INTRODUCTION
The necessity of research
Climate change poses a significant challenge in the 21st century due to its global origins and long-term consequences While the Earth's climate has naturally changed over millions of years, human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, are now recognized as the primary drivers of recent global warming This rise in temperature and alterations in precipitation patterns threaten food and water supplies, leading to the extinction of numerous plant and animal species Additionally, climate change contributes to rising sea levels, resulting in the loss of low-lying areas Beyond environmental impacts, it also jeopardizes human development and prosperity.
Developing countries face greater vulnerability compared to developed nations due to their limited adaptive capacity, weak regulatory frameworks, and heavy reliance on natural resources To achieve sustainable development goals, these countries require assistance from others, making foreign aid—defined as the international transfer of capital, goods, or services from governments or NGOs—crucial for enhancing prosperity The effectiveness of foreign aid projects significantly contributes to global sustainable development efforts.
The Vietnamese Mekong River Delta (VMD), situated in southern Vietnam, is home to approximately 17.27 million residents and spans nearly 4 million hectares, with 67.5% designated as agricultural land (Vo & Huynh, 2014).
The Mekong Delta is a global hotspot for climate change, facing numerous hazards such as sea-level rise, salinization, inundation, water scarcity, and altered temperature and precipitation patterns These climate-induced challenges have severely impacted agricultural and aquaculture activities, undermining sustainable development in the region and leading to significant migration flows in southern Vietnam.
Vietnamese government adopted many official documents towards achieving sustainable development on both national scale and regional scale Some of them are "Viet Nam Sustainable Development Strategy for 2011-2020" (Prime Minister,
In recent years, Vietnam has outlined its commitment to sustainable development through key documents such as the "National Action Plan for the Implementation of the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda" (2012) and "Resolution number 120/NQ-CP on Sustainable and Climate-Resilient Development of the Mekong Delta" (2017) These initiatives provide clear guidance for various projects aimed at fostering sustainable growth However, due to limitations in capital and human resource capacity, the Vietnamese government has sought assistance from foreign sources to effectively implement these initiatives.
Various donors, including the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, Japan International Cooperation Agency, and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit, have initiated Official Development Assistance projects to aid local governments and communities in the VMD However, there is growing concern regarding the overall effectiveness of these foreign aid initiatives, as well as the driving forces and factors influencing their success The limited research on these issues in the VMD highlights the need for a comprehensive study to better understand the challenges and improve aid effectiveness in the region.
The research questions and hypotheses
Table 1.1 shows the research questions and hypotheses of the study
Table 1.1: Research questions and hypothesis of the study
- What are the main issues affecting sustainable development in the past, present, and future in the Mekong Delta in Vietnam?
- Many issues are affecting sustainable development in the VMD, in which climate change is one of the main issues in the past, present and future
- How is the effectiveness of foreign aid projects for climate change response and sustainable development in the Mekong
- What are the driving forces and factors affecting foreign aid effectiveness in the VMD?
International aid projects often fall short in promoting sustainable development in the VMD amidst climate change challenges, primarily due to misaligned priorities, an overemphasis on Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and uneven financial distribution among provinces.
- Aid allocation, fund, coordination between stakeholders, law/ policy, and human resources are driving forces and factors affecting international aid effectiveness in the VMD
- How to improve the foreign aid projects' effectiveness for climate change response (CCR) and sustainable development in the VMD?
- Efforts from all stakeholders are needed for effective foreign assistance projects
- Projects should be focused on main climate change issues at present and in the future and prioritized in the most vulnerable areas to climate change in the VMD
Research objectives and tasks
The research's objectives and tasks are described in Table 1.2 n
Table 1.2: Objectives and tasks of the study
Ob1: Clarifying main issues affecting sustainable development in the past, present, and future in the
- Collecting data about natural, socio-economic features, issues in the VMD
- Collecting data about climate change scenarios, climate change impacts in the study area
- Interviewing with experts, local people
- Narrative analysis to identify central issues in the past, present, and future in the VMD
Ob2: Assessing the effectiveness of foreign aid projects for CCR and sustainable development in the VMD, and identifying driving forces and factors affecting foreign aid effectiveness in the VMD
- Collecting foreign aid projects' information in the research area
- Collecting reports on the effectiveness of finished foreign aid projects
- Collecting data of the situation before and after implementing foreign aid projects in some areas within the VMD
- Conducting interviews with experts, local people for assessing the effectiveness of aid projects from stakeholders’ point of view
- Classifying foreign aid projects based on location, fund, focusing issue, etc
- Descriptive analysis to describe the focusing issues of foreign aid projects
- Visualizing the aid projects' distribution
- Inferential analysis to assess the effectiveness of foreign aid projects
- Interviewing with experts, staff of international donors, local authorities to identify driving forces and factors affecting aid effectiveness
- Describing several case studies to investigate the effectiveness of foreign aid projects, and identify driving forces and factors affecting n
Objectives Tasks foreign aid effectiveness in the VMD
Ob3: Proposing solutions, recommendations to improve the effectiveness of foreign aid projects for CCR and sustainable development in the VMD
- Collecting data related to solutions, recommendations to improve the effectiveness of foreign aid projects for CCR and sustainable development at the international level and national level
- Interviewing with experts, staff of international donors, local authorities to propose recommendations
- Proposing solutions, recommendations after considering previous studies and conclusions
Objects and scope of the research
This research focuses on the effectiveness of foreign aid projects for CCR and sustainable development in the VMD
This research covers an eleven-year period from 2010 to 2020, focusing on foreign aid projects aimed at climate change resilience (CCR) and sustainable development within the VMD region Data collection for this study was conducted from December 2020 to May 2021.
Matrix of learning outcomes for the master's thesis
This study could lead to several results and outcome listed below:
- Result 1 (R1): Main issues affecting sustainable development in the VMD
- Result 2 (R2): Arguments on the effectiveness of foreign aid projects for CCR and sustainable development; and driving forces and factors of aid effectiveness in the VMD
- Result 3 (R3): Solutions, recommendations for the effectiveness of foreign aid projects in the VMD
- Outcome 1 (O1): References for sustainable development in the VMD n
Table 1.3: Relations between results of the Master's thesis and MCCD's
PLOs Results of the Master's thesis Other outcomes
PLO1 Accumulating and mastering general knowledge about administration and management PLO2 Mastering the fundamental, interdisciplinary knowledge to address actual problems related to CCR for sustainable development at a local level
PLO3 Identifying, analyzing, assessing, and forecasting the issues related to
PLO4 Planning and approaching the works in the field of CC;
Implementing the solutions on mechanism, policy, and finance for n
PLOs Results of the Master's thesis Other outcomes
R1 R2 R3 O1 implementing solutions for CCR and SD
PLO5 Having skills of cooperation with personal, agencies, organizations domestically and internationally PLO6 Working and researching independently; having skills of research and development
Using the necessary computer skills proficiently; working and researching independently; having abilities of research and development
Using skills of research and development to propose solutions, recommendat ions
PLO7 Being dynamic, confident, persistent, enthusiastic, and risk-taking and management
PLO8 Having a social/ community's responsibility and professional morality n
PLOs Results of the Master's thesis Other outcomes
PLO9 Having responsibility for researching
Having responsibility for researching, creating new knowledge, and offering new ideas on CCR
Literature review
This study concerns some concepts, including climate change, CCR, sustainable development, foreign aid, and aid effectiveness
Climate change refers to significant alterations in climate patterns, characterized by long-lasting changes in average conditions and variability over decades or more (IPCC, 2018) It can result from both natural processes and human activities, leading to global warming, rising sea levels, and an increase in extreme weather events (MONRE, 2016).
CCR encompasses both climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies Climate change adaptation involves adjusting to current or anticipated climate impacts to minimize harm or leverage positive opportunities, often facilitated by human intervention in natural systems Conversely, climate change mitigation focuses on reducing greenhouse gas emissions or enhancing carbon sinks to combat climate change effects (IPCC, 2018).
Sustainable development was first officially introduced by the World Commission n
The Brundtland Report (1987) introduced the concept of sustainable development, emphasizing the need for humanity to meet current needs without jeopardizing future generations' ability to do the same This approach advocates for a holistic organization of society across various global fields to ensure long-term viability Numerous sustainable development models exist, highlighting the integration of social, economic, and environmental dimensions In 2015, all United Nations member states committed to 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aimed at addressing critical issues, including poverty (SDG1), hunger (SDG2), health (SDG3), education (SDG4), gender equality (SDG5), clean water (SDG6), affordable energy (SDG7), economic growth (SDG8), innovation (SDG9), reduced inequalities (SDG10), sustainable cities (SDG11), responsible consumption (SDG12), climate action (SDG13), marine life (SDG14), terrestrial ecosystems (SDG15), peace and justice (SDG16), and global partnerships (SDG17).
Liberalization has enabled the influx of international assistance to developing countries, characterized by the transfer of money, goods, or services from governments or international organizations This foreign aid can take various forms, including humanitarian or development assistance, and may be official, private, or non-governmental, as well as bilateral or multilateral in nature (Huang & Pascual, 2018).
To effectively monitor aid projects aimed at achieving the Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals, the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the OECD introduced the "Five DAC Evaluation Criteria," which include relevance, effectiveness, efficiency, impact, and sustainability.
In 2005, the OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) established ten criteria for evaluating aid effectiveness, which were later refined in 2019 to six key criteria: relevance, coherence, effectiveness, efficiency, impact, and sustainability These criteria are widely recognized by thirty member countries, including Australia, Canada, and the United States, as well as six observers such as the Asian Development Bank and the United Nations Development Program The effectiveness of aid projects is determined by the achievement of their objectives and their relative importance Since 2005, various initiatives aimed at enhancing aid effectiveness have emerged, notably the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness and the Busan Partnership for Effective Co-operation, which outline five fundamental principles to guide effective aid practices.
- Ownership: Developing countries set their own development policies, strategies and coordinate development actions at all levels
- Alignment: Donors bring their support base on developing countries' strategies, institutions, and procedures
- Harmonization: To avoid redundancy, donors coordinate their actions, streamline procedures, and share information
- Managing for results: Developing countries and donors manage resources and improve decision-making for results
- Mutual accountability: Donors and developing countries are accountable for development results
Recently, in the Sustainable Development Goals Era, those principles are still restated by countries confirming the Addis Ababa Action Agenda in 2015 n
This study examines the impact of international donor aid projects on climate change resilience (CCR) and sustainable development in the Mekong Delta (VMD) It highlights various challenges, both global and local, that hinder sustainable development in the region The research aims to evaluate the effectiveness of foreign aid contributions to promoting sustainability in the VMD.
Many official documents have been created to orientate activities for climate-resilient and sustainable development in the VMD, particularly "Viet Nam
Figure 1.1: Analytical framework of the research
Climate Change, Sea-level Rise,
Salinization, Flood, Drought, Erosion, etc.
Hydropower dam systems in upstream
Land Subsidence, Population Growth and Migration, etc
Local capital Loans Grants Green finance
The "Sustainable Development Strategy for 2011-2020" and the "National Action Plan for the Implementation of the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda" outline Vietnam's commitment to sustainable growth Resolution No 120/NQ-CP focuses on fostering sustainable and climate-resilient development in the Mekong Delta, while the General Action Plan for Implementing this resolution provides a structured approach to achieving these goals Additionally, the "Priority Project Evaluation Criteria under the Support Program to Respond to Climate Change (SP-RCC)" establishes guidelines for assessing projects aimed at combating climate change.
In response to the severe impacts of climate change in Vietnam, the SP-RCC was launched in 2009 by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) with support from six international donors, including AFD, AusAID, CIDA, Korea Eximbank, the World Bank, and JICA This policy-based budget support program addresses mitigation, adaptation, and cross-cutting issues across 12 sub-sectors managed by nine ministries In 2011, the Prime Minister approved Decision No.1719/QD-TTg, establishing evaluation criteria for priority projects under the SP-RCC High-priority projects focus on sea-level rise, drought, and greenhouse gas emissions reduction, while medium-priority projects address flooding, erosion, and typhoons, and low-priority projects pertain to rising temperatures Additionally, the decision outlines priority levels for various sectors in the Mekong Delta.
Table 1.4: Priority level by sector in the VMD
- Afforestation, reforestation of mangrove forests
- Tourism protection of watershed protection forests, special-use forests, and production forests
(Source: Decision No.1719/QD-TTg)
In 2012, the Prime Minister of Vietnam signed Decision No.432/QD-TTg, establishing the "Vietnam Sustainable Development Strategy for 2011-2020," which outlined key objectives across economic, social, and environmental dimensions This strategy introduced various indicators to assess sustainable development, including general metrics like Green Gross Domestic Product (GGDP), Human Development Index (HDI), and Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) It also specified economic indicators such as the share of renewable energy and state budget deficit, social indicators including poverty and unemployment rates, and environmental indicators like forest cover and water resource management.
In 2017, Decision No 622/QG-TTg established Vietnam's "National Action Plan for the Implementation of the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda," which includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals and 115 specific targets aligned with global sustainability objectives (Prime Minister, 2017).
Vietnam's sustainable development plan encompasses social, economic, and environmental dimensions The social aspect focuses on achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 1 through 5 and 10, addressing poverty, hunger, health, education, gender equality, and reduced inequalities Economically, the plan aims to fulfill SDGs 8, 9, 11, and 12, promoting decent work, innovation, sustainable cities, and responsible consumption Lastly, the environmental component is guided by SDGs 6, 7, 13, 14, and 15, which emphasize clean water, affordable energy, climate action, marine conservation, and terrestrial ecosystems.
In response to the significant challenges posed by climate change and unsustainable resource exploitation, the Vietnamese government introduced Resolution No.120/NQ-CP in 2017, aimed at fostering sustainable and climate-resilient development in the Mekong Delta This was followed by Decision No.417/QD-TTg in 2019, which outlines a comprehensive action plan to implement the resolution Both initiatives represent a pivotal shift in the approach to sustainable development in the Mekong Delta, emphasizing the integration of socio-economic growth across the region with a long-term vision and enhanced collaboration among localities Resolution No.120/NQ-CP identifies six essential conditions for sustainable development, including the promotion of high-quality agriculture linked to eco-tourism and industry, innovative infrastructure planning to adapt to climate change, disaster safety measures, responsible natural resource usage, biodiversity conservation, and the enhancement of community well-being The General Action Plan further details six specific solution groups to achieve these goals.
To effectively address climate change, it is essential to enhance and refine the existing mechanisms and policy systems This includes updating and systematizing data while strengthening investigative efforts Additionally, creating a comprehensive master plan and establishing an economic structure that is resilient to climate change is crucial Investing in and improving infrastructure, along with mobilizing both national and international resources, will further support these initiatives (Prime Minister, 2019).
The Vietnamese government consistently develops the Socio-economic Development Strategy and Plan, alongside guidelines for the Attraction, Management, and Use of ODA and Concessional Loans from Foreign Donors, to effectively direct international assistance and achieve development objectives While the Strategy and Plan outline general socio-economic indicators, the guidelines specifically focus on prioritizing the utilization of foreign aid.
Table 1.5: Priority sectors in the attraction and use of ODA and preferential loans
Orientations in 2016-2020 period (Decision No.251/QD-TTg, 2016) n
1 Infrastructure: transportation, energy, irrigation, urban infrastructure, etc
2 Education & Training, Medical social sector
5 Environment and natural resource protection, CCR, Green growth
1 Infrastructure: transportation, energy, irrigation, urban infrastructure, etc., especially projects that link regions, economic centers and meet the requirements of responding to climate change and sea-level rise
2 Policies for economic, cultural, and social development and strengthening of state management capacity
4 Environment and natural resource protection, CCR, Green growth (Source: Decision No.106/QD-TTg, 2012; Decision No.251/QD-TTg, 2016) n
Study area
The Mekong Delta in Vietnam, situated in the lower Mekong Basin, features a low and flat landscape with an average elevation of about 0.8 meters above sea level Covering approximately 40,816 square kilometers, the delta represents around 5% of the Mekong River basin It is bordered by the Vietnam-Cambodia border to the north and the East Sea to the east.
The region is bordered by the Gulf of Thailand to the west and the Vam Co Dong River and Ho Chi Minh City to the northwest It includes one municipality, Can Tho City, and twelve provinces: An Giang, Dong Thap, Long An, Tien Giang, Ben Tre, Tra Vinh, Vinh Long, Hau Giang, Soc Trang, Kien Giang, Ca Mau, and Bac Lieu.
The VMD region features a dense river and canal system, primarily comprising two major natural branches: the Tien River and the Hau River In 2018, the Tien River recorded a peak water flow of 15,700 m³/s at the Tan Chau station, while the Hau River reached 5,220 m³/s at the Chau Doc station (An Giang Statistics Office, 2020) Additionally, groundwater resources in the area are limited, typically found at depths of around 100 meters, with an estimated exploitable volume of approximately 1 million m³ per day.
Figure 1.3: Mekong Delta in Vietnam with land use map n
(Data source used for making map: MONRE, 2018; Can Tho University, 2017)
The Mekong Delta in Vietnam is characterized by four major soil groups: alluvial soil (approximately 30.7%), acid sulfate soil (about 41.0%), saline soil (roughly 19.2%), and others (around 9.1%) (Tran, 2015) Alluvial soils, found predominantly in the delta's center, are highly fertile and ideal for cultivating rice, fruit trees, and short-term industrial crops In contrast, acid sulfate soils are primarily located in the central regions of Dong Thap Muoi and Ca Mau Peninsula, while saline soils are situated near the coasts, significantly impacted by seawater during the dry seasons.
Figure 1.4: Average precipitation from 1977 to 2018 in VMD (mm)
(Data source used for making map: The Southern Institute of
The VMD has a tropical monsoon climate with a dry season from December to May and a rainy season from June to November The average temperature varies from n
The VMD region of Vietnam experiences a mild climate with temperatures ranging from 24°C to 27°C and minimal day-night temperature variation This area receives significantly higher precipitation than other parts of the country, with provinces like Kien Giang, Hau Giang, Soc Trang, Bac Lieu, and Ca Mau averaging over 1,700 mm of rainfall Additionally, the VMD is less susceptible to typhoons and weather disturbances, making its climatic conditions highly favorable for agricultural development.
The Mekong Delta in Vietnam boasts a coastal line of 750 km, representing 23% of the nation's total coastline, and encompasses an exclusive economic zone of 360,000 km², which accounts for 37% of the country's exclusive economic area This region features numerous large and small islands, along with over 800 hectares of intertidal zones The waters near the Mekong Delta are rich in aquatic resources and present significant opportunities for tourism development, as well as the exploration of oil, gas, and wind power.
Wetlands in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta (VMD) represent some of the richest ecosystems in the region, encompassing three distinct types: mangrove, inland lagoon (Melaleuca forest), and estuarine ecosystems These vital habitats are sensitive and vulnerable to various environmental challenges, highlighting the need for conservation efforts.
In 2019, the total population of the Mekong Delta (VMD) reached approximately 17,273,630, predominantly comprised of the Kinh ethnic group Additionally, the region is home to various other ethnic communities, including the Khmer, Hoa, and Chams The majority of the population resides in the central part of the delta, particularly in urban areas.
24 rivers and Ho Chi Minh City (Figure 1.5) The population in the VMD has grown slowly in recent years due to the low mortality rate and migration
The Mekong Delta (VMD) is renowned for its agricultural and aquaculture development, producing key products such as rice, fruits, duck, Pangasius, shrimp, and crab As Vietnam's largest granary, the Mekong Delta contributes significantly to the nation's food production, accounting for 48% of total output and over 85% of annual rice exports (Toan, 2014) While the region is not heavily industrialized, food processing remains its primary industry Additionally, the service sector encompasses import-export activities, water transport, and tourism, highlighting the area's diverse economic contributions.
Figure 1.5: Population density in 2019 (person/km 2 )
(Data source used for making map: General Statistics Office, 2020)
The average Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP) per capita in the VMD is nearly VND 44.051 million Can Tho, Hau Giang, Bac Lieu, Tra Vinh had the n
In 2019, the provinces in the VMD exhibited the highest GRDP per capita, ranging from VND 55 to 66 million, as reported by various statistics offices Notably, the economic structure shifted significantly between 2010 and 2019, with agriculture-aquaculture-forestry's share declining from 39.6% to 28.3%, while the service sector saw an increase from 34.6% to 44.6% This data underscores the evolving economic landscape in the region, highlighting the growing importance of the service industry alongside stable contributions from industry and construction.
Figure 1.6: Current status of economic structure and scale and
GRPD per capita in 2019 in VMD
(Data source used for making map: Statistics Office, 2020; Statistics Office, 2021) n
The Mekong Delta in Vietnam currently has only 45 km of highway, representing nearly 3% of the country's total highway length, with most primary roads featuring limited capacity of two car lanes and one motorbike lane per side Many main roads consist of just one car lane and one motorbike lane, leading to a heavy reliance on inland waterway transportation for goods The region is served by two international airports—Can Tho International Airport and Phu Quoc International Airport—along with Ca Mau Airport and Rach Gia Airport While Phu Quoc International Airport has the highest capacity utilization, it primarily caters to tourism Overall, the transportation infrastructure in the Mekong Delta exhibits significant weaknesses in connecting with Ho Chi Minh City and the Southeast region.
Figure 1.7: Transportation in the VMD n
27 (Data source used for making map: RHDHV & GIZ, 2020) n
METHODOLOGY
Research approach
This study applied two major approaches: the sustainable development approach and the interdisciplinary approach
Sustainable development serves as a vital global and national strategy aimed at achieving long-term harmony and sustainability across economic, social, and environmental dimensions To effectively address challenges faced by local communities and governments in the VMD, aid projects must adopt a sustainable development framework Consequently, assessing the effectiveness of foreign aid initiatives should align with sustainable development principles.
Addressing climate change and attaining sustainable development goals in Vietnam's Mekong Delta necessitates a collaborative effort among all stakeholders and draws on insights from multiple disciplines This study employs an interdisciplinary approach, integrating knowledge from environmental science, climate change, infrastructure, policy, economics, and sociology to effectively tackle these pressing issues.
Research methods
This study employed six key methods, as illustrated in Table 2.1 and Figure 2.1, to fulfill its three primary objectives While each method serves a distinct purpose, achieving the study's goals necessitates the integration of various approaches.
Table 2.1: Methods of the study
M1 Data collection - Review literature to define research problems
- Describe the study area, identify main issues
- Get indigenous knowledge related to climate n
Methodology Purposes change, foreign aid projects of local people
- Collect opinion of experts, staff in international aid agencies, local authorities about the effectiveness of foreign aid projects and the effectiveness's driving forces and affecting factors
M2 Data analysis - Describe opinions of interviewees
- Provide an in-depth understanding, explanation, and interpretation of significant issues and foreign aid activities
- Classify assistance projects and calculate the total number of each group to describe the situation of international aid in the 2010-2020 period
- Check the correlation between variables to assess the effectiveness of aid projects
- Identify driving forces and factors affecting aid effectiveness in the study area
- Summarize the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities & threats of the VMD
- Develop strong strategies by considering all strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the area M4 Statistical
- Identify the effectiveness of foreign aid projects from the perspective of local people, local government
- Identify the relationships between foreign aid transfer & the characteristics of sustainable development, climate change-related parameters
M6 Mapmaking - Describe the study area from secondary data provided by several organizations
- Visualize the distribution of foreign aid projects n
Methodology Purposes from data grouped by the data analysis method
This research used both primary and secondary data In this research, primary data
Figure 2.1: Methodological framework of the research
Climate change issues & other issues
Foreign aid project information (title, donor, geographic coverage, period, total cost, etc.)
Time series data of GRDP, total amount of aid, etc
Situation before and after implementing aid projects
Existing priorities of donors, government
Factors affecting the effectiveness of foreign aid projects
Ob1: Clarifying main issues affecting sustainable development in
Ob2: Assessing effectiveness of foreign aid projects; and identifying driving forces, factors affecting the effectiveness of those projects
Ob3: Proposing solutions, recommendations to improve the effectiveness of foreign aid projects
The data for this study was gathered through semi-structured interviews conducted in December, involving experts, aid agency staff, authorities, and local participants or beneficiaries of foreign aid projects in the study area.
In 2020, a series of open-ended questions were crafted to align with research objectives, focusing on key areas such as climate change issues, foreign aid project details, and the situational impact before and after project implementation in the VMD The research involved 74 interviews, primarily conducted face-to-face, via telephone, and through email, aimed at uncovering donor and government priorities, as well as factors influencing the effectiveness of foreign aid projects.
The secondary data analyzed encompasses 220 foreign aid projects from 68 donors between 2010 and 2020, detailing project titles, donor information, timelines, geographical coverage, total costs, objectives, and activities This data was sourced from the Mekong Delta Working Group, donor websites, interview results, and reports from the Agriculture Project Management Board under the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development Additionally, records and reports from local governments, aid organizations, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, the General Statistics Office, and other relevant entities are vital to this research.
Table 2.2: Secondary data of the research
Natural, socio-economic features of the VMD
Statistical yearbook of each province in VMD in 2019
Issues in the past, present, and future that affecting the VMD’s sustainable development
Journal articles, reports, records, interview results related to issues in VMD
Data types Data sources version), downscaling to the VMD Policies related to sustainable development, foreign aid projects in
Law, Decree, Circular, Decision issued by the government
Information of previous studies regarding the effectiveness of foreign aid projects
Information of aid projects in the
VMD (donor, project title, project term, location, amount of committed loan/ grant, project activities, focusing fields, etc.) in the 2010-2020 period
Website of international aid agencies, interview results
Situation before and after implementing aid projects
Results of interviews with donors, local authorities, and local people; results of some experiments
Mechanism of launching, executing aid projects
Results of interviews with donors, local authorities
Existing priorities, reasons of donors, local authorities
Driving forces, factors affecting the effectiveness of foreign aid projects
Recommendations, solutions for effective aid projects
This research employed a mixed-method approach to achieve its objectives, utilizing qualitative data analysis methods like content and narrative analysis for a comprehensive understanding of key issues and foreign aid activities in the VMD Additionally, quantitative data analysis methods were applied to describe foreign aid projects and examine the correlation between total aid transfers and climate change responses.
The analysis of aid allocation and related information involved categorizing aid projects by their geographical coverage and further classifying them into sub-groups aligned with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Climate Change Resilience (CCR) options, and climate change-related issues This classification was based on the projects’ titles, objectives, activities, and tasks.
Table 2.3: CCR options to classify adaptation projects
- Improve the status of education, nutrition, health, settlements
- Reduce gender inequality Poverty alleviation
- Improve access & management of local resources
- Social protection, Insurance Livelihood security
- Diversify income, asset, and livelihood
- Change cropping, livestock, and aquaculture practices Disaster risk management
- Build & improve early warning system, vulnerability map
- Diversify resources, improve infrastructure Ecosystem management
- Protect and manage forest, watershed & reservoir
- Community-based adaptation Spatial or land-use planning
To enhance the built environment, it is essential to develop and refine engineered solutions, technological advancements, ecosystem-based strategies, and related services On an institutional level, improving economic choices and establishing effective laws, regulations, and government policies is crucial Additionally, fostering social change requires advancements in educational resources, access to information, and promoting positive behavioral practices These interconnected spheres of change are vital for achieving sustainable development and resilience.
- Increase innovation, shifts and changes consistent with CCR and sustainable development
No identifying information of individuals, aid organizations were reported in this n
34 study Instead, some pseudonyms were used to ensure the research’s objectivity
Analyzing the VMD's strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats is crucial for informed decision-making to address challenges This study highlights internal factors such as natural and socio-economic features, human resources, production methods, local management, and regional planning, alongside external influences like state governance, funding, regional connectivity, hydropower systems, land subsidence, and global warming, to identify the delta's opportunities and threats.
This study employed Cross-SWOT analysis to formulate actionable strategies for the sustainable development of VMD Specifically, four strategies were developed by examining the interconnections between each quadrant of the SWOT framework.
Table 2.4: Strategies under Cross-SWOT analysis
Offensive Strategy: Use internal strengths to maximize opportunities
Strengthening Strategy: Improve weaknesses by taking advantage of opportunities Threats
Confrontation Strategy: Use strengths to minimize threats
Defense Strategy: Act to eliminate weaknesses to avoid threats
Statistical analysis entails the systematic collection and organization of data to derive meaningful interpretations This research effectively categorizes aid projects based on their geographical coverage and their alignment with related Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and climate initiatives.
The study identifies 35 change response options and key climate change issues in the VMD, summarizing interviewees' responses It also outlines the variables used for the Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient Test, detailing their mean and standard deviation as presented in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5: Formula of mean, standard deviation
Mean (μ) ∑ n: sample size x i : value of variable from 1 to n Standard deviation
This study analyzes the relationship between aid transfer and nine other variables that represent various Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) using panel data The selected variables are derived from previous research and align with SDG targets relevant to the issues in the Vietnam Mekong Delta (VMD) Data was sourced from the statistical yearbook of 13 provinces in the VMD for the years 2010 to 2020, with calculations performed by the author and information obtained from the website https://pcivietnam.vn/en The analysis assumes that the total annual cost of international aid projects is equally distributed among the provinces throughout the project duration.
Table 2.6: Used variables in Correlation Coefficient Test
Code of variable Variable Unit Related
X Total cost of foreign aid mil Self-calculated from n
Code of variable Variable Unit Related
SDGs Source projects VND collected projects' information
Y1 Percentage of poor households % SDG1 Statistical yearbook
Y2 Under-5-year children malnutrition rate % SDG2 Statistical yearbook Y3 Under-1-year mortality rate % SDG3 Statistical yearbook
Y4 Percentage of solid classroom % SDG4 Statistical yearbook
Y5 Percentage of over-15-year old trained female workers % SDG5 Statistical yearbook
Y6 Proportion of households using hygienic water % SDG6 Statistical yearbook
Index SDG9 https://pcivietnam.v n/en
Y9 Total value of the damage caused by natural disasters mil
The Pearson's Correlation Coefficient is a statistical method used to assess the relationship between two continuous variables By relying on covariance, it is regarded as the most effective approach for determining the association between the variables of interest.
In this study, the Pearson's Correlation Coefficient Test was conducted based on the below function in R statistics: cor.test(xs ,ys ,method = "pearson") Which xs, ys are paired samples
The above function returns a value for a correlation coefficient (r) between -1 and 1 Regarding the level of correlation, Evan (1996) suggested five levels for the n
In this research, the null hypothesis (H0) posits that the two variables are independent, while the alternative hypothesis (H1) suggests a statistically significant relationship between them A p-value below 0.05 indicates strong evidence against the null hypothesis, confirming the significance of the relationship Conversely, a p-value exceeding 0.05 implies that the null hypothesis is retained, suggesting no significant correlation between the variables.
This study employed ArcMap 10.8 to effectively visualize the study area and its associated issues, facilitating aid allocation Data from both primary and secondary sources were normalized and integrated into a unified geographic coordinate system, subsequently saved in an attribute table for map creation Initially, a base map was developed using land borders, provincial boundaries, and Esri’s Ocean Basemap Maps were then generated using secondary data from Can Tho University, the Southern Institute of Water Resources Research, the General Statistics Office, Royal HaskoningDHV, and GIZ to illustrate the natural and social features, as well as the challenges facing the Mekong Delta (VMD) To enhance the visualization of aid allocation, information on international aid projects was aggregated and categorized into five levels following a comprehensive data analysis process.
OVERVIEW OF ISSUES IN THE VMD
Climate change and climate change impacts
The VMD has already felt the effects of climate change, with a study by MONRE (2016) indicating a rise in annual average temperatures at most observational stations and a 6.9% increase in yearly rainfall from 1958 to 2014 Additionally, mean sea levels have risen, with Phu Quoc experiencing an increase of 3.4 mm per year between 1986 and 2014 These trends are expected to persist, resulting in altered weather patterns, including more intense and frequent droughts and floods, saline water intrusion, and coastal and river erosion.
According to the RCP8.5 scenario, average sea levels along the eastern and western coasts of the Vietnam Mekong Delta (VMD) are projected to rise by 73cm and 75cm, respectively, by the end of the 21st century (MONRE, 2016) This rise in sea level can lead to severe erosion, saline intrusion, and loss of habitat for various species, including fish, birds, and plants Additionally, increased sea levels contribute to higher storm surges in coastal regions, especially when combined with high tides and large waves.
Figure 3.1: Sea-level rise scenarios based on the RCP8.5 scenario (cm)
Sea-level rise scenarios based on the RCP8.5 scenario (cm)
Year Mui Ke Ga - Mui Ca Mau Mui Ca Mau - Kien Giang n
Figure 3.2: The inundation risk map with sea-level rise of 100 cm
Moreover, sea-level rise caused by climate change also increases the inundation risk in the VMD According to MONRE's estimation in 2016, if the sea level rises by
100 cm, roughly 38.9% of the VMD would be at risk of flooding Three provinces that have the highest inundation risk are Hau Giang (80.62%), Kien Giang (76.9%), and Ca Mau (57.7%) (Table 3.1, Figure 3.2)
Table 3.1: Inundation Percentage (% area) corresponding to sea-level rise of 100 cm)
Province/ Area Inundation Percentage (% area)
The VMD, despite its high annual average precipitation, faces increasing drought risks attributed to the prolonged El Niño phenomenon, reduced precipitation, and upstream hydropower dams in the Mekong Basin Research by Lee & Dang (2018) reveals that meteorological droughts were prevalent in the northeastern and northwestern provinces from 1995 to 2004, shifting towards southern coastal areas between 2005 and 2014 Their findings indicate a decrease in drought frequency but an increase in the spatial distribution of moderate to severe droughts During dry seasons, especially amid drought conditions, seawater intrusion occurs from estuaries along both the east and west coasts This saline intrusion in the VMD results from factors such as riverbed mining, dam construction, rising sea levels, and land subsidence (Ho et al., 2021).
Figure 3.3: Map of 4g/l isohaline from 2013 to 2019 in the VMD
(Data source for making map: Institute of Water Resources Research, 2013-2019)
Between 2011 and 2020, the Mekong Delta (VMD) experienced two major drought and saline intrusion events, notably in 2015-2016 and 2019-2020 The 2015-2016 event impacted over 2 million hectares across 12 of the 13 provinces, leading to an estimated economic loss of around USD 650 million, as reported by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) The subsequent event in 2019-2020 affected 10 out of 13 provinces and resulted in greater damage, impacting approximately 1.7 million hectares (about 42.5%) of the VMD's natural area, which was 50,000 hectares more than the earlier event.
2016 (see 4g/l isohaline in 2016 on Figure 3.3) (Thanh Phong, 2020)
Table 3.2: Effects of 2019-2020 drought & saline intrusion
43 saline intrusion affected population impossible to harvest
419 km 2 ≈ 1.3% rice area (winter-spring crop)
260 km 2 (winter-spri ng crop)
Ca Mau, Tra Vinh, Tien Giang, Soc Trang, Kien Giang, Long An
Long An, Tien Giang, Ben Tre, Vinh Long, Tra Vinh, Soc Trang
Long An, Tien Giang, Ben Tre, Tra Vinh, Soc Trang, Ca Mau
Ben Tre, Tien Giang, Kien Giang, Bac Lieu, Ca Mau
Ben Tre, Soc Trang, Kien Giang,
Ca Mau, Bac Lieu, Long An, Tra Vinh
An, Ca Mau, Kien Giang, Vinh Long (Source: Thanh Phong, 2020)
Flooding in the Vietnam Mekong Delta (VMD) is primarily caused by upstream rainfall, heavy precipitation in the delta itself, and tidal influences from the East Sea Climate change is exacerbating the situation, leading to rising sea levels and an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme rainfall events Statistical data indicates that since 2010, the region has experienced one extreme flood in 2011, three medium floods in 2013, 2014, and 2018, as well as several smaller floods.
In 2021, a simulation map by Royal HaskoningDHV and GIZ revealed that Dong Thap and An Giang provinces are at significant risk of severe flooding, particularly with a 10% frequency of inundation The primary drivers of this risk include climate change, rising sea levels, high tides, dyke construction upstream, and land subsidence In Can Tho city, older streets, which are only 1.6 to 2 meters above sea level, frequently experience flooding due to tidal impacts and extreme rainfall, while only a few newly constructed or upgraded roads exceed current flood levels.
The Mekong Delta in Vietnam, particularly the Long Xuyen Quadrangle, is a vital agricultural area that relies on seasonal flooding for its fertility These floods deposit essential sediments and provide aquatic life, while also preventing saltwater intrusion However, human activities like riverbed mining and dyke construction have significantly reduced the frequency of these floods, leading to lower water levels in the upper delta compared to previous years Data from the Dong Thap Centre of Hydro-Meteorology Forecasting indicates that water levels in August 2019 were 0.5 to 2 meters lower than in 2018, adversely impacting the livelihoods of local farmers.
Abnormal floods pose a significant challenge in the Mekong Delta, as highlighted by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (2018) Typically, this region experiences two peak flood periods: the early-season flood, which reaches its maximum around mid-August and then gradually decreases before rising again in early to mid-September, and the main-season flood, peaking around mid-October Notably, in 2018, the early-season flood reached its peak at the end of August.
August, and the main season flood peaked in the early of October
Figure 3.4: Simulation map of the flood situation with a frequency of 10%
3.1.4 Coastal erosion and river erosion
Between 2010 and 2020, GIZ reported approximately 120 eroded locations in the VMD, with 25 coastal sites (around 94.5 km) identified as extremely dangerous, posing significant risks to dyke safety and damaging residential areas, administrative buildings, and critical infrastructure in Kien Giang, Ca Mau, Bac Lieu, Soc Trang, Ben Tre, and Tien Giang Additionally, 27 riverine sites, totaling 56 km, were also deemed extremely hazardous in An Giang, Dong Thap, Long An, Can Tho, Tien Giang, Hau Giang, Soc Trang, and Ben Tre.
Figure 3.5: Erosion sites from 2010-2020 in the VMD
(Data source for making map: GIZ, 2020)
Coastal erosion has intensified in recent years, with a land loss rate of approximately 2.3 km² per year from 2003 to 2012, surpassing the historical rate of 1.2 km² per year recorded between 1885 and 1985 (Anthony et al., 2015) Key contributors to this phenomenon include rising tides, intensified wave activity due to climate change, deforestation in coastal regions, and diminished sediment transfer from upstream areas Additionally, river erosion is driven by factors such as flooding, heavy rainfall during the wet season, sand mining, increased river traffic, and the weight of infrastructure along riverbanks (Anthony et al., 2015; Nguyen, 2020).
3.1.5 Sustainable development in the context of climate change in the VMD
Recent studies indicate that climate change challenges in the Vietnam Mekong Delta (VMD) are closely linked to thirteen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) These include SDG 1, which aims to eradicate poverty; SDG 2, focused on achieving zero hunger; SDG 3, promoting good health and well-being; SDG 4, ensuring quality education; and SDG 5, which advocates for gender equality.
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) encompass a range of critical objectives aimed at fostering global well-being, including SDG6 which focuses on ensuring clean water and sanitation, SDG7 that promotes affordable and clean energy, and SDG8 which emphasizes decent work and economic growth Additionally, SDG9 supports industry innovation and infrastructure, while SDG11 advocates for sustainable cities and communities Climate action is addressed through SDG13, and the protection of marine and terrestrial ecosystems is highlighted in SDG14 and SDG15, respectively.
Climate change significantly impacts agricultural production through drought and salinization, leading to reduced farmer incomes and increased poverty and hunger, particularly affecting children's educational opportunities in low-income families Many farmers have lost their crops and are forced to migrate to urban areas for work (Nguyen et al., 2020) Additionally, drought and saline intrusion reduce the availability of safe and affordable water, especially during the dry season in coastal regions, which in turn affects local ecosystems Coastal erosion is also a critical issue, resulting in the loss of approximately 3,400 hectares of mangrove forests each year.
Ca Mau in recent years (JICA, 2019) Increasing temperature and humidity has a close relationship with increased hospitalization for diarrhoeal disease (Phung et al.,
Erosion and typhoons significantly damage regional infrastructure, including homes, roads, and schools, hindering economic development and human well-being Climate change exacerbates gender inequality in the VMD, as highlighted by the German Agency for Technical Cooperation and the Australian Agency for International Development, which notes that climate-related agricultural and aquaculture failures disproportionately affect poor and landless women by depleting natural resources and limiting wage labor opportunities In affected areas, erosion not only destroys homes and shrimp ponds but also forces families to seek alternative housing and employment, increasing the burden on women to support their families Additionally, these challenges are intensified by escalating health concerns, sanitation issues, and a scarcity of clean freshwater.
On the other hand, poverty reduction, hunger eradication, good health, good n
Education and economic growth enhance local access to resources, thereby improving adaptive capacity to climate change while reducing vulnerability Sustainable cities, resilient infrastructure, and the protection of ecosystems, including forests, are crucial for fostering adaptability and mitigating climate change by increasing carbon storage Furthermore, the Vietnam Mekong Delta (VMD) is rich in renewable energy sources like wind and solar energy, and their efficient utilization is essential for effective climate change mitigation.
Upstream reservoir and water transfer
Figure 3.6: Location Map of Present and Future Hydropower Dams in Lower Mekong Basin
The Lower Mekong Basin is experiencing a surge in hydropower dam construction to meet the escalating energy demands, with a total of 38 dams currently operational on its tributaries Among these, two significant mainstream projects, the Xayaburi Dam and Don Sahong Dam in Lao PDR, are underway, along with 20 additional dams on tributaries Furthermore, there are plans in place for nine more mainstream hydropower dams, highlighting the region's commitment to expanding its renewable energy infrastructure.
2019) The mainstream dams would generate an average reservoir area of 132 km 2 , two times the average reservoir area of the tributary dams The upstream n
The construction of 50 hydropower dams and reservoirs alters the natural flood-drought cycle of rivers, leading to reduced water flow in the Lower Mekong Basin This disruption exacerbates the impacts of climate change, resulting in serious environmental and public health consequences.
Land subsidence
Figure 3.7: Land subsidence rate (cm/year) in the VMD
(Data source for making map: GIZ & GSAT, 2019)
Land subsidence refers to the gradual or sudden sinking of the Earth's surface, a phenomenon notably observed in Vietnam's delta regions, particularly the Mekong Delta (VMD) The average subsidence rate in the VMD currently reaches approximately 1.1 cm per year, surpassing the average rate of 18 cm over 25 years recorded from 1991 to 2015 (Minderhoud et al., 2017) Specifically, An Giang and the eastern part of Kien Giang experience minimal subsidence, while areas in southern Kien Giang, Can Tho, Long An, Tien Giang, Vinh Long, Tra Vinh, Ben Tre, and Dong Thap report subsidence rates ranging from 1 to 4 cm.
Mau, Bac Lieu, Hau Giang, and Soc Trang provinces are facing significant land subsidence, exceeding 4 cm, which exacerbates their vulnerability to sea-level rise This phenomenon increases the risk of inundation, storm surges, salinization, and erosion in the Mekong Delta Additionally, land subsidence poses a threat to infrastructure and leads to substantial economic losses for local communities.
Land subsidence in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam, is primarily caused by a combination of natural factors, such as consolidation, sea-level rise, salinization, and geological tectonics, along with human activities, including groundwater extraction and the construction of dykes, dams, and large-scale infrastructure Notably, groundwater extraction has emerged as a significant contributor to recent subsidence in the region (Minderhoud et al., 2017).
Land use land cover change
Figure 3.8: Land use and land cover classification map in VMD
Human activities have significantly altered land use and cover in the Mekong Delta over recent decades, primarily for economic development Research by Liu et al (2020), utilizing nearly 40 years of satellite imagery, reveals a notable increase in aquaculture and residential areas, while crop fields, fruit orchards, mangroves, forests, and unused land have diminished between 1979 and 2015 This shift highlights the transformation of rice fields into aquaculture ponds, positioning aquaculture as the second-largest land use in the region.
The transformation of 52 land-use types in the VMD is essential for helping local communities adapt to the challenges posed by climate change However, this shift does not align with existing local land use policies Additionally, the establishment of aquaculture ponds may lead to water pollution, which could adversely impact nearby rice fields and potentially threaten future food security.
Deforestation is a significant concern in the VMD, particularly in Ca Mau province, where forests provide crucial ecosystem services that support sustainable development goals Although reforestation efforts since the 1990s have mitigated deforestation linked to aquaculture, approximately 3,400 hectares of forest are lost each year due to coastal erosion in Ca Mau (JICA, 2019) Furthermore, illegal logging for construction and firewood exacerbates the deforestation issue in the region.
Population growth and migration
Figure 3.9: Natural population growth rate & Net migration rate in the VMD
(Data source: gso.gov.vn) Vietnam's total population increased at an annual average of 1.1%, while the VMD's
Year Natural population growth rate (%) Net migration rate (‰) n
Between 2010 and 2020, the population of the Mekong Delta experienced a minimal increase, rising from 17.2 million to 17.3 million, representing a growth rate of just 0.58% Since 2015, natural population growth rates have remained below 0.06% Additionally, the Mekong Delta Economic Report indicates that from 2009 to 2019, the region recorded the lowest immigration rate in Vietnam at 4.9%, while outward migration reached a staggering 44.8% Among the 13 provinces, Soc Trang, Tra Vinh, and An Giang exhibited the highest emigration rates Experts forecast that if these trends persist, the population of the Mekong Delta could fall below 17 million by 2030, potentially jeopardizing the future labor force.
Figure 3.10: The migration rate (%) in 2019 and the change in population between 2009 and 2019
(Data source for making map: General Statistics Office, 2020)
Climate change-related issues and other environmental issues such as droughts, landslides, and pollution are the primary reasons for the fall of the population Still, n
Economic inefficiencies and inadequate infrastructure, particularly underdeveloped road systems, hinder inter-province connectivity and limit the region's capacity to attract foreign investment due to a lack of urbanization.
Other issues
In January 2021, an interview with local authorities in the natural resources and environment departments revealed that the VMD is grappling with significant challenges, including soil quality degradation and environmental pollution The excessive use of machinery, chemical fertilizers, and plant protection products has diminished the soil's water retention and drainage capabilities, while also reducing its microbial activity and overall productivity Furthermore, unsustainable production practices and waste from residential areas contribute to environmental pollution, adversely affecting local health, well-being, and tourism For instance, emissions and waste from factories, such as cane sugar plants in Hau Giang and cattle feed manufacturers in Tien Giang, contaminate air and water, posing serious health risks Additionally, slash-and-burn agriculture exacerbates air pollution in the Mekong Delta, as large quantities of straw and debris are burned during harvest, increasing fine particulate matter (PM2.5) levels The construction of dykes in the VMD further restricts water flow, trapping contaminants in the region, while local authorities also highlight waste disposal issues, particularly in the islands of Kien Giang province.
Sub-conclusion
The VMD is a vast delta rich in water resources, ideal for agriculture and aquaculture However, it faces challenges, as local communities prioritize economic growth over sustainability, leading to the use of unsustainable production methods Additionally, there is a significant gap in integrated planning and coordination within the region.
The VMD region has attracted 55 investments, with many initiatives emerging from government programs and shared local interests, which often leads to overlapping management Despite receiving considerable attention from both the state government and foreign donors, the VMD is confronted with serious challenges, including climate change, the actions of upstream countries in the Mekong Basin, and issues related to land subsidence.
Table 3.3: Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of the VMD
- S1: Having a large delta with abundant water resources
- S3: Having the long river civilization
- W2: Low population growth rate and high migration rate
- W3: Lack of linkage in planning, investment
- O1: Receiving much attention from experts, the state government, domestic organizations and international organizations
- T1: Global threats: climate change, sea-level rise
- T2: Outside threats: hydropower dam systems in the upper stream
- T3: Inside threats: erosion, flood, drought, saline intrusion, land subsidence, soil quality degradation, soil – water – air pollution
The Cross-SWOT analysis outlined in Table 3.4 identifies targeted strategies to enhance the situation in the VMD Key strategies include increasing investments in sustainable agriculture and aquaculture, focusing on research and funding for green growth and sustainable development, and prioritizing the protection and conservation of ecosystems.
56 following appropriate guidelines, assistance, (5) coordinating, cooperating with all stakeholders at all scales
Table 3.4: Actionable strategies in the VMD
- S1O1, S3O1: Investing more in sustainable agriculture and aquaculture, asking for more technical assistance
- S2O1: Establishing ecological conservation areas to attract more attention
- W1O1: Following guidelines, technical assistance from experts, the state government, international organizations to understand and apply sustainable productions
- W3O1, W4O1: Cooperating with experts, line departments, other provinces in the VMD, other regions for better management and linkage
Leveraging the advantages of forests and resilient flora and fauna is essential for combating climate change and its effects, including saline intrusion and erosion Implementing afforestation and reforestation initiatives can significantly enhance carbon storage and help stabilize soil in coastal regions.
- W1T1, W1T3: Investing, researching to improve effectiveness, the efficiency of low-carbon and eco-friendly manufacturing processes
- W3T2: Actively coordinate with other countries in the Mekong Basin, enhancing the application of renewable energy sources with less negative regional economic impacts
Sustainable development in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta (VMD) is influenced by various factors, including climate change, hydropower dams, land subsidence, and changes in land use and cover Notably, climate change poses significant challenges, such as rising sea levels, drought, salinization, flooding, and erosion, which are critical threats to the region's sustainability.
Table 3.5: Serious climate change-related issues and most affected provinces in the past ten years & present, and in the future
Climate change-related issues Most affected provinces Past ten years and present
1 Drought & Salinization Ca Mau, Kien Giang, Bac Lieu
2 Coastal & River erosion Ca Mau, Kien Giang, An Giang,
3 Flood An Giang, Dong Thap, Can Tho
1 Sea-level rise Hau Giang, Kien Giang, Ca Mau
2 Drought & Salinization Ca Mau, Kien Giang, Bac Lieu, Soc
Trang, Tra Vinh, Ben Tre
3 Coastal & River erosion Ca Mau, Kien Giang, An Giang,
Dong Thap, Ben Tre (Source: classified by author)
Over the past decade, the Mekong Delta in Vietnam has faced significant climate change challenges, particularly drought and saline intrusion, with Ca Mau, Kien Giang, and Bac Lieu being the most affected provinces Additionally, coastal and riverine erosion in Ca Mau, Kien Giang, An Giang, Dong Thap, and Ben Tre are pressing concerns that require urgent attention, alongside the ongoing issue of flooding.
In the future, the coastal regions of An Giang, Dong Thap, and Can Tho city, particularly the west coast of the Mekong Delta, will require increased attention due to the serious threat posed by rising sea levels.
Based on prior analysis, the VMD is categorized into three distinct areas influenced by climate change: Area I (upper area), Area II (middle area), and Area III (coastal area) Each area's specific climate change challenges are outlined in Table 3.6 As sea levels rise, these regional divisions are expected to shift, with Area III expanding significantly in the future.
58 move deep inland (Figure 3.11 and Figure 3.12)
Table 3.6: Descriptions of sub-regions in the VMD
Regional division Location Serious climate change-related issues
- River erosion Area II Middle
- Saline intrusion in dry seasons
- Sea-level rise & storm surges (especially in the future) (Source: divided by author)
Figure 3.11: Regional division for the past ten years and present
Figure 3.12: Regional division in future