INTRODUCTION
Migration is a fundamental aspect of human society, encompassing both historical movements of tribes and contemporary relocations to developed nations in pursuit of improved living conditions These migrations often establish distinct patterns, as individuals frequently transition from one country of residence to another destination country Various factors influence the emergence of these patterns, with motivation being a key element By examining individual motivations, we can gain valuable insights into the broader trends and patterns of migration.
Migrations have significantly shaped societies throughout history, particularly during the Migration period in Europe from the fourth to the eighth century, which led to the fall of the Western Roman Empire Various tribes, including the Franks, Goths, Huns, Slavs, Avars, and Magyars, invaded and settled in these territories (Britannica, 2018) The discovery of the New World further spurred European settlers to migrate to North and South America in search of better lives and new opportunities.
Large-scale migrations have significantly shaped history, but small-scale movements also play a crucial role The Industrial Revolution prompted many individuals to relocate from rural areas to urban centers, a trend that continues today due to ongoing urbanization Much like in the 19th century, people are drawn to cities for better employment opportunities This concentration of populations not only influences demographics and economies but also drives the overall development of nations.
Whether migrations are large or small-scale, it can be argued that they are an important part of mankind’s development In the modern world, they are still a
Travel has evolved significantly over the centuries, with increased mobility today contrasted by stricter regulations Four hundred years ago, reaching North America was primarily done by boat and involved minimal documentation, despite the dangers of the journey In contrast, modern travelers have various transportation options, yet they often face obstacles such as visa denials that restrict their ability to travel freely.
Migrations can be categorized into voluntary and involuntary types, reflecting a key distinction in migration theory (de Haas, 2021) Voluntary migrations stem from individuals' aspirations and abilities to relocate, while involuntary migrations arise from uncontrollable circumstances, such as wars and natural disasters A notable example of involuntary migration is the refugee crisis triggered by the Russia-Ukraine conflict that escalated in February 2022, resulting in a significant influx of refugees into Europe (UNHCR, 2022).
Migration studies categorize the phenomenon into emigration, the act of leaving a country, and immigration, the process of settling in a new one This dual impact necessitates tracking migration data from both the country of origin and the destination However, inadequate tracking systems can lead to challenges, including increased illegal migration Lavenex and Piper (2021) advocate for a combined approach to studying migration at both global and regional levels They emphasize the importance of understanding the multi-actor and multi-level nature of migration governance, which involves interactions between governments, civil society, and external actors This perspective reveals a complex relationship between global and regional migration contexts, shaped by specific institutional histories and migration corridors.
Migrations can be classified as legal or illegal, with legal migration requiring individuals to secure proper documentation, such as visas or work permits, which vary by country In contrast, illegal migration involves movement that occurs without the necessary authorization.
Illegal migration often occurs when standard processes are complicated or costly, leading individuals to resort to undocumented movement or fake documentation This practice significantly heightens the risk of human trafficking, a critical concern associated with illegal immigration (Shelley, 2010).
Migrations are intricate processes that significantly impact states, yet they all begin with individual decisions Understanding migration at the personal level is crucial, as a person's desire to migrate often hinges on their aspirations and capabilities (de Haas, 2021) Many individuals wish to emigrate but face obstacles due to limited resources Distinguishing between aspiration and capability reveals the complexities of migration motivations, offering valuable insights into why individuals choose specific destinations.
Aspirations are influenced by a complex interplay of factors that shape an individual's perception of their living situation For instance, a stable job and good quality of life can foster a positive view of one’s country, reducing the desire to leave Conversely, dissatisfaction due to unemployment, low salaries, or high living costs can lead to aspirations for a better life elsewhere This illustrates how perceptions of current circumstances and potential opportunities significantly impact aspirations (Ersanilli, de Haas, & Carling, 2011).
This study explores the migration trends of European Union and United Kingdom citizens to Vietnam, highlighting the significant cultural, religious, political, and developmental differences between these regions Migrating from an EU country to Vietnam involves considerable personal adjustments as individuals must adapt to a vastly different environment.
Europe and Asia exhibit distinct cultural differences, with Western culture predominating in most EU member states In contrast, Vietnam, situated in Southeast Asia, possesses its own unique heritage While globalization has introduced Western values globally, these values do not dominate universally Despite being a modern and developed nation, Vietnam maintains a cultural identity that significantly differs from that of EU countries.
Dominant religions vary significantly across regions, with Buddhism being the most prevalent among the global religious population In contrast, Roman Catholicism and other faiths represent a smaller segment Within the European Union, Christianity stands out as the religion with the highest number of adherents.
EU countries operate under representative democracy, while Vietnam is a socialist republic with a one-party system led by the Communist Party of Vietnam This political structure resulted in Vietnam being relatively isolated for many years However, the country began to open up to foreign influences in the 1990s, largely due to the Doi Moi reforms initiated in the late 1980s According to Nhuan Kien and Heo (2008), these reforms have significantly contributed to Vietnam's socio-economic development, leading to dramatic changes over the past two decades They note that the Doi Moi policy has been a pivotal moment in Vietnam's history, yielding impressive results in GDP growth, macroeconomic stability, export expansion, foreign direct investment (FDI), and poverty alleviation.
In 2020, the Human Development Index (HDI) revealed a notable disparity between the European Union and Vietnam, with the EU averaging an HDI of 0.895 compared to Vietnam's 0.704 This significant difference highlights the varying levels of development between these regions (Human development in Asia, 2020).
LITERATURE REVIEW
Migrations and relevant migration theories
Today, migrations are a common phenomenon People are choosing to move to another country or another region of their home country for many different reasons
Migrants are individuals who move across international borders or within a country, often due to various factors such as conflict or economic opportunity According to the UN Migration Agency (IOM), a migrant is defined as anyone who relocates from their usual residence, irrespective of their legal status, the nature of their movement (voluntary or involuntary), the reasons behind it, or the duration of their stay This definition highlights the complexity of migration, as each case encompasses a unique combination of characteristics that shape the migration experience Understanding these nuances is crucial, especially for vulnerable groups like refugees who may be compelled to relocate.
Migration is a multifaceted process that can be analyzed from various academic perspectives, including sociology, anthropology, geography, economics, and demography As noted by Carling & Collins (2018), migration scholarship has evolved significantly, providing researchers with diverse theoretical frameworks to explore the complexities of migration and its political implications Different fields focus on unique aspects of migration; for instance, legality is a central theme in Law studies and human trafficking research Each discipline offers distinct interpretations of migration patterns, yet the overarching goal of migration studies is to integrate insights from all relevant fields to develop comprehensive theories that encompass the diverse influences on migratory processes.
Many theories of migration have been formed since the late 19th century De Haas
In 2021, the author presents a comprehensive overview of migration theories developed from the mid-20th century to the present, categorizing them into two primary paradigms These theories, while originating from diverse contexts, share commonalities that highlight the complexities of migration.
8 disciplines (economy, sociology), all theories in one paradigm are built on the same views on the nature of society (de Haas, 2021)
In his review of migration theories, de Haas (2021) identifies two primary paradigms: functionalist and historical-structural Functionalist theories emphasize individual responses to push and pull factors like salary levels, job opportunities, and quality of life, while historical-structural theories highlight larger forces such as capitalism, wars, and natural disasters that drive migration Both paradigms agree that migrants respond to external influences, with push and pull models suggesting that individuals are motivated by cost-benefit analyses aimed at maximizing income or utility, leading to predictable reactions to external stimuli.
‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors” (de Haas, 2021, pp 14-15)
The author critiques traditional migration theories for overlooking key factors, which he explores through the migration-capabilities framework He identifies five critical issues, starting with the inequality in access to various migratory resources, including economic, cultural, social, and bodily assets.
2) Different perspectives of “good life” (“here” and “there”) and changing aspirations
3) Perceiving most of the migration as “menace-to-an-end.” Sometimes “push” factors do not exist, and a person decides to migrate as a result of wanderlust 4) Disregard for immobility When considering migration, it is significant to take into account peoples’ desire to live in one place and not move 5) Division between voluntary and forced migration Even people who voluntarily migrated elsewhere to work can be faced with constraints and not be able to go back Therefore, the author suggests that migrations need to be understood through a “continuum running from low to high constraints under which migrations occur” (de Haas, 2021, p 16).
Aspiration and capabilities theoretical framework
De Haas (2021) contends that migration theory is currently stagnating and lacks sufficient theoretical development The primary issue lies in the growing number of empirical studies on migration, each offering diverse perspectives, yet there is an absence of a cohesive unifying theory to integrate these findings.
9 migrations into broader processes of social transformation and development (de Haas, Fransen, Natter, Schewel, & Vezzoli, 2020)
The author argues that the previously mentioned paradigms contain incomplete theories, stating that migrants, in most circumstances, are neither passive subjects nor do they respond uniformly and automatically to specific conditions, except in extreme cases such as slavery and deportation.
Migration is influenced by various 'push' and 'pull' factors, including global capitalism, wage disparities, violence, and environmental challenges Individuals must actively decide to migrate and possess the necessary resources to facilitate their move (de Haas, 2021, p 30).
The author introduces a new theoretical framework that integrates the aspirations-capabilities model, offering a fresh perspective on migration research While the traditional push and pull model remains prevalent, this framework broadens the analysis by emphasizing the significance of aspirations and capabilities Although push factors, such as low salaries and lack of job opportunities, are often viewed negatively, and pull factors, like high salaries and better job prospects, positively, migration patterns do not always conform to this binary logic For instance, improving quality of life in a country to reduce emigration may paradoxically lead to increased migration Notably, developed nations experience higher levels of both immigration and emigration compared to underdeveloped countries, and most migration does not occur from poorer to richer societies (de Haas, A theory of migration: the aspiration-capabilities framework, 2021).
To effectively redefine migration theory, it is essential to place it within the wider context of social change, as migrations are influenced by and intertwined with various factors, including economic, demographic, political, cultural, and technological shifts (de Haas et al., 2020) While researchers may adopt specific approaches, such as economic or sociological perspectives, they must consider the broader array of influences that shape migration patterns.
Migration aspirations are intertwined with broader life goals and can be categorized as instrumental or intrinsic Instrumental aspirations are practical, often driving individuals to migrate for education or better job opportunities Conversely, intrinsic aspirations highlight the inherent value of the migration experience itself, such as during gap years or lifestyle migrations Additionally, intrinsic aspirations include the desire for mobility freedom and the perceived potential for migration, reflecting a deeper personal significance beyond mere functionality.
It is not important whether a person will use this freedom If he cannot migrate because lack of resources or government restrictions, he will feel “trapped.”
It is important to note that the term “aspirations” is most frequently used in migrations theories However, other alternatives are also present (“desires”, “preferences”,
The term "aspirations" serves as an umbrella category that includes various alternatives, with "desires" and "preferences" being more subjective in nature According to Carling and Collins (2018), aspirations represent a convergence of personal, collective, and normative dimensions, highlighting their broader significance.
Figure 2.1 Migrations as an intrinsic part of broader social change (de Haas, A theory of migration: the aspiration-capabilities framework, 2021)
Migration capabilities stem from the interplay of positive and negative liberties Negative liberties signify the lack of constraints, whereas positive liberty embodies the empowerment to shape one’s own life However, merely having negative liberty, such as the absence of migration restrictions, is insufficient for migration, as individuals may still lack the necessary resources or opportunities to migrate effectively.
11 financial means would not be able to migrate They would need a degree of positive liberty in a form of capabilities (de Haas, A theory of migration: the aspiration- capabilities framework, 2021)
In migration research, the terms "aspiration" and "capability" are often used interchangeably, with "capability" being synonymous with "ability." However, there is a nuanced theoretical distinction between them The aspiration/ability model serves as a framework for understanding migration outcomes, where "ability" indicates whether potential migrants can translate their aspirations into actual migration In contrast, the expanded aspirations capabilities framework views migration processes more comprehensively.
Migration is a key component of social transformation, as it encompasses various aspects of well-being The ability to migrate significantly impacts migration outcomes, which can enhance individuals' capabilities by facilitating the flow of financial, human, and social capital (Carling & Schewel, 2018, pp 956-957).
The author identifies four distinct mobility types that emerge from the interplay between aspirations and capabilities, as outlined in the article These types illustrate migration as a specific outcome of this interaction and are detailed in Table 2.1 Furthermore, the author proposes theoretical migration categories based on the concepts of positive and negative liberties, which are presented in Table 2.2.
Table 2.1 Aspiration-capabilities-derived individual mobility types
(de Haas, A theory of migration: the aspiration-capabilities framework, 2021)
Table 2.2 Theoretical migration categories based on positive and negative liberty types
(de Haas, A theory of migration: the aspiration-capabilities framework, 2021)
EU/ UK- Vietnam migration pattern
Migration patterns of EU and UK citizens to Vietnam can be effectively analyzed through various theoretical frameworks The understanding of these patterns largely depends on the chosen analytical approach While there is extensive literature on Vietnamese emigrants, research on immigrants in Vietnam predominantly focuses on those from ASEAN countries and China, due to their higher presence Consequently, EU and UK immigrants are less prevalent and have received significantly less academic attention.
Recent data indicates a growing trend of migration towards developing ASEAN countries In 2015, Eurostat reported approximately 9.9 million foreign-born residents in ASEAN, with 6.9 million (69.9%) originating from other ASEAN Member States Additionally, there were 3.0 million residents from outside the region, including around 76,400 individuals from EU Member States, accounting for 0.8% of the total foreign-born population in ASEAN.
13 all foreign-born residents in ASEAN and 2.6 % of those born outside of ASEAN” (Eurostat, 2017)
In the ASEAN Member States, there are approximately 76,400 individuals from EU Member States, with nearly half residing in Indonesia (48.7%), followed by the Philippines (21.0%), and around 12.9% in Malaysia and 12.0% in Thailand Remarkably, nearly 95% of EU-born residents in ASEAN are concentrated in these four countries (Eurostat, 2017).
Figure 2.2 Distribution of EU and UK residences in ASEAN in 2015
Data from 2015 showed that Vietnam was not among primer choices for the EU and
UK citizens have shown interest in relocating, although concrete data on this migration pattern is lacking Various non-academic analyses, primarily conducted by agencies assisting individuals in their relocation decisions, provide insights into this trend Notably, Vietnam was ranked among the top 10 countries to live in 2018, highlighting its appeal as a destination for potential migrants (Nguyen, 2019).
A notable segment of immigrants consists of individuals who can afford to relocate, a trend that has gained traction with the rise of remote work This form of migration is not limited to remote opportunities; it also encompasses moves driven by the pursuit of better-paying jobs, marriage, or educational pursuits.
Figure 2.3 ASEAN countries where residence from EU and UK lived in 2015
When examining the migration of EU and UK citizens to Vietnam, various theoretical approaches can be considered However, given the limitations of the commonly used theories, the aspiration-capability framework proves to be a more fitting choice for this analysis.
The European Union comprises countries with varying levels of development, leading to distinct migration patterns For instance, the migration from Germany to Vietnam differs significantly from that of Romania to Vietnam While a standard push and pull analysis effectively explains the Romanian migration, it falls short in addressing the complexities of German migration to Vietnam.
Germany and Vietnam exhibit differing levels of development, yet the migration from the EU and UK to Vietnam remains minimal and not large-scale This lack of significant immigration challenges the historical-structural approach, as there are no evident large forces driving this migration Therefore, the aspiration-capability framework emerges as a more suitable lens to understand the dynamics of EU and UK immigrants in Vietnam.
METHODOLOGY
Thesis objectives and research questions
Overall, the study aims to understand the motivation behind the decision of EU/UK citizens to relocate to Vietnam This can be achieved through four separate objectives:
1 Understanding migration aspirations that EU/UK immigrants in Vietnam had before relocating to Vietnam
2 Understanding their personal experiences in their country of residence (how they lived)
3 Understanding their perceptions of quality of life in their country of residence (how people in their country live)
4 Understanding their perception of Vietnam (how people in Vietnam live)
Factors influencing the motivation of individuals to migrate from the EU/UK to Vietnam include their quality of life, the overall living standards in their current country, and their perceptions of life in Vietnam These objectives are grounded in a methodological framework that will be detailed later in the study (Ersanilli, de Haas, & Carling, 2011).
These objectives aim to answer following research questions:
1 How do perceptions of life (personal and in general) in Vietnam and the EU/UK influence the aspirations of citizens from the EU/UK to immigrate to Vietnam?
1.1 How did immigrants from the EU/UK in Hanoi, Vietnam perceive their personal life in their country of residence?
1.2 How did immigrants from the EU/UK in Hanoi, Vietnam perceive the general standard of living in their country of residence?
1.3 How did immigrants from the EU/UK in Hanoi, Vietnam perceive the general standard of living in Vietnam?
Most immigrants reside in major cities like Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (Dang Nguyen & Tacoli, 2003), making immigrants from the EU and UK in Hanoi a relevant sample group for study.
Research methods
When examining the migration patterns of EU and UK citizens to Vietnam, various theoretical approaches can be utilized The aspiration-capability theoretical framework is particularly relevant, despite its varied application in existing research This study will adapt methodologies from the EUMAGINE project, leveraging its large-scale insights to inform our analysis.
First, it is important to explain what the EUMAGINE project is
“The EUMAGINE project aims to study how Europe is perceived from outside the
The EUMAGINE project examines how perceptions of democracy and human rights influence migration aspirations and decisions among individuals aged 18-39 in Morocco, Senegal, Turkey, and Ukraine It explores the interplay between these perceptions and other factors affecting migration, assessing how potential migrants view Europe compared to alternative destinations and whether migration is seen as a valuable life project.
This project employs a modified aspiration-capabilities theoretical framework, based on de Haas's 2021 theory of migration The core premise is that individuals' migration aspirations are shaped by three primary factors.
A person's overall satisfaction with their personal life significantly influences their desire to migrate; those who feel content are less likely to seek relocation However, even if an individual is pleased with certain aspects of their life, such as having a good job and high salary, dissatisfaction with their country's quality of life—due to factors like limited freedom of speech or high living costs—can lead to a strong desire to move abroad.
18 factors such as states’ policies The third one is a perception of life in the country they chose to migrate to
The EUMAGINE project explores how perceptions of life in various countries shape individuals' migration aspirations, focusing on the dynamics between Europe and Africa/Asia This research is relevant for understanding the relationships between EU nations, including the UK, and Vietnam, highlighting similar patterns of migration from more developed to less developed regions.
Analyzing the relationship between the three key factors influencing aspirations allows for a deeper understanding of the migration patterns of EU and UK citizens to Vietnam.
EUMAGINE project uses specially constructed methodology
The research employs a mixed-method approach that includes ethnographic fieldwork, a large-scale quantitative survey, and semi-structured qualitative interviews guided by an interview framework It utilizes both between-method triangulation, by integrating qualitative and quantitative methodologies, and within-method triangulation, through in-depth interviews and community observations.
Adaptation of the methodology
EUMAGINE project is large-scale research that involves cross-country data collecting
It can be argued that using the same methodology for this research is not suitable Therefore, it needs to be adapted
The EUMAGINE project employs a mixed-method approach, focusing exclusively on qualitative methodology through in-depth interviews for data collection This approach is chosen to gain insights into how individuals' perceptions of their personal life, quality of life in their country of residence, and quality of life in the destination country influence their migration aspirations.
The perception of personal life reflects an individual's satisfaction, influenced by various subjective factors This concept extends to how one perceives the quality of life in both their home country and potential destination Given its personal nature, qualitative methodology is the most effective approach, as in-depth interviews allow researchers to gain valuable insights into individuals' perceptions and their impact on aspirations.
Data collection will involve in-depth interviews guided by a questionnaire utilized in the EUMAGINE project, which is organized into several thematic categories Each category focuses on a specific aspect, such as the second category, which aims to gather insights on individuals' perceptions of their personal lives in their country of residence (Ersanilli, de Haas, & Carling, 2011).
This study employs in-depth, structured interviews divided into four sections The first section focuses on respondents' aspirations (see table 3.1), while the second section assesses the quality of life experienced in their country of residence (see table 3.2) The third section explores their overall perception of quality of life in that country (see table 3.3), and the fourth section gathers insights on their views regarding life in Vietnam (see table 3.4).
1 What is your current work/study status? (For example a high school student, a university student, employed, unemployed )
2 How long have you been living in Hanoi, Vietnam?
3 Can you tell me about your decision to move from your country of residence to Vietnam? Please tell me about the specific reason for your emigration? (For example new job, job transfer, university enrollment, new life, adventure, etc.) Have you at any moment considered staying in your country of residence?
4 Before deciding to move to Vietnam, have you considered relocation to any other country outside the EU/UK? If yes, can you tell me why did you considered moving to that specific country?
5 Has anybody encouraged you to move to Vietnam? If yes, can you tell me who it was? Is he/she live in Vietnam or anywhere else abroad?
6 Have you ever encouraged anybody else to move to Vietnam? If yes, can you tell me who? How did he/she respond?
7 Can you tell me how your family/friends reacted to your decision to relocate from your country of residence to Vietnam? Were they supportive?
8 In your opinion, where would young men in your country of residence prefer to live and work? Do you think many young men consider relocating somewhere else outside the EU? If yes, can you tell me where? Do you think they would prefer to stay in their country of residence?
9 In your opinion, where would young women in your country of residence prefer to live and work? Do you think many young women consider relocating somewhere else outside the EU? If yes, can you tell me where? Do you think they would prefer to stay in their country of residence?
1 Can you tell me about your life before relocating to Vietnam? How satisfied were you with your life in your country of residence?
2 Can you tell me about your financial situation before relocating to Vietnam? How satisfied were you with your financial situation in your country of residence?
3 How would you describe your health in general?
4 If you compare your financial situation (financial situation you were in while living in your country of residence, before moving to Vietnam) with that of other people your age in your country of residence, how would you describe it?
5 If you compared your financial situation (financial situation you were in while living in your country of residence, before moving to Vietnam) with that of your parents when they were your age, how would you describe it?
6 How would you describe the standard of living in your country of residence?
1 How would you describe the life of women in your country of residence?
2 How would you describe the life of men in your country of residence?
3 How would you describe the educational system in your country of residence?
4 How would you describe the health care system in your country of residence?
5 How does the government in your country of residence treat people with limited financial means? For example, does the government provide any help?
6 Would you say that corruption is a significant issue in your country of residence?
7 How would you describe the work of politicians in your country of residence? Are they doing what’s best for people?
8 How would you describe employment prospects in your country of residence? Is it easy to find a good job?
9 How would you describe the safety in your country of residence? For example, is it dangerous to walk in the street at night?
10 How would you describe gender equality in your country of residence? Do
22 women have the same opportunities as men?
11 How would you describe the freedom of speech in your country of residence? For example, can people say whatever they want in public?
12 How would you describe the prospects of migrations (emigrations and immigration) in your country of residence? How complicated is it for people to leave? How hard is it to obtain residency if you are an immigrant?
13 Can you describe how the government in your country of residence treats different nationalities?
14 How would you describe the prospect of developing a career in your country
1 What did you think about the life of women in Vietnam?
2 What did you think about the life of men in Vietnam?
3 What did you think about the educational system in Vietnam?
4 What did you think about the health care system in Vietnam?
5 What was your perception of the Vietnamese government? What did you think about how the government in Vietnam treats people with limited financial means? For example, did you think the government provided any help?
6 Did you think that corruption is a significant issue in Vietnam?
7 What did you think about the work of politicians in Vietnam? Have you thought that they are doing what’s best for people?
8 What did you think about the prospects of employment in Vietnam? Did you think it is easy to find a good job?
9 What did you think about safety in Vietnam? For example, have you thought it is dangerous to walk in the street at night?
10 What did you think about gender equality in Vietnam? Did you think that women have the same opportunities as men?
11 What did you think about the freedom of speech in Vietnam? For example, did you think people can say whatever they want in public?
12 What did you think about the prospects of migrations (emigrations and immigration) in Vietnam? Did you think it was complicated for people from Vietnam to leave their country? Did you think it was hard to immigrate to Vietnam?
13 What did you think about how the government in Vietnam treats different nationalities?
14 What did you think about the prospect of developing a career in Vietnam? Did you think that hard work gets you ahead?
Sampling
The study uses quota sampling since several subgroups have to be included
1 Male immigrants in Hanoi from developed countries of the EU (including the UK)
2 Female immigrants in Hanoi from developed countries of the EU (including the UK)
3 Male immigrants in Hanoi from developing countries in the EU
4 Male immigrants in Hanoi from developing countries in the EU
Whether the country is developed or is developing depends on its Human Development Index The last available data for the EU was in 2020 when the average
HDI was 0.895 (Human development in the European Union, 2020) Countries with a higher index will be considered developed, and countries with lower than average will be considered developing
General criteria for people who are interviewed are:
1 Male or female from developed or developing countries in the EU (including the UK)
The quality of life across EU countries varies significantly, and there are notable differences in this regard between genders It is essential to consider both aspects to gain a comprehensive understanding of life quality in the region.
According to the literature, this is the age group that tends to migrate the most Also, this is the age group for the EUMAGINE project
3 People who are living in Hanoi for the last 1-5 years
When asking about the aspirations and perceptions, questions are retrospective People who lived in Vietnam for a shorter period are more likely to remember their life in the EU/UK
Candidates who fit the profile were recruited through professional connections
A total of fourteen interviews were conducted, featuring participants from both developed and developing countries The male participants included four individuals from developed nations (two from the United Kingdom, one from Ireland, and one from Germany) and three from developing countries (Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria) Similarly, there were four female participants from developed countries (two from the United Kingdom, one from Ireland, and one from Germany) and three from developing countries (Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria).
Face-to-face interviews were conducted, with the interviewer taking notes throughout the process Prior to each interview, participants were briefed about the research and asked for their willingness to participate A consent document was sent via email, which participants had to confirm before taking part in the study.
Expected findings
It is expected that aspiration and capabilities depend on the country of residence The
The European Union is composed of member states with varying levels of development, influencing the motivations of immigrants Those from highly developed nations like the UK and Germany often seek lifestyle changes, while immigrants from developing countries are typically driven by the pursuit of better job opportunities or educational prospects.
Their aspirations are influenced by how they perceive their personal life and the general standard of living in their country of residence, as well as their views on life in Vietnam.
FINDINGS
Initial aspirations
The first section of the interview aims to analyze individual aspirations Questions are constructed to explore the following:
2 Possibility of relocation to other countries
4 Support from friends and family
5 Opinion on migration in general
Although narratives about initial aspirations vary from participant to participant, it can be argued that there is one core story This story follows a specific pattern
Participants are employed individuals who relocated to Vietnam seeking a fresh experience in a new country, despite considering other states Encouraged by peers, they also inspire others to make similar moves While family and friends were initially hesitant, they ultimately supported these decisions Participants observe that many people their age tend to prefer staying in their home country to establish their lives there.
This is a core narrative that can be abstracted from all interviews Some of the variations exist, but they are minimal However, it is important to represent them as well
All participants were employed, with many working as English teachers in Hanoi Individuals from both developed and developing countries chose to relocate to Vietnam for new life experiences, describing their move as “an adventure trip” aimed at gaining valuable life experience Some had previously visited Vietnam and decided to stay, while a few cited better job opportunities and career advancement as reasons for their migration.
Many participants, including those from developing countries, cited a desire for new experiences or an escape from their current situations as their primary motivations for relocation Notably, two individuals expressed dissatisfaction with the prevailing lifestyle in their country of residence, seeking to break free from "boring office jobs" and rigid work cultures.
Participants expressed interest in relocating to various countries, with Australia, New Zealand, and South America (particularly Colombia and Brazil) being the most popular choices Notably, one individual considered Thailand and another Iceland The responses reveal no clear trend, as some individuals from developing nations sought to move to Brazil, while those from developed countries aimed for Australia This suggests that their aspirations are driven more by a desire for new experiences rather than a pursuit of a better life.
Most participants were motivated to move to Vietnam by individuals who had previously lived there, such as travelers, English teachers, friends, and family Interestingly, two participants made the decision independently, selecting Vietnam without prior recommendations, aligning with their desire for a new life experience abroad Additionally, nearly all participants went on to encourage others to consider relocating to Vietnam as well.
Most participants reported receiving strong support from friends and family regarding their experiences in Vietnam While some expressed initial surprise due to limited knowledge about the country, they ultimately felt happy and supportive Notably, there was no significant difference in the level of support between participants from developed and developing nations.
Despite the increasing prevalence of migration, research indicates that the majority of individuals prefer to remain in their home countries Even those with aspirations and capabilities often choose not to relocate Data reveals that many participants believe most individuals, regardless of gender, opt to stay in their country of residence This preference can be attributed to several factors, primarily the influence of social norms In many cultures, young people face expectations to secure employment, establish families, and purchase homes by the age of 35, a trend observed in both developed and developing nations.
Many individuals are prepared to take risks when considering relocation, a choice often driven by the high costs and uncertainties involved in the process Data indicates that those willing to migrate tend to prefer developed nations like Australia and the USA.
It can be argued that these aspirations are mostly intrinsic (de Haas, 2021) with several participants having combination of intrinsic and instrumental aspirations (de Haas,
2021) This means that migrations aspirations of participants were a result of an intrinsic desire rather than a “need” to relocate in order to accomplish something (find a job, for instance)
Participants have successfully relocated to Vietnam, indicating their capabilities to do so, which are shaped by both negative and positive liberties Negative liberties signify the absence of constraints, whereas positive liberty emphasizes the empowerment to take control of one's life These concepts will be explored further in the analysis.
Personal life in the country of residence
The second section of the interview focuses on examining the personal lives of respondents, as this significantly impacts their aspirations Questions are designed to investigate their perceptions of personal life within their country of residence, with several key indicators identified to assess the quality of life.
1 General satisfaction with life in the country of residence
This section of the interview reveals a dominant narrative, highlighting a specific type of migrant within the EU-Vietnam migration pattern While there are variations to this narrative that will be explored in detail, the emergence of this particular narrative underscores the distinct characteristics of migrants involved in this migration flow.
The core narrative follows a pattern A participant is unsatisfied with their life Reasons for dissatisfaction vary and will be analyzed later However, the main point is
30 dissatisfaction A participant states that they live in a country with high standards of living and that they are in good health
When discussing their financial situation, notable disparities emerged among respondents While the initial part of the interview indicated that most aspirations were intrinsic, this section reveals a different perspective Before delving into the financial analysis, it is crucial to highlight other variations observed.
Participants in the study expressed dissatisfaction with their personal lives, though the reasons varied significantly In developed countries, three distinct groups emerged: the first group included individuals who felt bored and sought a "new beginning," with one Polish participant mentioning dissatisfaction with their job as a payroll specialist The second group consisted of those burdened by debt, primarily from student loans, despite holding good jobs that did not provide sufficient income for savings The third group cited a stressful work environment and lack of work-life balance as key factors for their unhappiness Interestingly, participants from developing countries reported dissatisfaction due to "boring jobs," yet they generally felt content with their financial situations.
Participants' satisfaction with their financial situations before moving to Vietnam varied significantly While one individual from a developed country expressed complete satisfaction, others described their finances as stable or poor, struggling to save due to the high cost of living Despite having stable jobs, many participants found it challenging to live comfortably and some were burdened with unmanageable debt In contrast, those from developing countries reported dissatisfaction with their financial situations and also faced difficulties in saving However, upon relocating to Vietnam, several participants found they could finally save money.
When comparing their financial situations with peers in their country, most individuals perceive themselves as average, yet they feel financially better off than their parents were at their age This indicates a shared experience of financial challenges among their generation Despite these struggles, few consider relocation as a viable solution, highlighting that while financial circumstances are important, they are not the primary factor influencing aspirations.
Participants across both developed and developing countries reported high standards of living in their respective nations; however, these standards do not necessarily equate to a good quality of life In the EU and the UK, high living standards are often accompanied by escalating living costs, while salaries remain stagnant, forcing many to "live within their means" and forgo luxuries like travel Despite this reality, most individuals express a reluctance to relocate Additionally, the high standards of living correlate with stressful work environments and a lack of healthy work-life balance, affecting both developed and developing nations in the EU While high living standards typically influence aspirations, it is more common for individuals from lower-standard countries to seek migration to those with higher standards, anticipating better job opportunities and salaries Interestingly, data indicates that people from high-standard countries may consider relocating to lower-standard countries to benefit from reduced living costs.
When exploring aspirations, personal health is a crucial factor to consider Participants reported being in "good health" or having "average health," highlighting the impact of health on capabilities While health can influence aspirations, it often restricts an individual's ability to pursue them For instance, a person facing health challenges may aspire to migrate but may find themselves unable to do so.
Many participants expressed intrinsic aspirations, indicating a desire for new experiences as their primary motivation for relocating However, an alternative perspective reveals that a significant number of participants may have had different reasons for their moves.
A significant number of individuals, specifically 32, expressed dissatisfaction with their financial circumstances, feeling they lacked sufficient funds for a comfortable lifestyle This discontent is largely attributed to the escalating cost of living in EU countries While they perceived their ambitions as intrinsic, the underlying narrative indicates that these aspirations were, in fact, influenced by external factors.
Perception of quality of life in the country of residence
The third section of the interview examines how individuals perceive their quality of life in their country of residence, highlighting that quality of life is influenced by various factors This study will specifically focus on these influencing elements.
All participants in this study affirmed that their country of residence boasts a high standard of living, reinforcing the notion of development One participant specifically characterized their country as developed, highlighting a shared perception among residents regarding their quality of life.
1 Men and women have equal opportunities (gender equality)
2 There are solid job opportunities
3 Health care system is generally good
4 They have quality educational system
5 The government is not ideal, but its work does not affect a day-to-day life
7 It is easy to emigrate because there are no restrictions in place
Participants express some concerns, indicating that "there is room for improvement." Despite these complaints, the overall sentiment reflects a perception of their country of residence as one with high living standards and a good quality of life.
Before discussing how this perception affects aspirations, it is important to present details and variations inside the main narrative
Gender equality remains a pivotal topic in today's society and serves as a key indicator of a country's development Recent interviews reveal a consensus among most participants, regardless of gender, that women are generally treated equally to men across both developed and developing nations However, one female participant expressed a differing opinion Notably, all participants made comparisons to other countries, leading to a shared belief that gender equality is more advanced in some regions.
Despite significant progress in gender equality within EU countries and the UK, many female participants believe there is still much work to be done A UK participant highlighted that while feminism has improved women's control over issues like abortion and job opportunities, challenges remain in achieving fair pay and respect in the workplace, which continues to be male-dominated Women also face societal pressures related to motherhood, body image, and the expectation to find a partner, alongside age-related discussions that link success to youth Socio-economic disadvantages further complicate these issues, although there is a general consensus on the high level of gender equality in EU states.
While there is a general consensus among both male and female participants regarding gender equality, some female respondents highlighted that men still hold an "upper hand" in various aspects One participant emphasized that men in her country enjoy greater opportunities compared to women, often being perceived as more professional or educated This perception contributes to the belief that men are more advantageous in the workplace, where women frequently face additional challenges.
34 maternity leave.” It can be argued that, although they have the same opportunities, it is
“easier” for men to achieve what they want Overall, the data suggest that men living in the EU and UK are still treated “better”
Job opportunities significantly impact quality of life, with respondents from both developed and developing nations acknowledging the presence of “solid” job prospects However, they also face numerous obstacles, as many find it challenging to secure high-paying positions due to low salaries relative to the high cost of living Attaining a lucrative job often requires specific qualifications, with fields like teaching being underpaid compared to well-compensated IT roles Experience is another crucial factor, but younger individuals often find it unrealistic to expect high salaries early in their careers While many believe that hard work can lead to advancement, they recognize that it often entails working 10-12 hours a day, disrupting work-life balance and fostering aspirations to migrate to countries that offer better balance.
The health care system serves as a crucial indicator of a country's development level, yet participants universally expressed dissatisfaction, despite the availability of free health care in their nations Both developed and developing countries share common grievances, primarily stemming from "poor organization," which results in long wait times for patients with serious health issues, particularly in developing nations Additionally, many healthcare institutions face challenges such as understaffing and insufficient funding While private clinics offer an alternative, their high costs render them inaccessible for most individuals Consequently, the inadequacies in healthcare organization contribute significantly to overall dissatisfaction, highlighting that free healthcare does not equate to effective care.
The educational system serves as the fourth indicator of a country's development level, with most participants rating the quality of education in their country as generally "good," regardless of whether they reside in developed or developing nations However, teachers expressed concerns, suggesting that the reality may not be as positive as perceived A participant from the UK highlighted that basic education allows little room for critical thinking, criticizing the curriculum for omitting significant aspects of British history and focusing instead on a biased portrayal of the UK's achievements.
The fifth indicator assessed government performance, revealing a unanimous sentiment among participants that governments fail to serve the interests of the people, a view consistent across both developed and developing nations Dissatisfaction is prevalent, with participants believing that politicians prioritize personal gain over public welfare This perception is further supported by concerns regarding the treatment of individuals with limited resources; while assistance is provided, it is deemed insufficient for a "normal life." Additionally, housing options are frequently criticized as "unhygienic," highlighting the inadequacies of government support.
Participants expressed concerns about overcrowding and the inadequacy of financial assistance to meet living costs When discussing the treatment of different nationalities, they noted that it varies significantly, contrary to the EU's principle of equal treatment Many participants highlighted that refugees are not treated as well as advertised Regarding corruption, there was a consensus among both developed and developing country participants that, while they acknowledge its existence, it does not impact their daily lives.
Safety emerged as the sixth key indicator, with all participants expressing a sense of security in their country of residence Notably, there was no significant difference in perceptions of safety between male and female respondents While some acknowledged that safety can vary by area, overall, it was not a major concern for the group.
The last indicator is the possibility of migration Male and female participants from both developed and developing countries agreed that it is “easy to leave the country”
Migrations within the EU zone are generally perceived as more accessible; however, many acknowledge that immigrants from outside the EU face significant challenges A lack of knowledge about migration restrictions contributes to the difficulties encountered by these individuals.
While the perception of quality of life in one's country may not significantly influence personal aspirations, participants acknowledged high living standards and expressed a desire to remain and build their lives there Despite this, many reported dissatisfaction with their personal lives, yearning for new experiences indicative of intrinsic aspirations However, deeper analysis revealed that their discontent often stemmed from financial challenges and a lack of work-life balance, suggesting that their aspirations were primarily instrumental in nature.
Perception of quality of life in Vietnam
The fourth section of the interview explores perceptions of quality of life in Vietnam prior to relocation Respondents were asked to reflect on their thoughts about the country before their move, which may influence their current experiences This study will analyze these perceptions to understand how they compare to life after relocating.
Participants in the study often had limited knowledge about Vietnam, overlooked the quality of life, or held stereotypical views The research highlights that perceptions of life in the destination country significantly influence an individual's desire to migrate However, the findings indicate that prior perceptions of Vietnam were less impactful than personal circumstances and the quality of life in their current country of residence.
Many participants exhibited a general lack of awareness about Vietnam prior to their relocation, often perceiving it as a traditional country Most did not conduct any research beforehand and instead relied on positive experiences shared by others A key takeaway for them was the understanding that they were among Western individuals in this new environment.
In Vietnam, individuals often enjoy high-paying job opportunities coupled with a low cost of living However, many overlook critical factors such as gender equality, healthcare, education, government effectiveness, safety, and migration policies due to limited awareness and understanding It is essential to recognize the variations in these perceptions that can significantly impact overall quality of life.
Many participants were initially unaware of gender equality, perceiving Vietnam as a traditional society with established gender roles However, after relocating, they noticed a degree of gender equality, observing that both men and women were employed, albeit not to the same extent as in their home countries While they were uncertain about the equality of opportunities for local men and women, this issue did not concern them, as they felt that foreign men and women were treated equally in Vietnam.
Job opportunities emerged as the most significant factor influencing migration to Vietnam, with many participants recognizing the potential for high-paying positions and lower living costs This awareness played a crucial role in their aspirations to relocate, particularly as most expressed difficulties in living "comfortably" in their current countries, citing issues like debt and the inability to save One participant highlighted that, as a "westerner," he anticipated greater job prospects, indicating a strong appeal for individuals from the EU and UK to consider Vietnam as a viable option for relocation.
38 generally well treated in Vietnam All of the participants were satisfied with their lives and jobs after relocation
As with gender equality, collected data shows that there was a lack of knowledge about the health care system in Vietnam The general assumption was that it was either
Most participants found the healthcare system in their new country to be "solid," yet not as good as in their home country Consequently, many opted for private health insurance, often provided by their employers After relocating, the majority utilized private clinics and reported general satisfaction with the services Some also accessed state institutions, reinforcing their views about the local healthcare system's quality.
Participants were largely unaware of the quality of education in Vietnam, as their primary focus was on job opportunities rather than studying there Despite this, many assumed Vietnam had a good or even "excellent" educational system After relocating, they discovered that while Vietnam does have a quality education system, it imposes significant pressure on students, making it "more demanding" and requiring them to "work more" compared to the educational systems in their home countries.
Participants overlooked the role of the government in their relocation experience, often assuming it operated under a strict regime Surprisingly, none conducted prior research on this aspect After relocating, many expressed feeling "privileged" as Westerners, noting a perception that locals receive different treatment from the government Additionally, safety was a factor they underestimated; most assumed Vietnam was a "safe country," a perception that remained unchanged post-relocation, with both male and female participants reporting a sense of safety in their new environment.
Migration policies were one of the significant factors Participants were aware of the
“relatively easy” process for obtaining necessary documents such as visas and work permits None of the participants stated that they had any trouble with it It is
It is noteworthy that the residency process can be simplified when managed by the employer Despite living in Vietnam for one to five years, participants did not express a desire for permanent relocation Additionally, many acknowledged that they realized it is easier for individuals from certain backgrounds to navigate this process after their move.
EU and UK to migrate to Vietnam” than vice versa
In Vietnam, the perception of quality of life appears to be a minimal factor influencing aspirations, with the primary drivers being the availability of high-paying jobs and low living costs This indicates that aspirations are largely instrumental, focused on economic opportunities rather than broader quality of life considerations.
From third and fourth narrative it is possible to draw a conclusion about capabilities of participants (de Haas, A theory of migration: the aspiration-capabilities framework,
Migration capabilities are influenced by both positive and negative liberties Negative liberties indicate the absence of constraints, as participants reported no migration limitations from their country of residence or Vietnam Conversely, positive liberties encompass the capabilities required for action, with financial stability being particularly crucial Even in countries without migration restrictions, individuals lacking financial resources may find it impossible to migrate However, all participants in this study experienced no restrictions and possessed sufficient financial means to relocate, suggesting they had high capabilities for migration.
According to de Haas's aspiration-capabilities framework, individuals can be classified into different mobility types based on their aspirations and capabilities In this study, since both aspirations and capabilities were found to be high among all participants, they are all categorized as belonging to the voluntary mobility type.
De Haas developed theoretical migration categories based on the concepts of positive and negative liberties Given that both types of liberties significantly influenced the participants, their migrations are classified as "Free migrations," characterized by relatively unconstrained mobility both within and between regions.
40 wealthy countries or by wealthy people, skilled workers, “lifestyle migrations” (de Haas, A theory of migration: the aspiration-capabilities framework, 2021)
Participants' stories support this classification to some extent They experienced unrestricted mobility and, while there is no evidence indicating that they are wealthy, they possessed sufficient financial means to relocate Each participant stated that their motivation for emigrating was the desire for new experiences, aligning with the concept of lifestyle migrations.