(Luận văn thạc sĩ) research on proposing solutions for sustainable use of coastal wetland resources in the context of climate change in dong rui area, tien yen district, quang ninh province

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI VIETNAM JAPAN UNIVERSITY BUI THI LAN RESEARCH ON PROPOSING SOLUTIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE USE OF COASTAL WETLAND RESOURCES IN THE CONTEXT OF CLIMATE CHA

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI

VIETNAM JAPAN UNIVERSITY

BUI THI LAN

RESEARCH ON PROPOSING SOLUTIONS

FOR SUSTAINABLE USE OF COASTAL WETLAND RESOURCES

IN THE CONTEXT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

IN DONG RUI AREA, TIEN YEN DISTRICT,

QUANG NINH PROVINCE

MASTER’S THESIS

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VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI

VIETNAM JAPAN UNIVERSITY

BUI THI LAN

RESEARCH ON PROPOSING SOLUTIONS

FOR SUSTAINABLE USE OF COASTAL WETLAND RESOURCES

IN THE CONTEXT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

IN DONG RUI AREA, TIEN YEN DISTRICT,

QUANG NINH PROVINCE

MASTER PROGRAM IN CLIMATE CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT

CODE: 8900201.02QTD

RESEARCH SUPERVISOR Prof Dr MAI TRONG NHUAN

Dr LUU VIET DUNG

Hanoi, 2021

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PLEDGE

I assure that this thesis is the result of my own research and has not been published The use of other research’s results and other documents must comply with the regulations The citations and references to documents, books, research paper, and websites must be in the list of references of the thesis

Author of the thesis

Bui Thi Lan

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TABLE OF CONTENT

PLEDGE

TABLE OF CONTENT

1.1.1 Background 1

1.1.2 Rationale for choosing Dong Rui wetlands 2

1.2 Research objectives and tasks 3 1.3 Research question and hypothesis 7 1.3.1 Research question 7

1.3.2 Research hypothesis 7

1.4 Objects and Scope of the research 7 1.4.1 Research objects 7

1.4.2 Scope 8

1.5 Novelty and Significance of the research 8 1.5.1 Novelty 8

1.5.2 Scientific significance 8

1.5.3 Practical significance 8

1.6 Theoretical basis for the research 9 1.6.1 Wetland resources 9

1.6.2 The concept of sustainability and sustainability of wetland resources 10

1.6.3 Sustainable use & principles for sustainable use of coastal wetlands 11

1.7 Overview of related studies 12 1.7.1 Wetland resources in CC context 12

1.7.2 Sustainable use of coastal wetland resources 15

1.7.3 Frameworks for assessment of impacts on wetlands 17

Chapter 2 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGIES 25 2.1 Overview of the study site 25 2.1.1 Physical features 25

2.1.2 Socio-economic features 26

2.2 Research analytical framework 26 2.3 Approaches 28 2.3.1 Systematic approach 28

2.3.2 Ecosystem approach 28

2.3.3 Bottom-up approach 28

2.3.4 Trans-disciplinary approach 28

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2.3.5 Sustainable development approach 29

2.4 Data collection 29 2.5 Methods 30 2.5.1 Desk research 32

2.5.2 Social survey 32

2.5.3 Field survey 36

2.5.4 Statistical analysis 38

2.5.5 Mapping 38

2.5.6 Expert consultation 39

2.5.7 Indicator-based assessment 39

Chapter 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 51 3.1 Climate Change and Climate Change impact 51 3.1.1 Climate Change manifestation 51

3.1.2 Climate Change impacts – the driving force 57

3.2 Human driving force and pressure on wetland resources 60 3.2.1 The human driving forces 60

3.2.2 The human pressure on wetlands 63

3.3 The state and impact of the wetland resources 67 3.3.1 The state of environmental quality 67

3.3.2 The state of ecosystem of Dong Rui wetlands 70

3.3.3 The state of biodiversity of coastal species of Dong Rui wetlands 72

3.3.4 The impact: change in productivity of wetland-related activities 74

3.4 The societal response toward wetlands 76 3.4.1 Local people’s awareness and willingness toward wetlands 76

3.4.2 The efficiency of the wetland safeguard system 78

3.5 Overall assessment of the sustainability of the wetland resources in Dong Rui Commune, Tien yen District, Quang Ninh Province 82 3.6 Solutions for sustainable use of wetland resources 85 3.6.1 The bottom-up & systematic approach in sustainable use of wetland resources 85

3.6.2 Solutions to deal with the driving forces 87

3.6.3 Solutions to deal with the pressure 88

3.6.4 Solutions to enhance societal response 89

APPENDIX 96

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1-1: Research objectives and tasks 4

Table 1-2: Global contribution of mangroves and other coastal habitats to carbon sequestration in the global coastal ocean 12

Table 1-3: Derivation of criteria and indicators of sustainability for inland wetland systems 19

Table 1-4: The Pressure-status-response model for wetland assessment 20

Table 1-5: Overview of the identified overall trend in the Mediterranean wetlands 22

Table 2-1: Data used in the research 29

Table 2-2: Research methods 30

Table 2-3: Social survey activities 33

Table 2-4: Field survey activities 36

Table 2-5: The sustainability assessment indicators of wetland resources in Dong Rui commune, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province 44

Table 3-1: Indicator PSR02 score 54

Table 3-2: Indicator PSR02 score 56

Table 3-3: Indicator PSR01 score 59

Table 3-4: Indicator PSR04 score 62

Table 3-5: Self-evaluation on resource-use pressure on the wetlands 63

Table 3-6: Indicator PSR06 score 64

Table 3-7: Indicator PSR05 score 67

Table 3-8: Indicator PSR07 score 68

Table 3-9: Indicator PSR08 score 68

Table 3-10: Indicator PSR09 score 68

Table 3-11: Wetland classification 71

Table 3-12: Indicator PSR11 score 73

Table 3-13: Indicator PSR12 score 75

Table 3-14: Indicator PSR13 score 77

Table 3-15: Evaluation of the local people on the efficiency of the wetland institution in Dong Rui commune, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province 79

Table 3-16: Indicator PSR14 score 80

Table 3-17: The sustainability assessment score by component 82

Table 3-18: Challenges for sustainable use of wetland resources in Dong Rui commune, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province 86

Table 3-19: Some solutions to deal with the driving forces 87

Table 3-20: Some solutions to deal with the pressure 88

Table 3-21: Some solutions to enhance societal response 89

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1: The ecosystem services of Dong Rui wetland 14

Figure 1-2: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Conceptual Framework 18

Figure 1-3: DPSIR approach for mangrove assessment 23

Figure 1-4: DPSIR approach for assessment of sandy beach in the northeast coast 24

Figure 2-1: Map of the study site 25

Figure 2-2: The research framework 27

Figure 2-3: Map of the surveyed households 33

Figure 2-4: Map of the observation sites and route 36

Figure 2-5: Procedure of Sustainability index calculation 43

Figure 3-1: Change in annual temperature during 1990-2020 & forecast until 2070 51

Figure 3-2: Change in maximum temperature during 1990-2020 & forecast until 2070 51

Figure 3-3: Change in minimum temperature during 1990-2020 & forecast until 2070 52

Figure 3-4: Total annual precipitation & maximum precipitation in 1990-2020 53

Figure 3-5: Number of rainy days/year in 1990-2020 53

Figure 3-6: Change of climate extreme conditions in Dong Rui commune, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province 55

Figure 3-7: Number of typhoons in coastal region of Vietnam during the 1945-2019 period 56

Figure 3-8: Livelihoods in Dong Rui commune, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province 57

Figure 3-9: CC impact on human activities in Dong Rui commune, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province 58

Figure 3-10: Degree of temperature change impact in Dong Rui commune, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province 58

Figure 3-11: Degree of precipitation change impact in Dong Rui commune, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province 59

Figure 3-12: Degree of impact of typhoon and other climate-induced hazards in Dong Rui commune, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province 59

Figure 3-13: Main income sources of local households in Dong Rui commune, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province 61

Figure 3-14: The degree of dependency on wetland resources for livelihoods in Dong Rui commune, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province 62

Figure 3-15: Wetland resource-use by percentage in Dong Rui commune, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province 63

Figure 3-16: Map of Dong Rui's land use in 2019 66

Figure 3-17: Dong Rui's environmental quality 69

Figure 3-18: Map of distribution of wetland ecosystems in Tien Yen district (Dang et al., 2020) 70

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Figure 3-20: Action when facing productivity reduction in Dong Rui commune, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province 75 Figure 3-21: Local people's awareness about wetland values in Dong Rui commune, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province 76 Figure 3-22: Local people's willingness to participate in wetland conservation in Dong Rui commune, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province 77 Figure 3-23: The sustainability indicator score 83 Figure 3-24: Sustainability of Dong Rui wetlands 84 Figure 3-25: The bottom-up & systematic approaches in identification of challenges in sustainable use of wetland resources in Dong Rui commune, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province 85

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LIST OF ABBREVIATION

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to convey my utmost gratitude to Prof Dr Mai Trong Nhuan and Dr Luu Viet Dung, my supervisors, for their big support and instruction for the master’s thesis I will not be able to complete this without their guidance and encouragement

My appreciation and gratitude also go to the master program in Climate Change and Development (MCCD) of Vietnam - Japan University and all of its amazing lecturers, staff, and students for their assistance and companion during my journey with MCCD

I owe my gratitude to the VNU Key Laboratory of Geoenvironment and Climate Change Response (GEO-CRE) staff for their support during the completion of this master’s thesis I also thank the research team from VNU University of Science, led by Prof Dr Nguyen Cao Huan for the permission to join the field trip to Dong Rui commune, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province In addition, I have received the support from the VNU project no TXTCN20.06 which is important to the accomplishment of my master’s thesis, and I am so grateful for that

Furthermore, I would like to express my gratitude to the staff and local people of Dong Rui commune, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province for their hospitality and willingness in sharing the information which is the integral part of this master’s thesis Last but not least, I am indebted to my beloved family and my dear friends for their love, care, and encouragement The master’s thesis would not have been possible without their inputs

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CC and Global Warming has changed climatic variables like temperature, precipitation, and sea-level rise (SLR), as well as has accelerated the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events (IPCC, 2007) These changes severely affect both nature and the human systems worldwide

As estimated in the Global Climate Risk Index 2021, during the 2000-2019 period, over 475,000 people died, 2.56 trillion USD lost due to the occurrence of 11,000 extreme weather events (Eckstein et al., 2021) Accordingly, Vietnam ranked 13th in the overall Climate Risk Index for the period 2020 has been a tough year for the country with a series of severe weather events Following the report by the Vietnam Disaster Management Authority, Vietnam has gone through 13 storms in the East Sea,

floods/flashflood/landslide, 86 earthquakes, and a series of severe droughts, saline intrusion, erosion, or sea dyke subsidence in many parts of the country in the year of

2020 These disasters have caused loss to 353 lives and injuries of 876 people; in estimation, 35,181 billion VND lost was one of the direct impacts

Research on CC in Vietnam shows that over the past 50 years, the annual average temperature of the country increases about 0.5ºC, precipitation increases in the South, decreases in the North, and extreme climatic conditions like typhoon, flood, tropical depression, drought, or prolonged heat tend to increase (Tân & Thành, 2013) Accordingly, the ecosystem and socio-economic activities in the coastal zone are vulnerable under impacts of environmental depletion, changes in temperature, precipitation, SLR, and extreme weather events Undoubtedly, CC is threatening the

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1.1.2 Rationale for choosing Dong Rui wetlands

Dong Rui is an island commune of Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province; the commune is surrounded by coastal wetlands, mostly mangrove forests, and is beneficial from rich natural resources In the context of CC, Dong Rui has been facing unexpected and complicated climate conditions, causing difficulties for both the natural ecosystem and human activities Annual temperature in Tien Yen district shows an increasing trend while annual precipitation has decreasing trend during the 1980-2010 period Following the Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5 (RCP 8.5), by the end of the 21st century, the annual average temperature in Quang Ninh will increase by 3.6ºC, the total annual precipitation will increase by 36.8% in comparison with the baseline period (1986-2005) In estimation, 4.79% of the total area (mostly in the coastal zone) will become inundated if the sea level rises by 100cm (MONRE, 2016) Like other coastal areas, Dong Rui is also sensitive to CC potentials, like typhoons, saline intrusion, coastal erosion, or SLR Furthermore, lying in the river mouth area and located close to the industrial zone of Ba Che district, the commune is under the pressure of environmental pollution and other human activities

Fortunately, Dong Rui’s wetland resources offer plenty of advantages and potentials for social-economic development and climate response to the local community Local people are enjoying tremendous economic benefits from wetlands, significantly through aquaculture-fishing activities and tourism Mangrove forest is the predominant wetland type of Dong Rui wetland, and the only primary mangrove forest left in Vietnam Dong Rui’s mangrove forest shows its roles in preventing and responding to typhoons, waves, erosion, SLR ; in other words, the resource proves its value in disaster risk reduction (DRR) Understanding the important values from the wetland resources, Dong Rui has received attention and investment from the Vietnamese government of all levels and from international organizations/governments, in which mangrove forest conservation is a highlight So far, many pieces of research have been conducted in the region with a focus on the values of the mangrove forests, its diverse ecosystems, and the state of use of the resources

In short, the Dong Rui wetland resources are precious assets for the locality, they contribute significantly to CC response and socio-economic development Sadly, CC

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and human intervention are degrading the resources In such context, there arises the need for solutions for sustainable use of wetland resources, so that we can continue to enjoy the values taken from it, while keep maintaining the core values and sustainability of the resources, still To do so, it is necessary to propose a comprehensive assessment framework to understand the level of sustainability of the resources From such understanding and assessment, appropriate solutions will be proposed

Apparently, ensuring the sustainability of wetland resources plays key roles in strengthening adaptive capacity and resilience, striving for SD under CC setting not only in Dong Rui area but also in the whole country That is one of the reasons that encourages the researcher to propose “Research on proposing solutions for sustainable use of coastal wetland resources in the context of CC in Dong Rui area, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province” It is expected that the research results will add value to the current progress in responding to CC, fulfilling SDGs

1.2 Research objectives and tasks

The overall objective of the research is to propose solutions for sustainable use of coastal wetland resources in the context of CC in Dong Rui area, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province

Correspondingly, the three specific objectives are: (O1) Identify CC issues, and its impacts on wetlands; (O2) Assess the sustainability of wetlands resources in CC context; and (O3) Propose solution for SU of wetlands in CC context in the study site

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Table 1-1: Research objectives and tasks

Objective Question &

OP1: CC manifestations &

impacts H1: 2 ways of CC on

M1, M2, M3, M4

OP2: CC impacts on local community

T3: Defining coastal wetland

T4: Constructing a basis for

using DPSIR model

activities on the wetland

M1, M2, M3, M4

Objective Question &

H2: Dong Rui wetland

M1, M2, M3, M4

OP7: Environmental quality

OP8: Societal response toward

T8: Investigating current state

of the wetlands

M1, M2, M3, M4, M5

OP9: Wetland characteristics and biodiversity

OP10: Results of driving force

& pressure on wetlands

R4: Dong Rui coastal wetland’s sustainability assessment result

OP11: Results of state &

impact on wetlands OP12: Results of response on wetlands

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Objective Question &

O3

Q3: What are solutions

for sustainable use of

wetland resources in the

context of CC

T10: Defining SU of wetland resources & principles for SU

of wetland resource

principles for SU of wetland resources

R5: Solutions for sustainable use of

M1, M2, M3, M4, M6

for SU of wetland resource

T12: Propose solutions for SU

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1.3 Research question and hypothesis

1.3.1 Research question

- Q1: What are CC impacts on the wetlands in Dong Rui Commune, Tien Yen

District, Quang Ninh Province?

- Q2: What is sustainability of Dong Rui Commune wetlands resource in CC

context?

- Q3: What are solutions for sustainable use of wetland resources in the context

of CC in Dong Rui area, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province?

1.3.2 Research hypothesis

- H1: CC impacts on the wetlands in Dong Rui Commune, Tien Yen District,

Quang Ninh Province are as follows: in a direct way, precipitation and temperature change, SLR, and typhoons degrade the wetland area and resources In an indirect way, CC influences local people’s life and activities, especially those who are reliant to wetland resources for living, eventually, it affects land-use and resource-use behaviors

- H2: In the context of CC, the sustainability of Dong Rui wetland resources is at

medium level because it is severely affected by CC impacts and human activities

- H3: Solutions for sustainable use of wetland resources in the context of CC

require the integration and synergy of institution and policy, science and technology, finance, capacity development and participation enhancement for stakeholders, and international collaboration

1.4 Objects and Scope of the research

1.4.1 Research objects

province

wetlands, and societal responses in the context of climate change

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1.4.2 Scope

Ninh province

1.5 Novelty and Significance of the research

1.5.1 Novelty

Though the concept of sustainability has become popular in recent decades, definition for sustainability of wetland resources remains limited Therefore, in this research, the concept of wetland resource sustainability of the study site is applied for the first time Besides, this research recommends a set of indicators for assessment of the coastal wetland resource sustainability in CC context The assessment results set the foundation for proposing solutions for sustainable use of the resources toward SD in

CC context

1.5.2 Scientific significance

The concept of sustainability of wetland resources proposed in this research contributes a new perspective in wetland research Also, the research proposes a set of assessment indicators for assessing sustainability of the wetland resource It is expected that the concept of sustainability and its assessment indicator would contribute a scientific basis for future research concerning sustainability, and wetland ecosystem, especially in CC context The assessment results also become reference for future research in Dong Rui area, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province

1.5.3 Practical significance

The findings of the research support both policymakers and policy-enforcers in integrating and building appropriate strategy and actions for CC response and sustainable development The framework proposed in the research also contributes a reference for related parties in assessing sustainability of wetland resources not only for the coastal wetland in Dong Rui area, Tien Yen district Quang Ninh province but also for other coastal wetlands Most importantly, it is expected that the proposed

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solutions be noticed/executed to ensure a healthy and sustainable wetland ecosystem while ensuring human’s benefits taken from the resources

1.6 Theoretical basis for the research

1.6.1 Wetland resources

Wetland is considered one of the richest and most diverse ecosystems on Earth The definition for wetlands by the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar) is widely accepted as “areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters” (Ramsar, 1994) Based on such concept, in Vietnam, natural wetlands are clearly defined as “marsh, peaty or permanently or temporarily wet areas, including sea areas of a depth not exceeding 6 meters at the lowest tide level.” in the Biodiversity Law (2008) Possessing unique ecosystem structure, wetlands have wealthy biological resources, including a range “from micro-organisms to complex and diversified forms of flora and fauna species” (Njoroge, 2012) Being a highly productive ecosystem, coastal wetlands constitute an extremely important resource for the coastal zone

In Vietnam, following the Decision no 1093/QĐ-TCMT dated August 22, 2016 on Issuance of Technical Guidelines for Wetland Classification by the Vietnam Environment Administration under MONRE, wetlands are clearly defined as “marsh, peaty or permanently or temporarily wet areas, including sea areas of a depth not exceeding 6 meters at the lowest tide level” Coastal, marine wetlands (also known as brackish-salt wetlands) are areas of saline, brackish water in coastal areas, small islands and large island areas, affected by coastal tides Wetlands offer tremendous functions, namely: groundwater control, water filter and provision, climate control, wave attenuation, coastal line protection, biodiversity conservation, platforms for various economic activities like aquaculture, forestry, transportation, energy production, tourism, mining… and so on (Nhuan et al, 2007)

Within the scope of this research, the author follows the definition for coastal wetlands stipulated by the MONRE as stated above And the coastal wetland resource is referred

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organisms or non-living things, no matter biotic or abiotic, tangible or intangible… that can be exploited from the areas

1.6.2 The concept of sustainability and sustainability of wetland resources

Sustainability is a complex concept that was widely known long ago, yet remains ambiguity, whereas the term “sustainable development” has become more popular Though having some semantic similarities, sustainable development and sustainability are 2 different concepts, and they must not be used interchangeably in many cases Sustainable development is publicly understood as “development that meets the needs

of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” since it was first introduced in the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our common future (Brundtland & Khalid, 1987, p 43) In the report, sustainability and sustainable development attempt to emphasize the link between global economic development and the environment, and that development must be intertwined with maintaining core ecosystems Accordingly, sustainability is used to assess the ability to maintain and develop a certain system or integrated systems

As defined by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), sustainability is essential for human’s survival and well-being And that achieving sustainability means

to create conditions for humans and nature to exist harmoniously (USEPA, 1969) Sustainability is achieved only when there is full reconciliation between (1) economic development; (2) meeting, on an equitable basis, growing and changing human needs and aspirations; and (3) conserving limited natural resources and the capacity of the environment to absorb the multiple stresses that are a consequence of human activities (Hay & Mimura, 2006)

Though many studies have been conducted on sustainability recently, these studies mostly focus on environmental sustainability Specific ecosystem sustainability, especially on wetlands remains limited

―Over the normal cycle of disturbance events, maintains its characteristic diversity of major functional groups, productivity, soil fertility, and rates of biogeochemical cycling In another respect, sustainability is perceived

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mainly as the ability to sustain the functions, processes, and productivity of ecological systems and ecology in the future‖

(Stuart Chapin III et al., 1996)

―…the capacity of a system to maintain output at a level of approximately equal to or greater than its historical average, with the approximation determined by the historical level of variability.‖

(Lynam & Herdt, 1989)

―Ecological sustainability means that, based on a long-term perspective, we conserve the productivity of the waters, the soil and the ecosystem, and reduce our impact on the natural environment and people’s health to a level that the natural environment and humanity can handle‖

(University of Gävle, 2018)

In short, sustainability of the wetland resources conveys the ability to maintain its values, functions, services, and biodiversity

1.6.3 Sustainable use & principles for sustainable use of coastal wetlands

Toward use of wetland resources, wise use and sustainable use are the two widely accepted orientations According to the 3rd meeting of the contracting parties to the Ramsar convention on wetlands, wise use and sustainable use (sustainable utilization) are understood as:

“The wise use of wetlands is their sustainable utilization for the benefit

of humankind in a way compatible with the maintenance of the natural

properties of the ecosystem‖

―Sustainable utilization: human use of a wetland so that it may yield

the greatest continuous benefit to present generations while maintaining

its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations‖

Both wise use and sustainable use implies the necessity to maintain core and vital ecology functions of wetlands while meeting human’s interest from generation to generation; ensure interest of related parties; ensure environment protection, biodiversity conservation, and climate response However, sustainable use focuses on the conciliation of economy, society & environment, culture components, and

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The principles for sustainable use and conservation of wetland shall be made upon the Decree no 66/2019/ND-CP dated 29 July 2019, by the Prime Ministers of Vietnam on preservation and sustainable use of wetlands Accordingly, the researcher uses the same definition for sustainable use (sustainable utilization) as explained by the Ramsar And proposals for sustainable use of wetland resources are made upon the principles as the aforementioned principles by the Vietnamese government, through an assessment of wetland sustainability in the context of climate change

1.7 Overview of related studies

1.7.1 Wetland resources in CC context

1.7.1.1 Coastal wetlands values in climate response

Coastal wetland is a precious natural resource, playing crucial role in responding to

CC thanks to its tremendous ecosystem functions and services

● For CC mitigation

Wetland is extremely important to CC mitigation Mangrove forests, salt marshes, and estuaries in the coastal wetlands show huge carbon sequestration capacity (Alongi, 2014) (Table 1-2)

Table 1-2: Global contribution of mangroves and other coastal habitats to carbon

sequestration in the global coastal ocean (Alongi, 2014)

Habitat Area

(10 12 m 2 ) Sequestration rate

(gC m -2 year -1 )

Global carbon sequestration (Tg year -1 ) Mangroves 0.14 (0.5%) 174 24 (14%)

Assumes that depositional areas cover 10% of total shelf area

As a typical coastal wetland type, though mangrove’s total area just makes up less than 1% of the total area of tropical forest, its carbon sequestration is approximately 3% of carbon sequestered by the world’s tropical forests (Table 1-2) Thanks to its amazing carbon storage, carbon sequestration capacity, wetland conservation, especially mangrove restoration contributes hugely to the current CC mitigation process

● For CC adaptation

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In general, wetland ecosystems provide rich natural resources for improving livelihoods, and play an important role in regulating the climate, and protecting the coast from natural disasters On the one hand, wetlands bring in numerous provisioning, supporting services, which is crucial to socio-economic development Mangrove reserves and supplies flora and fauna resources, including: forestry products, habitats for plants and animals, bird migratory stops, nursery/breeding grounds for aquacultures and other species, and so on (Ngọt et al., 2012) Clearly, values obtained from the resource greatly support livelihood, eventually increasing the resilience and adaptive capacity for local people in the coastal zone where is at a high risk of climate change impacts On the other hand, protecting the mangrove ecosystem

is of great importance for the coastal zone where it is highly vulnerable to climate hazards, including floods, erosion, typhoons and sea level rise (Boateng, 2018) Mangrove acts as a green dike to protect coastline from typhoons, tsunamis, or waves Development of mangrove accelerates soil/sediment accretion, preventing coastal erosion effect

● The contribution of Dong Rui wetlands to CC response

Dong Rui wetlands play important role in CC mitigation and adaptation thanks to its unique and tremendous ecosystem functions and services

Mangrove forest in Dong Rui commune shows huge capacity of Carbon sequestration

restoration of Dong Rui mangrove forests is crucial for CC mitigation

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Figure 1-1: The ecosystem services of Dong Rui wetland (adopted from Orchad et al.,

2014)

Moreover, wetland resources bring in immense ecosystem services for CC adaptation

to the local community of Dong Rui commune, accordingly, the value in DRR and livelihood improvement are well aware (Orchard et al., 2014) Possessing wetland’s rich provisioning service, Dong Rui people are enjoying huge benefits from aquaculture exploitation (462 tons in 2017), and aquaculture farming (181 tons in 2017) (Quang Ninh's DONRE, 2018)

In the context of ongoing climate change, the ecosystem services provided by the wetlands and its resources contribute significantly to CC response

1.7.1.2 CC impacts on coastal wetlands

As the resources is highly dependent on hydrological regime, it will rely largely on changes in climatic conditions Apparently, CC constitutes a major driver that highly influence the wetland resources (Ramsar; Lloréns & Lucas, 2008; Erwin, 2009)

Marsh wetland is among wetland types most impacted by water resources regulation (Xu et al., 2019), moreover, the structure and functioning of wetland ecosystem is influenced by sea level rise and storm surges (Lloréns & Lucas, 2008) Sea-level rise,

Cultural service:

aesthetic qualities sense of well-being

Supporting service:

soil retention nutrient cycling oxygen production habitat provision

Regulating service:

storm protection saline intrusion protection

Provisioning service:

resources from mangrove forest (ex:

aquatic products)

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storms, sedimentation, and changing freshwater input are considered direct CC effects

on coastal wetland ecogeomorphology (Day et al., 2008)

In Vietnam, CC (temperature change, precipitation change, increased storm frequency, SLR) and human activities (aquaculture & LU change, overexploitation and water pollution) accelerate negative impacts on mangrove – the dominant wetland type (Nhuan et al., 2015) The adaptive capacity and vulnerability level to CC of the wetland resources is medium (p.164) whereas livelihoods of related stakeholders decrease Consequently, changes of wetlands result in biodiversity loss like decrease

of waterbirds, fishes, shrimps (Nhuan et al., 2015), and threat the existence and development of mangrove ecosystem

In short, due to the complex relationships and feedbacks among CC, human, and the wetlands, wetland loss and degradation is expected to be intensified in CC context

1.7.2 Sustainable use of coastal wetland resources

From such understanding of the importance of wetland resources in responding to CC, and negative impacts of CC on the wetlands, it is apparent that sustainable use the wetland resources is extremely crucial

As it was clearly defined in section [1.6.3], sustainable use of the wetland resources is promoted in a way to maintain the core and vital ecology functions of wetlands while meeting human’s interest from generation to generation Wetland conservation and sustainable use of wetlands are advocated by various international organizations like United nations (UN), Ramsar, Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) as an effort

in achieving SDGs (UN, 2014; Rosa, 2017; Ramsar, 2018)

● International research

Though having received international attention and investment, the work on management of wetlands faces certain difficulties, main obstacles in wetland management include: information and awareness, policy, planning, and institutions (Maltby et al., 1992) In term of biological resources in coastal wetlands, environmental pollution, rising sea-level, and alien species invasion are considered main factors limiting the resource from sustainable use (Tang et al., 2012) Land-use,

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sustainable use of the wetland resources in many countries (Musasa & Marambanyika, 2020; Phethi & Gumbo, 2019) According to Ramsar synthesis, the conservation and wise use of wetland resources also face challenges integration of the target in national strategies, plans, and investments; effective planning and management; participation from stakeholders; wetland inventories; low restoration; and policies and legal framework (Ramsar, 2019)

In such context, it is of great importance to improve the policies and incentives on wetland conservation Together with technical knowledge and capacity, it requires the community support (Stelk & Christie, 2016) Funds for coastal wetland conservation and research, as well as improvement of coastal wetland education and international cooperation are recommended (Sun et al., 2015) In term of wetland management, the co-management model has proved to be effective Significantly, functional zoning of wetlands was introduced and implemented as a way for effective wetland management

● National research

In Vietnam, wetland degradation is occurring more strongly due to human activities and global climate change impact (VEA, 2020) The work on wetland conservation and management faces a number of challenges, like overexploitation of resources, lack

of master plan on wetland management, environment pollution issues, lack of concrete policies on wetland management and punishment for violation, lack of institution, and limitations in management team (MONRE, 2020) Public awareness constitutes a challenge for the country in sustainable use of natural resources in general, and wetlands in specific

Various domestic projects have been conducted towards sustainable use and management of wetland resources In particular, co-management model have shown positive effects, such as mangrove co-management and restoration in Soc Trang province (Schmitt, 2009), community-based mangrove management in Mekong river delta (Trung & Thuy, 2019), and mangrove co-management in Xuan Thuy national park of Nam Dinh province, in Da Loc commune of Thanh Hoa province, in Mui Ca Mau national park of Ca Mau province (Jhaveri et al., 2018)

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In Quang Ninh province, the model of sustainable exploitation and use of mangrove resources based on the community in Dong Hai commune (Tien Yen district) and Dai Binh commune (Dam Ha district) has received the active participation and response from the local community (Giang, 2009) Besides, solutions to improve awareness and participation of stakeholders in sustainable use and conservation of wetland resources are recommended (Dung & Nga, 2013)

1.7.3 Frameworks for assessment of impacts on wetlands

● International research

Together with CC, wetlands are also being severely affected by human activities Wetland degradation and loss are mainly caused by agricultural land demand, population growth, river flow regulation, socio-economic development, and manifestation of foreign species and pollution (Bergkamp & Orlando, 1999) Aiming

to understand and predict impacts on wetlands, and for better wetland management,

various studies have been implemented

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Figure 1-2: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Conceptual Framework (Alcamo et al.,

2003)

So far, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment proposed by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Secretariat is among the most popular frameworks for assessment of human impacts on wetlands This is a comprehensive framework, inspecting the interrelationship between human being and the ecosystem, emphasizing both direct and indirect drivers of change in relation with human being and ecosystem services (Figure 1-2)

According to Ramsar, human and natural factors are altogether affecting wetland resources, major impact includes land area impact, environment impact, biodiversity impact, and water resources impact as human factors; and CC & severe weather and geological events as natural factors

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Table 1-3: Derivation of criteria and indicators of sustainability for inland wetland

systems (Moctezuma-Malagón et al., 2008)

Attribute Criterion Indicator Dimension

Productivity Harvested biomass yield

Gross income

Yield per species

Soil conservation Water quality

species/products Area affected by fire Oxygen concentration Nitrite concentration Transparency

Env., Eco Env

rate Internal inputs Number of participants Frequency of attendance

Env

Env., Eco Social Social

age

Social

In another study by Moctezuma-Malagón et al (2008), for assessment of the sustainability of the High Lerma River Basin inland wetlands in Central Mexico, the author explored diverse dimensions (environmental, economic, and social dimensions) with systemic attributes (productivity, stability, resilience, self-reliance, and equity) of the resources Nevertheless, CC dimension was not taken into account (Table 1-3) Lately, the application of the Pressure - State - Response (PSR), and Driver - Pressure

- State - Impact - Response (DPSIR) approaches have become more popular in environmental assessment, and wetland impact assessment A number of researchers utilized the approach for constructing assessment indicators concerning wetlands and wetland management, namely: Wang et al., 2011 (Table 1-4), Saadati et al., 2013 (Table 1-5), and Geijzendorffer et al., 2019 (Table 1-6)

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Table 1-4: The Pressure-status-response model for wetland assessment (Wang et al.,

Wetland area Wetland type Hydrology

Soil

Wetland health

Biodiversity Imminent danger degree

Wetland significance

Area of Conservation Site Diversity of Wetland types Annual Average Precipitation Water quality

Is it typical wetland soil Vegetation types?

Changing ratio of wetland patch numbers (10yrs)

Landscape connectivity index The incidence of disasters

Complexity degree of the ecosystem Plant species richness

Animal species richness Has national dangerous species or not International significant wetland or not?

Safeguard System

Wetland policy

Wetland institution

Financial invest Public protection consciousness

If established wetland protection policy at the municipal level?

Has wetland protect institution

institutions?

Technician ratio Density of protecting area Financial devotion for each unit Public protection consciousness Reasonable

Utilization of Wetland

Land use structure Threaten situation Area decreasing status

Land utilization structure

Percentage of GDP from wetland Per capital annul net income of rural households

Engel coefficient of rural households Social-

cultural System

Population index

Cultural index

Population density Average length of education Population natural increasing rate International important culture heritage or not

International important research/ educational area or not

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Annual tourist amount per hm2

Table 1-5: The ―DPSIR‖ indicators for sustainable management of the Hamoun

Pressures Restricting the Hirmand River

inflow by Afghan government

Annual Hirmand River inflow

species

State Desertification and wind

erosion

Wetland economic value

Extinction of fish and bird species

waterbirds (EEA, 2000) Number of mammal species Number of species listed on the IUCN red list

Number of species listed in the CITES appendices

Number of protected species under the regulation of the Iranian

(Behrouzi rad, 2006) Proportion of fish stocks within safe biological limits (UN-MDG, 2012)

total arable area

Impacts Growth of unemployment and

smuggling

Regional unemployment rate

Migration from rural to urban areas

Proportion of the number of farmers to total employed people in rural areas

Increase in mental and physical illnesses

respiratory diseases

Response Stabilization of sand in the

Sistan Plain

implemented for sand stabilization Generating jobs for unemployed

people

Annual number of newly generated jobs

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Negotiating with Afghan government to observe international agreements on water right

Number of political conventions held by Iranian and Afghan

5 Wetlands surface area

6 Area of surface water

Impacts

12 Flood regulation

13 Education and tourism

Drivers and Pressures

7 Impacts of climate change

8 Exploitation of water resources

9 Water demand

10 Demography

11 Conversion of wetland habitat

Governance response

14 Surface of Ramsar sites

15 National strategic efforts

16 Sustainable development goals

● National research

Vietnam wetlands, significantly coastal wetlands, bring in rich and diverse ecosystem functions and services, playing a crucial and irreplaceable role in development of the country However, coastal wetlands are very vulnerable under the impacts of human activities and CC (Vietnam Environment Protection Agency, 2005) Overall, Vietnam has seen the degradation of habitat, environmental pollution and a severe erosion of biological resources with decrease in natural wetlands and increase in manmade wetlands

CC (temperature change, precipitation change, increased storm frequency, SLR) and human activities (aquaculture & LU change, overexploitation and water pollution) accelerate negative impacts on mangrove forests - the dominant wetland type (Nhuan

et al., 2015) Meanwhile, the adaptive capacity and vulnerability level to CC of the wetland resources is medium (p.164), and livelihoods of related stakeholders decrease Consequently, changes of wetlands in Tien Yen and Dam Ha result in biodiversity loss like decrease of waterbirds, fishes, shrimps (Nhuan et al., 2015), and threaten the existence and development of the mangrove ecosystem

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Various studies on assessment of wetland vulnerability have been taken; nevertheless, little has been done for assessing the sustainability of wetland resources in Vietnam Overall, these studies explore diverse dimensions of impacts with a focus on human activity For example, Tran Dinh Lan et al (2014) uses the DPSIR approach for mangrove assessment in Hai Phong city (Figure 1-3) Besides, the assessment of sandy beach on the northeast coast using DPSIR framework by Do Thi Thu Huong et al.,

2014 identifies CC dimension as a driving force (Figure 1-4)

Figure 1-3: DPSIR approach for mangrove assessment (Tran Dinh Lan et al, 2014)

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Figure 1-4: DPSIR approach for assessment of sandy beach in the northeast coast

(Nguyen Thi Thu Huong et al., 2014)

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Chapter 2 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGIES

2.1 Overview of the study site

Figure 2-1: Map of the study site

In this research, the wetland area of Dong Rui commune, Tien Yen district, Quang

Ninh province was selected as the study site (Figure 2-1)

2.1.1 Physical features

Dong Rui wetland is an important wetland area in Tien Yen Bay, covering Dong Rui

Island commune and the wetland areas of Hai Lang commune, Voi Lon & Voi Be

river of Cong Hoa commune (Cam Pha city), and Binh Dan & Dai Xuyen communes

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with low terrain, gradually sloping into the sea, the average elevation from 1.5 meters

to 3 meters

Dong Rui is an island commune in the Southwest of Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh province, lying from 107°22’00’’E - 107°26’48’’E (longitude), and from 21°10’54’’-21°15’46’’N (latitude), with total natural area of 5,045.08ha Dong Rui commune is a flat area, surrounded by the coastal wetland, facing directly to the East Sea The commune is bounded by Ba Che, Voi Lon and Voi Be rivers Its topography condition

is suitable for agriculture, aquaculture, and mangrove development… Statistics in

2019 show that land for forests accounts for more than 40% of the total area of the commune (2191.08 ha), mostly protection forests (DR People’s Committee, 2020b) The commune is 18 km from the district center, sharing border with Hai Lang commune (Tien Yen district) in the North, Van Don district & Cam Pha city in the South, Van Don district in the East, and Hai Lang (Tien Yen) & Cong Hoa (Cam Pha city) in the West (DR People Committee, 2020a)

2.1.2 Socio-economic features

Total population of Dong Rui commune in 2020 is 2,821 people, the density in Dong Rui is not large, compared to: 373 people/km2 for the coastal zone, and 214/km2 for Quang Ninh province By 2020, total households of the commune are 810, coming from 11 ethnic groups, living in 4 villages of the commune; in which minority groups make up 15% of total population, concentrated mostly in Bon village Poverty rate in the commune is 0.25% which is much smaller than the national average (2.75% in 2020) (DR People committee, 2020c)

2.2 Research analytical framework

The research is executed following the below framework (Figure 2-2):

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2.3 Approaches

The research on proposing solutions for sustainable use of coastal wetland resources in the context of climate change covers different aspects and fields of studies, including: ecosystem, natural - economic - social systems, response through policy/strategy, and

the interaction among systems in CC context This requires diverse approaches

2.3.2 Ecosystem approach

Coastal wetland in Dong Rui area, Tien Yen district is a vulnerable ecosystem that is

the resources must maintain core values and functions of the ecosystem, in other words, any exploitation activities must be operated within the resilience capacity of the ecosystem Therefore, it is essential to use an ecosystem approach for proposing sustainable use solutions on the resources

2.3.3 Bottom-up approach

Coastal wetland, in overall, possesses general features of wetland resources, yet its unique values and characteristics vary from region to region Likewise, the wetland resources in Dong Rui area, Tien Yen district, Quang Ninh Province is a distinctive subject that gets influenced by natural, socio-economic, and human conditions, as well

as the governance and institution of the local community Therefore, it requires a bottom-up approach through investigating these conditions, institution and governance from local level, and also investigating local people’s involvement in such a context

2.3.4 Trans-disciplinary approach

As abovementioned, Dong Rui’s coastal wetland resources is a distinctive and

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complex subject It supports the complex system of nature - environment - society component, and is under impact of these components, especially in the context of CC Accordingly, this research will apply trans disciplinary approach by integrating knowledge and achievement of different disciplines, ex: environment and earth sciences, economics, sociology, and CC

2.3.5 Sustainable development approach

Currently, the humankind has obtained amazing socio-economic development achievement, however, human activities in acceleration by CC have brought about negative effects to the natural, ecosystem, and environmental system, significantly in coastal area Therefore, sustainable development approach is needed to propose proper solutions for ensuring sustainability of the wetland resources and achieving SDGs of the study area in general

2.4 Data collection

The research uses different types of data as below (Table 2-1)

Table 2-1: Data used in the research

Secondary

data

documents, records; reports, and previous scientific researches

geomorphology) Biodiversity Environmental indicator Climate Change expressions, CC scenario

Primary

data

Socio-economic data, like:

- Human activities on wetland

- Benefits taken from wetlands

- Awareness and willingness

Observation Interview

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2.5 Methods

In the research, various methods for data collection, data processing, and assessment are applied, details as below (Table 2-2)

Table 2-2: Research methods

Method type Code of

method

Data

collection

SD, sustainability of coastal zone, theoretical framework, and other related data

Related activities: Data collection, analysis, synthesis, and assessment

survey using questionnaire form), and local staff (using in-depth interview)

Sample selected randomly, considering diversity in sex, age, livelihood, and resident area

In-depth interview with local staff for general information of the study site, awareness, policy, and orientation concerning wetland resources

exploitation activities on wetland; observed impacts from natural and human activities, CC on wetland; wetland management

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