INTRODUCTION
Overview
Climate change and the depletion of natural resources have become critical issues globally and in Vietnam The impact of climate change has heightened the frequency of natural disasters, directly threatening socio-economic development (Thang et al., 2010) Concurrently, Vietnam's rapid yet unsustainable economic growth has resulted in significant natural resource decline and increased environmental pollution, particularly affecting air quality (Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2018).
The significant rise in greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere is a prominent feature of climate change, directly linked to socio-economic development (Thang et al., 2010) These emissions are major contributors to air pollution, with Hanoi experiencing severe air quality issues from 2013 to 2019, where PM2.5 dust levels consistently exceeded national standards and WHO recommendations In 2013, the average PM2.5 concentration reached 55.9 μg/m³, improving to 49.2 μg/m³ in 2014 and 45.1 μg/m³ in 2015, before spiking again to 50.5 μg/m³ in 2016, followed by a decline from 2017 to 2019 The detrimental effects of air pollution in Hanoi are evident, with approximately 60,000 annual deaths attributed to polluted air, highlighting a greater risk of mortality than malaria, cancer, and traffic accidents combined (Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2018).
Research indicates a strong connection between climate change (CC) and air pollution, with climate changes directly affecting local air quality Rising temperatures associated with CC contribute to increased ground-level ozone in various regions, posing challenges for meeting ozone standards in the future Conversely, the release of pollutants like particulate matter (PM) into the atmosphere can influence climate by either warming or cooling effects.
Current research on the relationship between climate change (CC) and air pollutants remains uncertain, but efforts are being made to clarify these complexities This article focuses on "Air Pollution Issues in Hanoi – Current Status and Solutions for Air Quality Management in the Context of Climate Change." It aims to identify the primary causes of air pollution, explore the interaction between climate change and air quality, and propose effective strategies for enhancing air quality management in light of these challenges.
Research objectives
This research aims to identify effective measures for addressing air pollution within the framework of current climate change, which poses significant threats to human health, social dynamics, the economy, and the environment The study focuses on answering three key questions related to this pressing issue.
- What is the specific current status of air quality and its managerial condition in Hanoi?
- How air pollution and CC interact with each other?
- What can be done in reality to deal with air pollution in the context of CC?
Concerning those questions profoundly, 5 key activities were conducted to address three research questions:
(1) to collect the data of Hanoi’s socio-economic development status;
(2) to collect the data of and air pollution condition in Hanoi (including data on
PM2.5 concentrations, air quality index);
(3) to analyze the current air pollution situation in Hanoi; n
(4) to collect the condition of CC management in Hanoi and the correlation between CC and air pollution;
(5) to propose solutions to handle air pollution in the context of CC.
Structure of the thesis
The thesis is organized into 6 chapters as below:
Chapter 3: Theoretical basis and practical experience in air pollution and management in the context of climate change
Practical air pollution management measures
The linkage between air pollution and climate change
Chapter 4: Current situation of air pollution in Hanoi
Causes of air pollution in Hanoi n
Effects caused by air pollution in Hanoi
Current air pollution management tools
Chapter 5: Proposed Air pollution measures
Practical air pollution management measures around the world
Proposed air pollution management measure in the context of adapting to climate change
METHODOLOGY
Framework of the study
Figure 2.1 outlines the stages of the research, which emphasizes the importance of managing aspects and requires sufficient input data The thesis relies on two key data sources: the socio-economic conditions of Hanoi and monitoring data from local stations, essential for analyzing the city's air quality issues This analysis will be contextualized with information on current air pollution management practices and climate change policies in Hanoi Based on the findings, a set of potential solutions will be proposed to improve air quality and adapt to climate change challenges in the region.
Study area
Hanoi, the capital of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is situated in the heart of the fertile Red River Delta This historic city has evolved into a significant political, economic, and cultural hub since the early days of Vietnam's history.
Figure 2.1: Location map of Hanoi
Hanoi, situated in the northwest of the Red River Delta, spans from 20°53' to 21°23' north latitude and 105°44' to 106°02' east longitude It shares borders with Thai Nguyen and Vinh Phuc to the north, Ha Nam and Hoa Binh to the south, and Bac Giang, Bac Ninh, and Hung Yen to the east, while Hoa Binh and Phu Tho lie to the west The city is strategically located 120 km from Hai Phong and 87 km from Nam Dinh, forming a crucial part of the Red River Delta's three main poles Following the administrative expansion in August 2008, Hanoi covers an area of 3,324.92 km², predominantly situated on the right bank of the Red River.
Hanoi's terrain features a gradual decline from north to south and west to east, with an average elevation of 5 to 20 meters above sea level The northern and western parts of the city are characterized by concentrated hills, while the majority of Hanoi's landscape consists of a delta formed by alluvial sediment, primarily located on the right bank of the Da River and along both sides of the Red River Within the urban area, notable low hill mounds include Dong Da mound and Nung Mountain Additionally, Hanoi is defined by its four extreme points.
- The Northern side is Bac Son commune, Soc Son district;
- The Western side is Thuan My commune, Ba Vi district;
- The Southern side is Huong Son commune, My Duc district;
- The Eastern side is Le Chi Commune, Gia Lam district
Hanoi experiences a tropical monsoon climate, characterized by cold winters with occasional frost and minimal rainfall from November to March In contrast, the summer months, spanning from April to October, are hot and marked by frequent thunderstorms and cyclones.
Annual precipitation in the lowlands typically ranges from 1,500 to 2,100mm, while high mountain areas like Ba Vi receive between 1,600 and 2,600mm Most rainfall occurs during the summer months, with this season accounting for 80-90% of the total annual precipitation (Hanoi People’s Committee, 2012).
Table 2.1: Climate characteristics of Hanoi
Source #1: Vietnam Institute for Building Science and Technology
Source #2: Pogoda.ru.net, (Record the highest temperature in May 1926, lowest January
Hanoi experiences an average winter temperature of 16.4°C, dropping as low as 2.7°C, while summer averages around 29.2°C, with extreme highs reaching 42.8°C The city has an annual average temperature of 23.6°C and receives between 1,800mm to 2,000mm of rainfall each year Notably, in May 1926, temperatures soared to a record 42.8°C, and in January 1955, a low of 2.7°C was recorded due to La Niña A significant heatwave in early June 2017, influenced by El Niño, saw temperatures rise to 42.5°C, marking another historical high Urban heat effects and high humidity can cause actual temperatures to feel as high as 50°C, with heat-related fatalities occurring during extreme weather events Projections for 2100 indicate that summer will extend longer, with temperatures potentially reaching 48°C, while the perceived temperature could feel like 55-58°C Interestingly, snowfall in Hanoi was recorded at Ba Vi on January 24, 2016, with temperatures around 0°C.
The Red River is the primary river flowing through Hanoi, originating in Ba Vi district and exiting the city near Phu Xuyen district, ultimately reaching Nam Dinh, a city historically linked to Thang Long since the Tran Dynasty Additionally, the Da River serves as a natural boundary between Hanoi and Phu Tho, connecting with the Red River in northern Ba Vi district Hanoi is also home to several other rivers, including The River, Duong River, Cau River, and Ca Lo River, along with smaller rivers like To Lich River that flow within the city.
Hanoi is a unique city known for its numerous lakes, remnants of ancient rivers Among them, West Lake stands out as the largest at approximately 500 hectares, significantly enhancing the urban landscape and surrounded by hotels and villas Hoan Kiem Lake, situated in the city's historic center, is a vital area that holds a special significance for Hanoi Other notable lakes in the inner city include Truc Bach, Tuyen Quang, and Thu Le, while larger lakes such as Kim Lien, Lien Dam, Ngai Son - Dong Mo, Suoi Hai, Meo Gu, Xuan Khanh, Tuy Lai, and Quan Son also contribute to the city's charm.
Hanoi, the largest centrally-owned city in Vietnam following the merger with Ha Tay province, is the second most populous locality in the country, boasting a population of approximately 8,053,663 as of April 1, 2019, just behind Ho Chi Minh City.
Table 2.2: Average population and population density of Hanoi
Hanoi faces significant challenges due to rapid population growth, with an annual increase of approximately 160,000 residents, equivalent to the size of a large district (Hanoi Statistical Office, 2019) This surge in population, particularly in urban areas, underscores the urgent need for effective urban planning and resource management to accommodate the city's expanding demographic.
Between 1999 and 2019, urbanization in the city has surged, with population density in districts like Dong Da, Thanh Xuan, Hai Ba Trung, and Cau Giay reaching 37,347 people/km², 32,291 people/km², 29,589 people/km², and 23,745 people/km² respectively Newly established districts such as Hoang Mai, Nam Tu Liem, Bac Tu Liem, and Ha Dong are also experiencing significant population growth, rivaling central districts However, there is a stark disparity in population allocation, with Thanh Tri and Hoai Duc having densities of 4,343 people/km² and 3,096 people/km², which are 4-6 times higher than less populated areas like Ba Vi (687 people/km²) and My Duc (884 people/km²).
Between 2009 and 2019, the population increased by 1.66 million, with over 1.3 million in the inner city, primarily due to immigration, resulting in an average growth rate of 2.22% per year—an increase from 0.13% in the previous decade Hanoi is now challenged with managing a sustainable population size, as 32 wards and communes have over 30% of their population comprised of immigrants, particularly in rapidly urbanizing areas like Cau Giay, Thanh Xuan, Ha Dong, Nam Tu Liem, and Bac Tu Liem While newly developed urban areas aim to accommodate these migrant flows, they also contribute to severe traffic congestion and various environmental and urban management issues.
In 2019, Hanoi ranked as the second administrative unit in Vietnam for Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP), achieving a total of VND 971,700 billion (approximately US$41.85 billion) and a per capita GRDP of VND 120.6 million (around US$5,200) The city's GRDP growth rate was recorded at 7.62% Notably, the GRDP structure showed a positive shift, with the service sector contributing 64.02%, the industrial and construction sectors accounting for 22.69%, and agriculture, forestry, and fisheries representing 1.99% Additionally, product taxes minus subsidies made up 11.3% of the GRDP.
In 2020, the city's economic growth was significantly impacted by the Covid-19 pandemic, with the General Statistics Office reporting a 3.39% increase in total production during the first half of the year, compared to 7.12% in the same period of the previous year The industrial production index rose by 3.07%, down from 7.4%, while total goods and service revenue saw a 4.6% increase, a decline from 10% previously Additionally, the total number of tourists dropped by 65.4%, reaching only 4.93%, compared to a 9% increase in the same timeframe last year.
The city's epidemic prevention measures have been implemented effectively and swiftly, ensuring optimal health for residents Thanks to the collective efforts of the political and health systems, 118 Covid-19 cases were successfully cured in the first half of 2020, with no community infections reported since The city has now entered a "new normal," prioritizing the "dual goal" of disease prevention while also focusing on recovery and maintenance as the year progresses.
Methods of study
The article focuses on utilizing secondary data to assess air pollution in Hanoi, specifically highlighting metrics such as PM2.5 dust concentration, the air quality index, and the incidence of health issues linked to air pollution.
Data for this article is sourced from the Nguyen Van Cu monitoring station, the air quality monitoring station at the US Embassy in Hanoi, AirNow, the Vietnam Environment Administration, and various relevant reports and articles.
2.3.2 The method of data collection
- Inheritance method: summarizing and analyzing data, materials, and information related to air pollution in Hanoi: n
+ The concentration of air particulate matter, the concentration of greenhouse gases, including Sulfur dioxide, Nitrogen oxide, Carbon dioxide, and Trioxide; + Air pollution causing agents;
+ Affection of air pollution on the environment and people
- Methods of collecting information: collecting information from the Air Pollution curriculum, collecting data on activities that cause air pollution and parameters of air pollution, related articles, and reports
- Comparative method: used to analyze the status of air pollution in years, the evolution of particulate concentration in the period of 2013-2019, and conclude the trend over time
- Data processing method using tools such as Microsoft Excel, SPSS to calculate and tabulate results n
CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL BASIS AND PRACTICAL
Air pollution
Air, the gas that envelops our planet, is essential for the survival of all living organisms and significantly influences human health The quality of air directly impacts both health and ecosystems, making fresh air—characterized by low impurity levels—crucial for well-being Numerous studies indicate that fresh air can alleviate allergies and asthma, boost lung function, strengthen the immune system, and lower the risk of high blood pressure Additionally, it enhances sleep quality, mood, and productivity Unfortunately, air pollution is a growing concern that threatens these benefits.
Air pollution is defined as the presence of any solid, liquid, or gas substance in the air that, in sufficient concentrations, adversely impacts human health, hinders the growth and development of animals and plants, damages materials, and degrades the environmental landscape It can be categorized into two main types: particulate matter pollution and hazardous gas pollution (Thang, 2007b).
PM, or particulate matter, refers to a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets in the air, as defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (2020) This particle pollution includes visible substances like dust, dirt, soot, and smoke, as well as microscopic particles detectable only by an electron microscope It encompasses total suspended particulate (TSP) and inhalable particles with varying diameters.
10 micrometers and smaller (PM10), and fine inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 2.5 micrometers and smaller (PM2.5) n
Figure 3.1: Particulate size of PM 10 and PM2.5
Hazardous gas pollution in urban areas primarily consists of sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and ozone (O3), which mainly originate from the combustion of fuels such as gasoline and oil in vehicle engines.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is produced from the combustion of coal and other sulfur-rich fuels, and its concentration, along with nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and carbon monoxide (CO), tends to rise in areas with heavy traffic These pollutants are categorized as greenhouse gases (GHGs), which absorb and emit radiant energy in the thermal infrared range, contributing to the greenhouse effect The main greenhouse gases present in Earth's atmosphere include water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and ozone (O3) (IPCC, 2008).
Air pollution is a blend of solids, liquids, gases The causes of air pollution are divided into two groups: natural causes and anthropogenic causes
Natural sources of pollution encompass a variety of elements, including wind-driven dust from areas lacking vegetation, gases emitted by living organisms—such as carbon dioxide from human respiration and methane from cattle digestion—and oxygen released by plants during photosynthesis Additionally, smoke from burning materials and volcanic eruptions contribute to this category of pollution, alongside the release of harmful gases (Thang, 2007a).
Volcanic eruptions pose significant natural disaster risks, severely impacting air quality and threatening nearby structures In December 2020, the Etna volcano erupted for a week, generating massive ash clouds reaching heights of 4,600 meters over southern Italy, which were carried by winds into Eastern Europe This event resulted in heavily polluted air, with Air Quality Index (AQI) levels ranging from 100 to 200 in the affected regions.
Forest fires significantly contribute to dust and greenhouse gas emissions while devastating vegetation Between late September 2019 and January 2020, bushfires in Australia burned over 4 million hectares, resulting in severe air pollution in cities like Sydney On January 2, 2020, Canberra recorded alarming PM2.5 levels exceeding 200 μg/m³, while Sydney experienced its worst air quality in December 2019, with PM2.5 levels nearing 400 μg/m³, classified as hazardous by WHO standards The smog from these fires even traveled thousands of miles, affecting air quality in New Zealand and turning the skies orange (Guo et al., 2021).
Temperature inversion significantly contributes to air pollution in major cities by preventing the mixing of atmospheric layers, leading to the accumulation of pollutants This phenomenon occurs when the upper atmospheric layer is warmer than the lower layer, resulting in higher concentrations of harmful substances that can negatively impact both the environment and public health A study conducted in Hanoi revealed that PM2.5 levels during temperature inversion days can be 40 to 48% higher compared to non-inversion days, particularly in the colder months (Tham, 2018).
Transportation is a leading cause of pollution in many developing countries, accounting for the highest emissions of toxic gases like SO2, NO2, CO, and particulate matter (TSP, PM10, PM2.5) According to the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (2016), traffic activities contribute to 70% of polluting smog Vehicle emissions are influenced by factors such as the quality of the vehicle's machinery and fuel, operating speed, driver behavior, and traffic conditions including density, congestion, and infrastructure.
Industrial activities significantly contribute to air pollution, with smoke and dust from factories being the primary culprits These emissions not only degrade air quality but also contaminate water and food sources, posing serious environmental and health risks The dust generated by factories contains harmful substances that further exacerbate the pollution crisis.
High concentrations of pollutants such as CO2, CO, SO2, NOx, and unburned organic matter like soy coal and dust can severely impact the health of local populations If not properly managed, these emissions contribute significantly to acid rain, leading to detrimental effects on both human health and agricultural crops.
The construction industry significantly contributes to air pollution through activities such as site clearance, the use of diesel-powered machinery, and the destruction and burning of solid materials These processes release substantial amounts of dust and particulate matter, including PM10 and PM2.5, along with sulfur dioxide (SO2), leading to a deterioration of air quality The clearance operations particularly introduce large quantities of dirt and cement dust into the environment, exacerbating the pollution problem.
PM10 is the primary contributor to air pollution, largely due to the destruction and combustion of materials that release toxic gases like SO2, NOx, and CO into the environment Increased construction activities lead to a rise in vehicles transporting materials, which contributes to dust from trucks and road repairs, further exacerbating air quality issues.
Waste collection and treatment significantly contribute to air pollution, primarily due to gas emissions from burning straw and other waste materials At garbage collection sites, sanitation workers incinerate large quantities of waste to manage overfilled landfills, leading to harmful emissions and unpleasant odors affecting nearby residential areas Additionally, the improper mixing of chemical and common waste exacerbates pollution, as burning these materials prevents decomposition and results in further soil contamination.
Practical air pollution management groups of measures
According to the Economics and Environmental Management curriculum
Laws and policies, often referred to as legal tools, encompass a variety of documents related to international and national law, including ordinances, decrees, regulations, environmental standards, and permits These legal frameworks also include environmental plans and strategies that operate at national, economic sector, and local levels.
Legal tools play a crucial role in pollution control, particularly through environmental laws that effectively manage air pollution Given that the environment is a unified system without boundaries, international cooperation is essential for reducing air pollution Legislative efforts from any nation contribute significantly to global air quality improvement Since the 1970s, numerous countries have enacted laws aimed at managing air pollution to enhance air quality and safeguard public health.
International environmental law encompasses the fundamental principles and regulations that guide interactions between nations and international organizations in efforts to prevent and mitigate environmental damage both within national borders and in areas beyond national jurisdiction.
The National Environment Law encompasses legal principles that regulate the interactions among individuals and entities regarding the utilization and impact on various environmental elements This framework employs diverse adjustment methods aimed at effectively safeguarding the human environment Additionally, it integrates various legal strategies that guide, implement, and delineate the processes for environmental protection and planning.
According to the "Economics and Environmental Management" curriculum,
Economic tools, or market-based tools, are essential policy instruments designed to modify the costs and operational priorities of individuals and organizations Their primary aim is to shape the behavior of economic agents in a manner that promotes environmental sustainability.
The natural resources tax serves as a crucial source of revenue for the State Budget, imposed on enterprises that utilize natural resources in their production processes Its primary objectives include curbing the excessive demand for resource exploitation, minimizing resource losses during extraction and usage, and generating essential funds for the budget while addressing the interests of the population regarding resource utilization.
The environment fee serves as an economic mechanism that incorporates environmental costs into product pricing, adhering to the "polluter must pay" principle These environmental taxes and fees aim to motivate polluters to decrease their emissions while simultaneously boosting government revenue In numerous countries, the income generated from environmental taxes contributes to the General Budget, similar to other tax revenues, whereas the funds from environmental fees are specifically allocated for environmental protection initiatives, including waste collection, wastewater management, pollution remediation, and support for those affected by pollution.
The deposit-refund system encourages environmentally responsible behavior by requiring consumers to pay an additional deposit when purchasing products that may harm the environment This deposit incentivizes consumers to return the product or its remnants to designated waste collectors or recycling centers for safe disposal, reuse, or recycling When consumers comply with this system, they are rewarded with a refund of their deposit from the collection organizations, promoting sustainable practices and reducing pollution.
Environmental escrow serves as an economic mechanism aimed at regulating activities that may harm the environment This system operates similarly to a deposit-refund model, requiring businesses and production entities to place a financial deposit—such as cash, precious metals, or valuable securities—into banks or credit institutions This deposit acts as a guarantee for their commitment to implement pollution control measures and mitigate environmental degradation before they commence any investment activities.
Technical tools for environmental management are essential for state control and supervision of environmental quality and pollutant distribution These tools encompass environmental assessments, audits, monitoring systems, and waste management practices such as recycling and reuse They play a crucial role in aiding organizations to protect the environment By utilizing these technical tools, authorities can obtain accurate data on environmental conditions, enabling them to implement effective measures to mitigate negative environmental impacts.
The main ancillary tools include environmental modelling and communication
Air quality modeling is a crucial mathematical tool that illustrates the causal relationships between pollutant emissions, meteorological conditions, and air pollutant concentrations It plays a significant role in assessing the processes involved in air pollution, allowing for the quantification of the relationship between emissions and concentrations This modeling technique incorporates data from both past and future scenarios to evaluate the effectiveness of mitigation strategies Consequently, air pollution models are essential for scientific research and environmental management.
Environmental communication is an interactive process that facilitates the exchange of information about natural resources and the environment among participants This form of communication significantly influences community members' perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors, motivating them to engage in activities that promote environmental protection.
Climate change
3.3.1 Definition and causes of climate change
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines climate change (CC) as changes in global atmospheric composition caused directly or indirectly by human activities, contributing to natural climate variations observed over extended periods This definition emphasizes that human actions are a significant factor in the current phenomenon of climate change.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate change (CC) as a significant alteration in climate conditions, identifiable through statistical analysis This change is characterized by shifts in the mean and variability of climate properties and typically lasts for decades or more.
Climate change (CC) is influenced by both natural processes and external factors, including solar cycles, volcanic eruptions, and ongoing human activities that alter atmospheric composition and land use (IPCC, 2014) This phenomenon has occurred throughout history and continues to evolve However, the specific causes of climate change remain inadequately defined.
Climate change (CC) has emerged as a significant topic of public interest in Vietnam, particularly following its legalization in the Hydrometeorology Law enacted on November 23, 2015 According to Article 3, clause 3 of this law, CC is defined as "a change of climate over a long period due to the impact of natural conditions and human activities," driven by factors such as global warming, rising sea levels, and an increase in extreme hydro-meteorological events.
2015) This concept is relatively similar to the two above CC is happening due to both natural and human causes It is represented by changing components of the climate n
Climate change occurs when there is a shift in atmospheric radiation caused by various factors, including alterations in solar radiation, Earth's orbital changes, volcanic activity, tectonic plate movements, oceanic changes, and fluctuations in greenhouse gas concentrations It can result from both natural and human-induced activities.
Scientists widely agree that human activities are the primary drivers of climate change The IPCC (2014) reports that greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrogen oxides, produced during economic development and population growth, have surged to unprecedented levels over the past 800,000 years Addressing this issue is crucial for mitigating global warming and adapting to climate change.
- Carbon dioxide (CO2): enters the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil), solid waste, trees and other biological materials, and also as a result of certain chemical
Methane (CH4) is released during the extraction and transportation of coal, natural gas, and oil Additionally, methane emissions occur from livestock and agricultural activities, as well as from the decomposition of organic waste in municipal solid waste landfills.
- N2O: is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste, as well as during treatment of wastewater
Fluorinated gases, including hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride, are potent synthetic greenhouse gases released during various industrial processes These gases are often utilized as alternatives to ozone-depleting substances such as chlorofluorocarbons and halons, contributing to environmental concerns related to climate change.
3.3.2 The context of climate change in Vietnam
As regards the Vietnam scenarios for CC and SLR, the climate in Vietnam has relatively changed recently They are expressed through the following manifestations and trends: n
Between 1958 and 2014, the annual average temperature across the country rose by approximately 0.62°C, with a notable increase of 0.42°C occurring from 1985 to 2014 On average, temperatures have risen by about 0.10°C each decade, with inland areas experiencing more significant increases compared to coastal and island regions The highest temperatures are recorded in winter, while spring sees the lowest The Central Highlands exhibit the most substantial temperature rise, whereas the South Central Coast shows the least increase (Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2016).
Figure 3.2: Changes of yearly average temperature ( o C) (1958-2014)
Figure 3.3: Changes in yearly precipitation (%) (1958-2014)
Source: (Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2016)
From 1958 to 2014, the annual average precipitation across the country showed a slight increase, particularly during the winter and spring months, while autumn months experienced a decrease However, over the past 60 years, Northern regions saw a decline in annual precipitation, with the Northern Delta experiencing the most significant drop of 12.5% Similarly, Southern regions also faced reductions, with the South Central Coast recording the highest decrease at 19.8%.
• Extreme events related to temperature and precipitation
In most regions of the country, the highest daily (Tx) and lowest daily (Tm) temperatures tend to increase significantly, with the highest increase in the period n
From 1961 to 2014, the global temperature has risen by approximately 1°C per decade, leading to an increase in the number of hot days (temperatures exceeding 35°C), particularly in the Northeast, North Delta, and Central Highlands, where there is an observed rise of 2-3 days per decade Conversely, some areas experience a decline in these hot days Additionally, extreme rainfall patterns vary across climatic zones, with a decrease noted in most parts of the Northwest, Northeast, and Northern Delta, while other regions are witnessing an increase in rainfall There is also a growing frequency of unseasonal and unusually heavy rains.
Between 1959 and 2015, the frequency of cyclones and tropical depressions affecting Vietnam's East Sea showed minimal change However, recent years have seen a slight increase in the occurrence of strong cyclones, particularly those rated above level 12 The cyclone season is now extending later into the year, with a noticeable shift in cyclone pathways towards the south, resulting in more storms impacting the southern regions of the country These changes indicate unusual developments in the behavior and effects of cyclones and tropical depressions on Vietnam in recent years.
According to monitoring data, sea level at most locations along the coastal line
Figure 3.4: Changes in tropical cyclones
Figure 3.5: Changes in tropical cyclone developments with wind speeds of level 12 or higher in the
According to the Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (2016), the average sea level rise in various locations varies, with the highest recorded at 1.33 mm/year in Bach Long Vi Interestingly, some areas like Co To and Hon Ngu are experiencing a decrease in sea level, measuring at -1.39 mm/year and -5.77 mm/year, respectively.
Figure 3.6: Trends of sea-level rise changes
Satellite data indicates that Vietnam's coastal sea levels are rising at an average rate of 3.5 mm per year, with the South Central Coast experiencing the highest increase at 5.6 mm per year, while the Gulf of Tonkin shows the smallest rise at 2.5 mm per year (Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2016).
3.3.3 Climate change scenarios for Vietnam
Vietnam is expected to experience significant climate changes in the coming years, as outlined in the CC scenario by the Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (2016), which identifies key manifestations and trends related to these shifts.
Temperatures in all regions of Vietnam tend to increase compared to the base period (1986-2005), with the largest increase being in the North n
Figure 3.7: Scenario on annual average temperature change
Figure 3.8: Scenario on annual precipitation change
CURRENT SITUATION OF AIR POLLUTION IN HANOI
Causes of air pollution in Hanoi
Transportation is the leading contributor to air pollution, significantly impacting total emissions with key exhaust gases including SO2, NO2, CO, and particulate matter (TSP, PM10, PM2.5) Factors such as vehicle machinery, fuel quality, operating speed, driver behavior, traffic volume, congestion, and road infrastructure play crucial roles in determining emission levels, as highlighted by the Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (2016, 2018).
As of early 2019, Hanoi had a total of 6,649,596 vehicles, comprising 739,731 cars, 5,561,436 motorbikes (86%), and 148,429 electric scooters (Hanoi Statistical Office, 2019) Motorbikes serve as the primary source of emissions in the city The vehicle count is growing at an annual rate of approximately 15%, adding around 27,000 units each month To accommodate this surge in transportation, Hanoi requires about 23% of its land area for traffic; however, it currently allocates only one-third of that space This discrepancy contributes to daily traffic congestion, resulting in significant economic losses and deteriorating air quality.
Hanoi's public transport primarily relies on buses, which, despite improvements in quality and quantity, still fail to meet the travel demands of residents Additionally, many of these buses are outdated and do not comply with emission standards, contributing significantly to air pollution The bus routes remain congested, and the overall service quality does not satisfy the needs of commuters, compounded by a lack of awareness among the public regarding traffic regulations, leading to further congestion.
Transportation activities not only contribute to air pollution but also deteriorate inner city roads, which are often narrow, poorly planned, and inadequate for residents' travel needs In Hanoi, ongoing repairs and construction on major roads exacerbate the concentration of particulate matter in the air Additionally, the increased traffic from trucks carrying construction materials raises dust levels, further intensifying air pollution in the area.
Industrial zones in Hanoi are major contributors to emissions, primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels in over 100 clusters operating within the city Most enterprises in the region are small or medium-sized and lack adequate systems for treating harmful emissions before release The reliance on outdated technology and fossil fuels, particularly coal and oil, persists due to their low costs, despite a growing shift towards clean energy Key pollutants include nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and total suspended particles (TSP) Additionally, suburban industrial areas in nearby provinces exacerbate air pollution in Hanoi by contributing polluted particles, worsening the city's air quality.
Hanoi's rapid urbanization has led to an increase in construction activities, particularly in new residential areas, roads, and bridges, which generate significant dust and particulate matter Despite the implementation of Circular 05/2015/TT-BXD aimed at managing dust at construction sites and regulations requiring vehicle washing before leaving sites, the levels of dust and particles continue to rise, adversely impacting residents and traffic conditions.
The construction industry significantly contributes to air pollution through various activities, including site clearance, the operation of diesel-powered machinery, and the destruction and burning of materials These processes release substantial amounts of dust and particulate matter, particularly PM10 and PM2.5, into the atmosphere Site clearance introduces numerous particles and cement dust, while diesel vehicles emit harmful pollutants such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) Additionally, the destruction and burning of materials release toxic gases, further degrading air quality.
In Hanoi, prolonged construction projects, such as the Cat Linh-Ha Dong railway and the completed Truong Chinh route, contribute to persistent dust pollution, adversely impacting both road users and local residents.
4.1.4 Living activities and waste treatment
Air pollution in Hanoi is significantly caused by activities such as cooking with coal stoves, domestic waste that emits odors, and operations from craft villages While many households have transitioned to modern cooking methods like gas stoves, induction cookers, and electric cookers, some small families still rely on coal stoves To mitigate the harmful effects of coal stoves on both the environment and public health, Hanoi implemented a policy to phase out honeycomb charcoal stoves by 2020, with Hoan Kiem being one of the first districts to take action The Hanoi Department of Natural Resources and Environment has raised awareness through pamphlets, highlighting that using a honeycomb charcoal stove for just one session is equivalent to smoking 40 cigarettes.
Hanoi, with over 8 million residents, generates approximately 6,500 tons of domestic waste daily Despite having 17 waste treatment plants, many are not operational or lack community approval, primarily due to the unpleasant odors and air pollution they produce, which significantly impacts nearby residents The waste management process contributes to harmful gas emissions, starting from collection—where methane is released from decomposing organic matter—to transportation, which generates dust and odors due to congested and degraded roads Additionally, the burial and incineration of waste, predominantly composed of paper, wood, rubber, nylon, cloth, and plastic, release various harmful gases, including SO2, NOx, CO, CO2, HCl, and ash into the environment.
4.1.5 Other sources from sub-urban areas
The surrounding regions of Hanoi, including Bac Ninh, Hung Yen, Hai Duong, and Quang Ninh, are experiencing significant industrial growth, drawing substantial foreign investment and establishing numerous export processing zones However, the factories in these areas release considerable amounts of toxic gases and particulate matter Despite the physical distance, these pollutants can be carried by the wind, impacting air quality in Hanoi.
An analysis by the Green Innovation Development Centre (GreenID) reveals that air pollution in Hanoi is more severe than in Jakarta, Indonesia, primarily due to particle pollution The situation is exacerbated by plans to construct additional coal-fired power plants, which are significant contributors to air pollution Currently, 20 coal-fired thermal power plants operate in northern Hanoi, and despite their distance from the city, PM2.5 fine particles can travel long distances, impacting air quality Additionally, agricultural practices, such as burning straw during harvest seasons, release substantial ash that further deteriorates the city's air quality.
Air pollution condition in Hanoi
Hanoi is facing a severe air pollution crisis, exacerbated by emissions from approximately 6.7 million vehicles and over 100 industrial zones, which contribute around 80,000 tons of smoke and dust and 46,000 tons of CO2 annually Monitoring data reveals concerning levels of pollutants, including PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NOx, CO2, CO, and TSP, highlighting the urgent need for effective measures to combat this environmental challenge.
Particle pollution is a significant environmental issue in Hanoi, particularly at major intersections during peak traffic hours, such as 7 to 9 A.M and 5 to 7 P.M Dust concentration tends to rise in the dry season, especially during the last months of the year, when both weather conditions and increased traffic contribute to poorer air quality Over the past six years, Hanoi has consistently faced dust pollution, with dust concentration levels surpassing the QCVN 05: 2013 standard of 25 μg/m³ and the WHO recommendation of 10 μg/m³.
Figure 0.1: PM 10 and PM 2.5 monthly average concentration in Hanoi 2018
Source: Based on data collected from Nguyen Van Cu monitoring station and Airnow
Dust pollution in Hanoi is analyzed by two particulate indexes PM2.5 and PM10 The evolution of the concentration of PM10 and PM2.5 in Hanoi in the period 2010-
In 2018, the average annual concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 ranged from 46.2 to 100.8 μg/m³ and 35.5 to 59.4 μg/m³, respectively, with an increasing trend observed towards the end of the year due to the dry weather and reduced rainfall in Hanoi Data indicates that PM10 and PM2.5 levels were lowest in July and peaked in December Notably, PM2.5 poses a greater health risk than PM10, as it can penetrate deeper into the human body and enter the bloodstream, while PM10 is limited to the lungs.
High traffic volumes contribute to emissions of pollutants like CO, NO2, SO2, and O3, making heavily trafficked areas the most polluted In Hanoi, the concentration of these pollutants remains within the permissible limits set by QCVN 05: 2013, according to the Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (2018).
Recent changes in air quality in Hanoi are closely linked to weather variations, with winter temperatures typically higher than those in summer due to seasonal climatic differences Key factors influencing air quality include wind, temperature, humidity, precipitation, and sunlight In winter, the combination of lower temperatures, reduced sunlight, and rain, along with the northeast monsoon, facilitates the movement of pollutants from the North, significantly impacting air quality.
During periods of heat inversion, the typical atmospheric temperature gradient is reversed, creating a barrier that traps airborne pollutants in a specific area, leading to increased pollution concentration In summer, although higher temperatures and frequent rainfall can wash away or disperse contaminants, the pollutants tend to dissolve more easily in the warm air, resulting in lower pollution levels compared to winter.
4.2.1 Air pollution caused by PM 2.5
The industrial revolution has ushered in the 4.0 era, emphasizing sustainable development and the establishment of a green economy Countries like the USA, Korea, and Germany are adopting advanced technologies to promote eco-friendliness and minimize emissions As the global movement for environmental protection gains momentum, highlighted by World Environment Day 2019's focus on air pollution, Vietnam is also taking steps to improve air quality, as evidenced by the PM2.5 data from 2012 to 2019.
Figure 0.2: Averaged PM 2.5 concentration from 2012 to 2018 n
Between 2012 and 2018, PM2.5 concentrations consistently exceeded the QCVN 05:2013 standards, with significant improvements in air quality observed in 2014 and 2015 compared to 2013 However, a sharp increase in PM2.5 levels was noted in 2016, reaching 50.5 μg/m³ Despite this spike, air quality continued to improve in subsequent years A comprehensive analysis of PM2.5 pollution in Hanoi during this timeframe is illustrated through monthly average concentrations from 2013 to 2019, utilizing data from AirNow and the Nguyen Van Cu monitoring station.
Figure 0.3: Monthly average PM 2.5 concentration in the period 2013-2019
Source: Calculations from PM 2.5 concentration data in Hanoi provided by AirNow
The air quality in Hanoi has shown overall improvement, with 2013 recording the worst average monthly PM2.5 concentrations compared to other years However, late 2019 experienced a significant rise in PM2.5 levels compared to the previous year, particularly during the Tet holiday months This increase is attributed to the typically dry weather, reduced rainfall, and heavy traffic during the final months of the year.
As of December 2019, the average PM2.5 concentration in Hanoi for the first 11 months was approximately 30.4 μg/m³, indicating a potential increase in December, a month typically associated with higher pollution levels Historical data shows a consistent rise in PM2.5 levels during December over the past four years, with figures of 51 μg/m³ in 2015, 50 μg/m³ in 2016, 48 μg/m³ in 2017, and 26 μg/m³ in 2018 However, if this trend continues, the average PM2.5 concentration for December 2019 is expected to remain lower than in previous years, with predictions ranging from 50 μg/m³ to a peak of 102 μg/m³ Ultimately, the overall average for 2019 is projected to be between 32 μg/m³ and 36.3 μg/m³, marking a decrease compared to the levels recorded from 2013 to 2018.
Table 0.1: Monthly average PM 2.5 concentration from 2013 to 2019
Source: Calculations based on monitoring data at Nguyen Van Cu monitoring station and U.S Embassy monitoring station
Through the analysis of the air pollution situation in Hanoi in the period 2013-
2019, we can see positive signs when the PM2.5 concentration continues to decrease in recent years However, there are still many difficulties in improving air pollution in n
Hanoi and the situation of air pollution is also increasingly unpredictable and dangerous to human health than ever before
4.2.2 Air pollution caused by PM 10
According to the national technical regulations on ambient air quality, PM10 has an average 24-hour due value of 150 μg/m 3 and an average of 50 μg/m 3 per year
Figure 0.4: Annual average PM 10 concentration in Hanoi from 2013 to 2018
Source: Fluctuations over time of PM 10 dust, Environmental Journal
PM10 concentrations in Hanoi have shown a general decline over time, yet they frequently surpass the limits set by QCVN 05:2013 Notably, in 2017, PM10 levels fell within the permissible threshold, measuring 47 μg/m³.
Analysis reveals that annual PM2.5 and PM10 dust concentrations in Hanoi surpass the limits set by QCVN 05:2013/BTNMT Observational data indicates that from 2013 to 2018, PM2.5 levels exceeded permissible limits by 10.31% in 2017 and up to 51.25% in 2013 In contrast, PM10 concentrations exceeded the lower limit by a maximum of only 9.19% in 2013, with even lower figures reported in 2016.
4.2.3 Air pollution caused by hazardous gases
Air pollution in Hanoi, primarily from SO2, NO2, CO, and O3 gases, remains within the permissible limits set by QCVN 05:2013/BTNMT, indicating that hazardous gas levels are not yet critical The main contributors to these emissions are motor vehicles, particularly in high-traffic areas where pollution concentrations are the highest According to the "National Environmental Status Report 2016," while CO, NO2, and SO2 levels are within acceptable ranges, there is a noticeable upward trend in NO2 concentrations CO levels typically peak during morning rush hours, with data from the Nguyen Van Cu Monitoring Station in 2015 showing concentrations exceeding 3,500 μg/m³ between 8-9 am Additionally, the average annual SO2 concentration at this station rose from under 10 μg/m³ in 2012 to 30 μg/m³ in 2015, before declining to approximately 22 μg/m³ in 2016.
Recent measurements indicate that while the concentration of NO2 in Hanoi remains within acceptable standards, there has been a noticeable upward trend, particularly in high-traffic areas such as the crossroads of The Department, Pham Van Dong, and Truong Chinh This increase is most pronounced during peak traffic hours, specifically between 7-9 am and 5-7 pm Similarly, CO levels in Hanoi also rise during these busy periods in congested traffic zones.
The concentration of SO2 remains within the limits set by QCVN 05:2013, although it may occasionally exceed acceptable levels near coal and oil-burning enterprises Despite these temporary spikes, the average annual SO2 levels continue to meet established standards.
Figure 0.5: Annual average SO 2 concentration development at Nguyen Van n
Effects caused by air pollution in Hanoi
4.3.1 Effects of air pollution on humans
Human health is significantly impacted by environmental changes, particularly air quality Despite improvements in Hanoi's atmosphere, there has been a concerning rise in air pollution-related diseases, with residents increasingly prone to respiratory issues, pneumonia, and severe conditions like lung cancer Prolonged exposure to air pollution heightens health risks, especially for vulnerable groups such as children, pregnant women, and the elderly Research indicates that air pollution can lead to higher miscarriage rates and increase the likelihood of birth defects in infants born to mothers exposed to pollutants during pregnancy.
PM2.5 particulates are the most harmful air pollutants for human health, as people inhale approximately 10,000 liters of air daily High concentrations of PM2.5 in the atmosphere significantly increase the risk of related diseases Numerous global studies have demonstrated the adverse effects of exposure to these fine particulates.
PM2.5 particulate increases the risk of illness and death For example, exposure to
PM2.5 increases the risk of asthma, lung disease, chronic obstruction, pneumonia, respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and lung cancer (Uysal and Schapira, 2003; Ghio and Huang, 2004)
Environmental studies indicate that by 2035, air pollution-related deaths in Hanoi could potentially double Children in major cities like Beijing, Jakarta, and Hanoi face significant health risks, with air pollution increasing the likelihood of respiratory infections by 40% and asthma by 20% For adults, the risk of developing lung cancer rises by 25-30%, and the likelihood of experiencing a stroke is doubled.
4.3.2 Effects of air pollution on socio-economic development
The World Bank has highlighted the significant economic burdens imposed by air pollution, revealing that associated costs are substantial These costs manifest in various ways, including lost income due to work stoppages for medical treatment, reduced crop productivity, and the displacement of populations from polluted areas, as well as expenses related to pollution treatment and control Collectively referred to as pollution costs, these financial burdens primarily stem from secondary impacts that contribute to a range of socio-economic challenges Notably, the estimated loss can reach up to 20% of income (World Bank, 2018).
As of the end of the first quarter of 2019, Hanoi's population exceeds 8 million residents According to the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, each individual in the city spends an average of over 1,500 VND (approximately 0.07 USD) daily on respiratory treatments linked to air pollution This results in a staggering annual expenditure of around 4.38 trillion VND (about 18.25 million USD) for medical treatments related to air quality issues in Hanoi.
According to Mr Le Viet Phu, an economist at Fulbright University Vietnam, air pollution in the country results in significant economic losses, amounting to approximately 5-7% of Vietnam's GDP, which translates to between 11.4 and 15.9 billion USD due to premature deaths.
Air pollution in Hanoi casts a persistent gray hue over the skyline, diminishing the city's natural beauty and negatively impacting tourism and leisure activities Despite these challenges, Hanoi remains a prime destination for travelers, drawing visitors with its rich culture and history.
Hanoi attracts approximately 15,000 visitors annually, according to the Hanoi Statistical Office (2019) Despite the growing number of tourists, many have expressed concerns about the city's pollution levels If the air quality in Hanoi does not improve, it could significantly impact the city's tourism industry.
4.3.3 Effects of air pollution-related to climate change
Climate change (CC) is primarily driven by human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil, which release greenhouse gases This process significantly contributes to air pollution, marked by a rapid rise in carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) levels from transportation These gases are major contributors to environmental pollution and are the leading causes of the greenhouse effect.
CC Currently every year, Hanoi has to receive about 46,000 tons of CO2 from different emission sources, making the CC situation increasingly serious n
Air pollution causes CC and the direct consequence of this phenomenon is that the temperature in Hanoi has continuously increased over the years The summer of
In 2019, Hanoi experienced record-breaking heat, with temperatures soaring to 45 to 50°C for consecutive days, marking the highest levels in a century This relentless heat has serious implications for public health and outdoor workers, while simultaneously driving up the demand for air-conditioners Consequently, the increased use of these appliances contributes to higher emissions of harmful gases, exacerbating the city's air pollution crisis.
Current air pollution management tools
In 2008, Vietnam marked a significant milestone in its climate change response by integrating political commitment into the development of new policies through the National Target Program to Respond to Climate Change This shift emphasizes the importance of considering climate change in decision-making processes, particularly in implementing pollution control solutions in major cities.
The Vietnam Environmental Protection Law 2014 establishes comprehensive regulations for air environment protection, specifically addressing urban air quality This law enhances existing legal frameworks by including provisions that target industries with significant air pollution, such as transportation, construction, and manufacturing Notably, Section 4 of Chapter VI focuses on "Protection of the Air Environment," detailing three key articles that outline the necessary measures for safeguarding urban air quality (The National Assembly of Vietnam, 2014).
- Article 62: General provisions on the protection of the air environment;
This law outlines the evaluation and approval process for projects prior to construction, but it lacks specific sanctions for violations It mandates that organizations and enterprises implement mitigation and treatment measures to address air quality impacts after construction However, it does not provide management measures or penalties for non-compliance with these regulations.
Chapter IX, Section 5 of the waste management regulations addresses the management and control of various environmental factors, including dust, exhaust gas, noise, vibration, light, and radiation Article 102 specifically focuses on the management and control of dust and gas emissions, mandating that organizations and individuals involved in production and business activities must treat excessive dust emissions to comply with established regulations Additionally, it requires that vehicles and equipment emitting dust be equipped with protective measures and dust filters to minimize environmental impact.
Decree No 38/2015/NĐ-CP establishes regulations for managing industrial emissions in Vietnam, addressing major sources such as traffic, industry, construction, agriculture, and waste treatment Despite these regulations outlined in the Vietnam Environmental Protection Law 2014 and Decree No 38/2015/NĐ-CP, significant challenges remain in effectively controlling dust and emissions Currently, emissions from registered vehicles and craft villages, as well as industrial clusters, are not adequately monitored, leading to ongoing environmental pollution issues.
• The National Action Plan for Air Quality Management - Decision No
In 2016, the Prime Minister approved Decision 985/QĐ-TTg, which outlines the "National Action Plan for Air Quality Management to 2020, Vision to 2025." This plan emphasizes the need for management agencies to prioritize dust control at construction sites and during material transportation It calls for investment in advanced technologies and production processes in industrial facilities to reduce emissions Additionally, it mandates the installation and operation of gas treatment systems to prevent air pollution and the enforcement of emission standards for new vehicles The plan also aims to enhance national capacities for greenhouse gas control, supporting Vietnam's commitment to reduce GHG emissions, and increase the number of automatic air quality monitoring stations in urban areas.
2015 following the national environmental monitoring network plan Monitoring air pollutant parameters regularly according to environmental technical regulations and parameters VOCs, HC ” (Prime Minister of Viet Nam, 2016)
In Vietnam, there is no dedicated legal framework specifically for air quality management; however, the Prime Minister has acknowledged its significance by issuing various regulations and standards related to atmospheric conditions.
- National technical regulation on ambient air quality, QCVN 05:2013/BTNMT This regulation specifies the concentration of substances in the air, replacing the QCVN 05: 2009/BTNMT;
- QCVN 06:2009/BTNMT regulates several toxic substances in the surrounding air, replacing the TCVN 5938:2005;
- QCVN 26:2010/BTNMT regulates the noise, replacing the TCVN 5949: 1998;
The national action plan on air quality management, approved for 2020 with a vision extending to 2025, focuses on controlling emissions sources and assessing pollution levels of PM10 and PM2.5 particulates in urban areas This initiative aims to enhance national capacities for greenhouse gas management, support Vietnam's commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and improve the monitoring of ambient air quality.
Besides, many environmental technical regulations on emissions regulated in n
- QCVN 51: 2013/BTNMT: National technical regulation on industrial emissions of steel production;
- QCVN 02:2008/BTNMT: National technical regulation on the waste gas from medical solid waste incinerators;
- QCVN 19:2009/BTNMT: National technical regulation on industrial emissions for dust and inorganic substances;
- QCVN 20:2009/BTNMT: National technical regulation on industrial emissions with a number of organic substances;
- QCVN 21:2009/BTNMT: National technical regulation on industrial emissions of chemical fertilizer production;
- QCVN 22:2009/BTNMT: National technical regulation on industrial thermal power emissions;
- QCVN 23:2009/BTNMT: National technical regulation on industrial emissions of cement production
Vietnam adheres to both domestic regulations and international agreements aimed at air environmental protection, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Kyoto Protocol, and the Paris Agreement.
4.4.1.1 Vietnam participates in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Vietnam has been actively involved in global climate initiatives since joining the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1994 and the Kyoto Protocol in 2002 As a non-Annex I member, the country has implemented various measures under these agreements On June 8, 2015, Vietnam ratified the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, reinforcing its commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions during the second commitment period (2013-2020) and striving to limit global temperature rise to no more than 2°C above pre-industrial levels by the century's end.
To support the implementation of the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol, the Government of Vietnam has introduced several key documents, including the Prime Minister's Directive for organizing these efforts, a comprehensive plan for the Kyoto Protocol, and the National Target Program for Climate Change response Additionally, the National Strategy on Climate Change and the National Green Growth Strategy outline Vietnam's commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, which remains a central objective The National Action Plan on Climate Change for 2012-2020 and the management scheme for GHG emissions and carbon credit business activities further emphasize Vietnam's dedication to addressing climate change on a global scale.
Vietnam implemented national GHG inventory for the base years 1994, 2000,
Between 2010 and 2014, Vietnam made significant contributions to the UNFCCC by submitting national announcements, including TBQG1 (2003), TBQG2 (2010), and TBQG3 (2018) The country also provided Biennial Update Reports (BUR1 in 2014 and BUR2 in 2017) and outlined its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) in 2015, alongside the development of Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA) to address greenhouse gas emissions.
The Government of Vietnam's organizational framework for implementing the UNFCCC is anchored by three key entities: the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, the Standing Committee of the National Committee on Climate Change, and the Steering Committee of the UNFCCC Additional ministries contribute vital information, data, and recommendations in collaboration with the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Guided by the Steering Committee, the Department of Climate Change compiles reports on various aspects such as GHG inventories, mitigation efforts, and technological advancements, with support from domestic and international research institutions, universities, and consulting organizations These compiled reports are then submitted to the Steering Committee by relevant departments, general departments, and institutes.
The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment will present the Advisory Council of the National Committee on Climate Change, ultimately submitting it to the Government of Vietnam for the approval of the Biennial Update Report (BUR).
Figure 0.6: Organization chart of Vietnam implementing the UNFCCC
4.4.1.2 Vietnam participates in the Paris Agreement on climate change
In December 2015, the UNFCCC's 21st Conference (COP21) resulted in the historic Paris Agreement on Climate Change, which binds all parties to address climate change Vietnam signed the agreement on April 22, 2016, and officially approved it via Government Resolution No.93/NQ-CP on October 31, 2016, submitting its approval to the United Nations on November 3, 2016 The Prime Minister subsequently approved a comprehensive implementation plan for the Paris Agreement through Decision No.2053/QĐ-TTg on October 28, 2016, outlining 68 key tasks to be executed between now and 2020 and 2030, aimed at fulfilling Vietnam's commitments made at COP21.