and engagement by placing them at the center of the learning process (Brown, 2010) Collaborative learning was emphasized through pair and group tasks, encouraging students to exchange ideas and deepen their social and cultural understanding of the subjects Activities included a variety of formats, such as presentations, discussions, and debates.
The tasks were developed using Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT), which emphasizes real-life language use to enhance speaking skills To ensure authentic collocations in teaching, a corpus-based approach was utilized, referencing the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) and the British National Corpus (BNC) Throughout the course orientation and lessons, the researcher accessed these corpora to illustrate the frequency, context, and practical usage trends of collocations to the learners.
The study utilized the course book entitled Mindset for IELTS - Student’s book 1 by
Archer et al (2017) published by Cambridge University Press This course book is the
The course included a fundamental and compulsory element that could not be altered, but the researcher was permitted to adapt materials from both the textbook and external sources to better fit the class's needs This adaptation aimed to enhance teaching effectiveness by considering learners' characteristics (Tomlinson, 2014) Additionally, online teaching tools such as Quizizz and Google Classroom were incorporated into classroom activities and assignments To ensure quality, validity, and reliability, the authentic IELTS test was utilized, which is backed by the test providers' guarantees.
The survey consisted of three main sections: the first gathered demographic data from participants in the experimental group, while the second employed a four-point Likert scale to assess students' agreement with 20 statements regarding their perceptions of the usefulness of teaching collocations for speaking improvement The exclusion of a neutral option was intentional, as neutrality can lead to indecisive responses (Creswell & Creswell, 2018) Additionally, two open-ended questions allowed respondents to share their personal challenges in learning English collocations To enhance comprehension, a Vietnamese version of the questionnaire was also provided.
In addition, the reliability and validity of the questionnaires were ensured with the adaptation of Savari’s questionnaire (2018)
A semi-structured in-depth interview of about 15 minutes conducted online with 5 participants in the experimental group to gain more insights into the possible reasons
The interview utilized open-ended questions to encourage participants to express their ideas, ensuring a comprehensive learning experience (Creswell & Creswell, 2018) To enhance reliability and validity, the researcher adopted an anonymous interview format by disabling the camera, which helped reduce anxiety and bias among participants, thereby optimizing data objectivity (Harris, 2020) Additionally, the interview questions were reviewed by five experts within the institution to gather feedback for further refinement and validation.
Data collection procedure ãããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããã 43
The performance of all participants was documented through pre-test and post-test scores, which were analyzed descriptively Two faculty lecturers evaluated and scored each participant based on specific assessment criteria The pre-test, conducted before the course began, served as a diagnostic tool to record learners' initial performance levels.
After the period of eight weeks, a final examination as a posttest was conducted in two groups All the documents were also recorded for further comparison with the pre-test
Participants in the experimental groups received printed questionnaires consisting of 20 items to assess their perceptions of collocation instruction and the challenges they faced in learning English collocations post-course The completion time for the questionnaire was approximately 20 minutes.
44 which was sufficient and comfortable for the participants with the absence of the researcher to allow learners to give objective responses to the questionnaire
Five comprehensive online interviews, lasting approximately 25 minutes each, were conducted to delve into participants' insights regarding the underlying factors and opinions on implementation All interviews were digitally recorded for analysis To enhance the validity of the interviews, the questions were reviewed and refined based on feedback from five experts within the institution.
Data analysis procedure ããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããããã 46
The test performance recordings and interviews were transcribed for comprehensive qualitative and quantitative analysis The researcher utilized SPSS version 20.0 to analyze the descriptive statistics derived from the collected data.
The study utilized SPSS to analyze scores across overall performance and four criteria for both the experimental group (EG) and control group (CG), assessing the correlation between them Additionally, transcribed recordings were quantified by counting collocations used during tests, along with a comprehensive error analysis To evaluate the impact of collocation instruction compared to traditional methods, an independent Paired Sample T-test was conducted, focusing on mean, variance, and standard deviation (Descombe, 2017) A significance level (p-value) below 0.05 indicated statistical significance, affirming the validity of the findings.
To minimize researcher bias in the analysis, participants in the questionnaire were assigned codes ranging from A1 to A54 The data gathered from the online questionnaire were entered into SPSS, where both ordinal and nominal items were converted into numeric values for effective interpretation and analysis of the quantified data.
The quantification of data aimed to estimate the average score for the value of attitudes of the participants towards different statements in the questionnaire
The open-ended questions were the foundation for the investigation in the in- depth interview
The interview was effectively conducted to align with the research questions, focusing on uncovering hidden factors and facilitating self-expression that questionnaires could not capture (Creswell & Creswell, 2018) Its objective was to delve into the role of psycho-motor factors and to elicit deeper insights from participants regarding the effects of the newly implemented method.
The study conducted by Saito and Liu (2021) involved analyzing interview recordings to identify factors influencing learners' acquisition of English collocations Using content analysis, the researchers transcribed and summarized the data, identifying themes through coding, which standardized the qualitative information into main ideas These codes were then grouped into common categories, ensuring accuracy by cross-referencing with the transcription to eliminate irrelevant items The interview transcription also removed distractions like pauses and noise, allowing for a critical evaluation of the data This flexible investigation method enabled the researcher to adapt questions based on responses, serving as a complementary tool to the questionnaire (Bell & Waters, 2014).