INTRODUCTION
Background
Climate change is significantly impacting natural resources, the environment, and the socio-economic activities of countries globally If global warming exceeds 2°C, it could trigger irreversible changes with severe consequences, especially for the poorest and most vulnerable populations, including impoverished women, jeopardizing their livelihoods (UNDP, 2017).
Vietnam is significantly impacted by climate change, particularly through sea-level rise, which leads to the loss of crops and arable land from salt-water intrusion and storm surges in coastal areas However, the effects of climate change extend beyond these regions, as there is a lack of understanding and support for vulnerable communities in Vietnam's rural and mountainous areas.
Climate change in Vietnam's Northern mountainous regions has led to reduced rainfall during certain seasons, exacerbating drought conditions The risk of natural disasters is heightened on steep terrain, increasing the likelihood of landslides and soil erosion With high poverty rates, inadequate infrastructure, limited technological access, and a heavy dependence on natural resources, these areas are expected to experience more severe impacts from climate change.
In high mountainous regions, sustainable livelihood development is constrained, leaving rural poor populations heavily dependent on natural resources and vulnerable to environmental degradation and climate change Countries like Vietnam face challenges in supporting these communities to adapt to their changing environment Therefore, implementing effective climate change adaptation strategies is essential for enhancing resilience and improving livelihoods in these areas.
To effectively address the needs identified, support measures must focus on minimizing vulnerability and enhancing rural livelihood opportunities It is essential to adopt an integrated approach that acknowledges the impact of climate change on these challenges while also empowering communities to strengthen their adaptive capacities.
A report from the Department of Agriculture and Development in Mai Chau district, Hoa Binh province, reveals that approximately 1,889 households are facing water shortages for daily living due to drought conditions, while 140 hectares of agricultural land have been impacted by both droughts and floods.
Pa Co commune, situated in the mountainous Mai Chau district, features challenging socio-economic conditions and a complex landscape characterized by hills and steep slopes at an elevation of 1,200 meters above sea level, reflecting the typical environment of northern mountain regions.
Pa Co features a long and narrow terrain bordered by rocky mountains, where the fragile soil cover and karst rock limit agricultural options Due to inadequate water resources, only corn and galangal can be cultivated, and typically only one crop per season is feasible Climate change has exacerbated these challenges, leading to unpredictable and complex weather patterns that threaten both natural ecosystems and human livelihoods in the commune.
The residents of Pa Co commune primarily rely on agriculture, including maize and rice cultivation, as well as upland crop farming and forest product exploitation Their livelihoods are significantly influenced by weather, climate, and natural conditions Despite this reliance, there is a notable absence of thorough evaluations regarding the resilience of these livelihoods to climate change impacts in this mountainous region.
“Assessment of the climate-resilient livelihood of Hmong’s ethnic in Pa Co commune,
Mai Chau District, Hoa Binh” has been chosen to study.
Research objectives, questions, and hypothesis
This study evaluates the impact of climate change on the livelihoods of residents in Pa Co commune and examines how the local community adapts through diverse livelihood strategies Additionally, it analyzes opportunities for enhancing these adaptive measures.
This research explores the resilience of local livelihoods to climate change and presents innovative livelihood models aimed at enhancing adaptation strategies in the region.
Table 1.1 The research objectives, questions and hypothesis
Research hypothesis Research questions Research
Climate change, particularly extreme weather events such as storms, floods, unusual heat, and hail, has negatively affected people's livelihood activities in Pa Co commune
What is climate change impacting to the livelihoods of local people in Pa Co commune?
To study the climate change effects on the livelihoods of the local people
The local people have relied on five livelihood capitals to develop different ways to adapt to climate change
What are resources for the local people to better adapt to climate change?
To assess the livelihood resilience levels of the local community
Among the livelihood models, the eco-tourism livelihood will be the highest resilience to climate change in the Pa Co commune
What are natural and social features favorable for the local people enhance their livelihood to climate change?
To analyze potentials to improve local livelihood resilience to climate change.
Subject and scope
- The livelihoods activities and models of the local households in Pa Co commune;
- Solutions to enhance the resilience and sustainability of livelihood activities in
The research was conducted in Pa Co commune, Mai Chau District, Hoa Binh Province
Study site: Pa Co commune, Mai Chau district, Hoa Binh province
The fieldwork in the locality is conducted in two distinct periods, focusing on specific content as outlined in Table 1.2 This research utilizes statistical data and relevant reports to analyze the impacts of climate change on livelihoods and the adaptation strategies employed in Pa Co commune.
Table 1.2 Time, place and research contents of the fieldwork in Pa Co commune
- Board of management for Pa Co Nature Reserve
- Pa Co Commune People's Committee
- Overall assessment of the research and study site selection
- In-depth interview (Leader community - Chairman of the commune, village heads
- Trial interview with households (pilot)
- Board of management for Pa Co Nature Reserve
- To implement the in-depth interview and case study
Literature review
Recent studies on climate change resilience have primarily been conducted in developing countries, particularly in Asia and Africa, with a focus on evaluating the impacts of climate change on people's livelihoods.
Research by Gentle & Maraseni (2012) reveals that rural mountain communities in Nepal are experiencing increasingly severe impacts of climate change, which degrade natural resources, threaten food security, and exacerbate social inequality The most vulnerable populations in these areas are the poor, who face significant challenges due to climate change Additionally, Bhadwal et al (2019) found that the effects of climate change on livelihoods vary significantly, with gender being a critical factor in determining vulnerability This study emphasizes that limited access to human, financial, and natural capital is a primary cause of gender-based vulnerability to climate change impacts.
For manufacturing industries, climate change affects supporting infrastructure
Human socio-economic development significantly impacts mountainous ecosystems, increasing the vulnerability of coastal communities Research indicates that the livelihood capital of rural populations in high-altitude areas is heavily reliant on natural conditions, leading to heightened poverty levels during extreme weather events or natural disasters Tanner (2015) highlights the extensive effects of climate change on livelihood systems, amplifying community risks and vulnerabilities Dev (2012) discusses how climate change influences rural livelihoods, agriculture, and food security, while Dube & Nhamo (2020) examine its effects on the tourism sector at Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe Nocera et al (2018) analyze climate change's impact on tourist mobility in mountainous regions, emphasizing the roles of infrastructure and transportation Devkota (2013) explores community perceptions of climate change and its implications for tourism-dependent livelihoods, noting that fluctuations in climate patterns hinder local tourism and business activities.
Researchers worldwide are growing increasingly concerned about climate-resilient livelihoods, particularly for high mountain tribes in Asia, Latin America, and Africa A holistic approach to climate-resilient living is currently lacking in research, despite its importance Rural high mountain communities are disproportionately vulnerable to climate change due to limited resources, including financial constraints, which disproportionately affect single-income households, small-scale livelihoods, and disadvantaged groups such as the poor and women.
In Vietnam, organizations like CARE, SRD, and CRD are actively researching livelihoods that adapt to climate change CARE, a leading international organization in this field, focuses on community-based climate change adaptation Recognizing the significant effects of climate change on food security, income, drinking water, health, and migration, CARE has developed a comprehensive approach to adapting livelihoods and established criteria for evaluating climate change adaptation models.
The Center for Sustainable Rural Development Organization (SRD) has initiated the "Sustainable Livelihoods Responding to Climate Change in Northern Vietnam" project, focusing on Yen Bai, Thai Nguyen, Quang Ninh, and Hoa Binh provinces This project addresses interconnected themes such as climate change, irrigation, water supply and sanitation, land and livelihoods, as well as value chains and market access Local community members actively participate in assessments and surveys to evaluate their vulnerabilities, enabling the design of targeted interventions that aim to enhance sustainable livelihoods in rural areas affected by climate change through effective adaptation and mitigation strategies.
In 2016, a comprehensive overview of adaptive livelihoods and successful examples implemented by NGOs in various communities was documented, highlighting effective strategies across the country.
The article "Livelihoods Adaptation to Climate Change: Evaluation Criteria and Examples," published by the Vietnam Network of Non-Governmental Organizations and CC (VNGO&CC), along with the Working Group on CC (CCWG) and the Department of Meteorology, Hydrology, emphasizes the importance of assessing adaptation strategies to climate change It outlines key evaluation criteria and provides practical examples to guide communities in enhancing their resilience and sustainable livelihoods in the face of climate challenges.
The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment is collaborating to implement a crucial document that serves as a guiding resource for NGO staff involved in intervention projects focused on sustainable livelihoods adapted to climate change.
The ADDA organization launched the "Climate Change and Ethnic Minorities" (CEMI) project in Northern Vietnam, which was active from 2014 to 2017 across the provinces of Dien Bien, So La, and Lai Chau This initiative aims to assist ethnic minority communities residing in mountainous regions, with a focus on enhancing their resilience to climate change impacts.
8 to increase the access of ethnic minorities to information about CC and its impact on the planning process to respond to CC, food security and poverty alleviation
Recent studies have emphasized the importance of sustainable rural livelihoods, with a focus on utilizing indigenous knowledge to enhance resilience to climate change For instance, research by Son & Kingsbury (2020) highlights the significance of accumulated indigenous knowledge in adaptation policies and plans, promoting resilience in indigenous communities Similarly, a study by Ha & Kühling (2020) explores strategies for climate-resilient livelihoods and secure income for smallholder farmers, underscoring the need for climate-resilient approaches in rural areas.
A research group from the University of Forestry has explored the role of indigenous knowledge in agriculture and forestry among the Dao people in Bac Me district, Ha Giang province, particularly in relation to climate change (CC) The study highlights how weather factors impact the livelihoods of the Dao community, emphasizing that their traditional agricultural practices are crucial for enhancing adaptability, improving ecosystems, and reducing vulnerability Indigenous knowledge serves as a sustainable solution for the Dao community's adaptation to CC, as noted by Dong et al (2020) Additionally, Ho et al (2019) illustrate how the Yao people have developed intricate farming systems and cultural practices over centuries of observation and experimentation Furthermore, Huynh et al (2020) investigate the traditional agricultural practices of the Xo Dang ethnic group in central Vietnam, shedding light on the factors that influence the adoption of these practices in response to climate change among ethnic minorities.
In summary: Above studies demonstrated that climate change impacts the livelihoods of local people In particular, agro-forestry livelihoods are the most
Climate change significantly impacts vulnerable upland communities, whose livelihoods heavily rely on natural resources While studies suggest solutions for developing sustainable livelihoods and adapting to climate change, many ethnic minority groups remain the poorest and most susceptible to natural disasters Existing projects primarily focus on poverty reduction and livelihood models for climate change adaptation but often lack sustainability once NGOs withdraw due to insufficient funding Research on climate change-responsive livelihoods highlights how indigenous peoples adapt their practices, yet there is a scarcity of workshops and studies aimed at building climate-resilient livelihoods in Vietnam Addressing these gaps is crucial for reducing disaster risks and promoting sustainable development in the region.
1.4.3 Studies in the study site
Two international NGOs have implemented the projects to help ethnic minorities here in production and livelihood activities in Mai Chau district, Hoa Binh province
World Vision initiated its first project in Mai Chau in 2012, focusing primarily on agricultural production models for families with young children In addition to livelihood support, the organization implemented a disaster management project aimed at enhancing community capacity, emphasizing knowledge on disaster prevention, mitigation, and climate change adaptation This approach aligns with World Vision's broader regional development goals, integrating climate change considerations into their overall development strategy rather than solely focusing on individual livelihood projects.
Good Neighbors is spearheading the Green Light Eco project, which emphasizes four key initiatives: enhancing waste treatment systems, constructing a playground from recycled materials for children, and executing a comprehensive environmental protection strategy This project also aims to establish a recycling livelihood group, contributing to sustainable community development.
10 a mountainous district in the North and is heavily affected, unfortunately, there is currently no specific study on livelihoods affected by CC in this area
Overview of research area
Mai Chau is a highland district of Hoa Binh province, 65 km far from the west of the provincial capital, with a natural area of 56,982.81 ha, the boundaries are determined as follows:
The North borders on Da Bac district, Hoa Binh province;
To the south, it borders Quan Hoa district, Thanh Hoa province;
The East borders Tan Lac district, Hoa Binh province;
The West borders Van Ho district, Son La province
Pa Co commune, located 38 km north of Mai Chau district, is a remote and challenging area covering 19,727.79 hectares It shares borders with Chieng Yen commune in Van Ho district and Tan Son commune in Mai Chau district to the east, while Na Meo and Bao La communes lie to the south To the west, it borders Cun Pheo and Hang Kia communes, and Long Luong commune in Van Ho district is situated to the north (Department of Natural Resources and Environment of Hoa Binh province, 2016).
Mai Chau's topography is quite complex, divided by a system of high mountains and creeks and streams According to topographical characteristics, it can be divided into two distinct regions:
Lowland: Distributed along Xia stream, Mun stream and National Highway 15, with an area of nearly 2,000 hectares, relatively flat terrain, fertile soil
Upland is a region encircling a district that encompasses eight communes, covering an area of over 400 km² Characterized by its high mountains and rugged terrain, the average altitude in this area ranges from 800 to 900 meters, with the highest peak reaching approximately 1,200 meters in Pa.
Co commune), the lowest point is 220m (Mai Chau town) The average slope is from
30 o to 35 o Overall, Mai Chau's topography is lower in the direction from Northwest to Southeast
The topography of Pa Co commune is quite complicated, mainly consisting of consecutive high hills, steep slopes, alternating with small valleys with fairly flat terrain
In a commune situated at an average elevation of 1,200 meters, agricultural production faces significant challenges due to steep, rocky terrain and fragmented land The geological structure complicates development efforts, resulting in limited agricultural land and scarce water resources primarily reliant on rainfall Consequently, both crop yields and livestock productivity remain low, impacting the livelihoods of the local population.
The terrain is strongly dissected, the steep slope is an advantage to create a majestic natural landscape with valleys, ravines, etc c) Climate
Pa Co commune in Mai Chau district is in the subtropical monsoon climate in the high mountains, divided into 2 seasons per year: Wet season and dry season
The rainy season, spanning approximately six months from mid-April to mid-October, brings around 1,400mm of rainfall, which constitutes 90% of the annual total During this period, average temperatures range from 19 to 23°C, providing a cool climate.
The rainy season in this region spans from June to September, contributing approximately 1,076mm of rainfall, which represents 70% of the annual total Among these months, August experiences the highest precipitation, averaging 331.4mm Overall, the total annual rainfall is about 1,500mm, which is relatively low compared to other areas in the country.
The dry season lasts approximately six months, from mid-October to April, contributing only about 10% of the annual rainfall with a total of around 160mm This period is characterized by cooler temperatures, particularly during the months of December, January, and February.
Month I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII Year
(Source: Department of Natural Resources and Environment of Hoa Binh province, 2016)
The data indicates that summer temperatures, ranging from April to October, peak at 28.4°C in July, while winter temperatures vary between 17.3°C and 22.1°C Overall, the average temperature throughout the year is 23.8°C.
Some climate indicators of Hang Kia commune are as follows (according to Van Ho-Son La meteorological station):
- Average air temperature for the whole year: 18.5 o C;
- Average number of sunny hours in the whole year: 1,905 hours;
- Average number of rainy days in the whole year: 179 days;
- The average air hiddenness of the whole year: 85%;
- Average wind speed for the whole year: 2m/s;
- Average number of days with fog in the whole year: 95 days;
- Average number of days with drizzle in the whole year: 60 days
Pa Co commune, situated next to Van Ho district in Son La province, experiences a climate characterized by low temperatures, making it distinct from other areas in Mai Chau district The region enjoys a cool climate with low rainfall and plenty of sunshine.
The climate and weather in the commune are conducive to the growth of terrestrial crops like maize and various fruit trees, as well as supporting livestock such as buffaloes, cows, pigs, and poultry However, these conditions also present challenges, including drought and water shortages during the dry season, which can impact both agricultural production and daily life.
The commune, situated at an average altitude of 1,200 meters above sea level, faces significant challenges regarding its water supply due to its steep hills, rocky mountains, and karst geological structure that cannot retain water Seasonal rainfall is crucial for both daily living and agricultural production, but during the dry season, the community primarily depends on limited water stored in reservoirs and some underground mines Additionally, small streams in the area only flow during the rainy season, exacerbating the water scarcity issue This lack of reliable water sources has been a major constraint on the socio-economic development of the commune in recent years.
Figure 1.2 Landscapes in Pa Co commune
Mai Chau is a picturesque destination known for its stunning natural beauty, featuring ancient forests, rivers, lakes, and majestic mountains The region's fresh climate, vibrant white banyan flowers, and crimson peach blossoms enhance its charm, while traditional stilt houses and the warmth of its hospitable people add to the allure Rich in folklore, unique festivals, and diverse cuisine, Mai Chau showcases traditional handicrafts that reflect its cultural heritage, making it a prominent spot for tourism.
The soil in Mai Chau predominantly consists of red soil and humus, which together make up 92.02% of the region's natural area This soil features a favorable texture and relatively high natural fertility However, the steep slopes and highly dissected terrain contribute to a light mechanical composition, increasing the risk of soil erosion.
The soil system in Mai Chau is derived from both ancient and young rocks, primarily consisting of metamorphic sedimentary formations such as shale, sandstone, and neutral igneous limestone However, certain areas have experienced soil erosion due to prolonged mining activities, leading to gravel exposure in the landscape.
18 soils, in Mai Chau district, there are also some feralite soils modified by wet rice cultivation and alluvial soil
The challenging soil characteristics hinder the development of tourism facilities and infrastructure, necessitating restrictions on construction in steep areas, particularly along hills and mountains prone to erosion Additionally, protecting forest ecosystems is essential to maintain the area's natural balance.
Figure 1.3 Hang Kia and Pa Co nature reserve
Mai Chau boasts rich forest resources, primarily consisting of natural forests with a variety of tropical tree species, including precious woods and valuable specialties Pa Co commune, situated within the Hang Kia and Pa Co nature reserve, encompasses a total forestry land area of 1,714.96 hectares, with 1,683.54 hectares classified as forest land, representing 71.69% of the commune's total natural land The special-use natural forest covers 1,632.99 hectares (69.54% of the natural land area), while the natural production forest spans 50.55 hectares (2.15%) This diverse ecosystem is home to valuable tree species such as Po Mu, Red Pine, Gnat, and Tau, along with indigenous plantations like Xoan, which have been increasingly cultivated in recent years.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND METHODS
Methodology
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is an effective methodological approach that empowers poor farmers to actively identify and articulate their challenges, strengths, and opportunities in addressing climate change By involving stakeholders in the assessment process, PRA fosters a sense of ownership over the results, increasing their likelihood of supporting and participating in sustainable livelihood projects.
22 that arise Local people's involvement is critical in the development of project designs because it preserves local techniques and supports ecological, economic, and policy sustainability
Interdisciplinary research is essential for addressing complex issues like climate change, as it requires examining data through various lenses, including geographical, economic, and social factors In Pa Co commune, a comprehensive analysis of climate change impacts on livelihoods emphasizes the need for collaboration among humanities and social science researchers This integrated approach recognizes that the effects of climate change intersect with multiple economic, social, and environmental domains, making it crucial to avoid isolated perspectives As noted by Margaret Mead in 1930, interdisciplinary research involves the cooperation of multiple disciplines, fostering a holistic understanding of social science challenges.
Livelihood is interconnected with various societal fields, and examining it through a single area of research may not accurately reflect the complexities of the issue A narrow focus on one specialized framework can lead to a distorted understanding of the phenomena involved.
Secondary data collection involved synthesizing information from various sources, including books, newspapers, previous theses, and reports related to livelihoods and resilience to climate change, both domestically and internationally These references were crucial in outlining the theoretical framework, guiding the selection of research sites, and facilitating comparative analysis.
This article explores research methods and principles for developing a resilience index assessment and evaluating the impact of climate change It aims to establish a comprehensive research framework, methodology, and direction for the thesis based on extensive surveys.
Data and documents related to Mai Chau district and Pa Co commune are provided mainly by MONRE, district and commune:
Recent data on the climate and weather conditions in Mai Chau district, including temperature, precipitation, and extreme weather events such as storms and floods, has been recorded This information, primarily sourced from the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE, 2020) and the Hoa Binh Center for Natural Resources, is essential for identifying and predicting climate change impacts in the region.
From 2001 to 2020, data on daily rainfall, average temperature, and maximum temperature were gathered from the Hoa Binh Provincial Hydro-meteorological Station at Mai Chau This data serves as the foundation for analyzing annual temperature and precipitation variations, as well as identifying trends in rainfall and temperature Additionally, the study assesses the frequency of very cold days, extreme cold days, hot days, and heavy rainfall days in Mai Chau during this period.
- The 5-year socio-economic summary report of Mai Chau district and Pa Co
2019 is used to determine socio-economic conditions, environment, livelihood activities, and development strategies regional development of Mai Chau district;
- Mai Chau district statistical yearbook Report on tourism planning in Mai Chau district with a vision to 2030 and other reports of NGO
Primary data collection was conducted using various sociological research methods, including observation, in-depth interviews, household surveys, case studies, and focus group discussions The study focused on Pa Co commune, chosen for its unique characteristics related to the impacts of climate change.
Observations are shown through photographs, sources of livelihoods (houses, infrastructure, etc.), activities of livelihoods of local people affected by climate change / natural disasters
This study used a SWOT analysis to develop a tourism model for Pa Co commune From there, analyze and suggest how to apply this analysis to build a tourism
24 model in the virtual community Through SWOT analysis, to help the Hmong community in Pa Co improve their livelihoods more sustainably
The SWOT analysis method was employed in the report to assess the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and challenges faced by the community This analysis serves as a foundation for proposing effective solutions and strategies for Pa Co commune to enhance livelihoods in the context of climate change adaptation.
This article presents a range of solutions aimed at enhancing community livelihoods in the face of climate change It focuses on sustainable resource use, increasing household income, and stabilizing livelihoods to ensure resilience against climate impacts The proposed solutions are grounded in thorough surveys, assessments, and interviews conducted with local community members, ensuring their active participation in the development process.
The interview technique utilizes a customizable guide and a checklist of essential questions, allowing for adjustments if any question is deemed inappropriate during the investigation This approach aims to collect representative and in-depth data, as well as insights into communities' or households' understanding of climate change.
This research employs structured interviews utilizing two methods: group classification and free listing Households are categorized into two distinct groups based on their livelihood characteristics: those solely engaged in agriculture and those involved in multiple livelihoods Subsequently, a tailored questionnaire (Appendix A) is developed to assess each group's understanding of climate change and their adaptation strategies prior to conducting more in-depth interviews.
During the field trip, unstructured interviews are utilized primarily for two reasons Firstly, these interviews focus on the experiences and challenges faced by local individuals in relation to natural disasters The Hmong community in Pa Co excels in leveraging indigenous knowledge for production and adapting to their environment, making their insights invaluable.
In this study, unstructured interviews were conducted with 25 participants, revealing varied attitudes and reactions to different situations and questions A list of questions was used to foster a comfortable environment for sharing, as my experience shows that people appreciate being listened to and often engage in lengthy discussions Six households from each village were selected for in-depth interviews focused on their production activities, providing valuable and detailed data for the research All interviews were recorded to serve as evidence for the study.
This research involved two focus group discussions, each comprising eight members, lasting approximately 90 minutes It examines the livelihoods of the Pa Co ethnic people and evaluates the effects of climate change on their way of life The discussions aimed to uncover differences in livelihood strategies and perceptions of climate change between the two groups The first group consists of households whose income relies solely on their land, while the second group engages in diverse livelihood activities to generate income.
Establishing a set of livelihood resilience indicators
To foster resilient livelihoods against climate change, it is essential to incorporate five key capital elements This study has systematically synthesized and analyzed various indicators to evaluate resilience and sustainability globally and in Vietnam, specifically assessing the resilience index of livelihood activities in Pa Co commune.
Household survey livelihood resilience indicators (Quandt et al., 2018)
An assessment framework of livelihood resilience (Speranza et al., 2014)
Climate-resilient livelihood indicators (CARE, 2015)
Set of indicators for monitoring and evaluating local sustainable development for the period 2013-2020
Figure 2.2 Climate-resilient livelihood framework
The criteria for assessing the resilience of livelihood activities in Pa Co commune, Mai Chau district, Hoa Binh province are evaluated on five main components including:
Table 2.3 Sets of indicators to assess livelihood resilience to climate change in the
Pa Co Commune Components Asset Quantitative indicators
Natural Capital Own farmland (Yes or No)
Soil erosion (rank of severity of soil erosion on farm)
Human capital Labor availability (Number of working members)
Health problems impact on ability to practice livelihoods (Scale from No to very much)
Physical capital Normal and rainy/dry season road conditions (Scale of bad to good)
Accessibility to facilities (schools, hospitals, etc.) within
Ownership of production equipment (own, rent or borrow)
Financial capital Income (Amount of income)
Housing situation (Types of houses)
Access to a bank account (Yes or No)
Social capital Activities with neighbors (Yes or No)
Participation in groups (Numbers of social groups)
Participation in production groups (Yes or No)
Data processing methods
The thesis employed the Max-Min method, as outlined by Statistics Canada (2003), utilizing Microsoft Excel 2010 to compute the resilience index The necessary monitoring indicators for the research are detailed in the table below.
Table 2.4 Table of collected data
No Collected data Purpose Source
1 The average temperature of years from 2001 to 2020
Know the temperature evolution average from 2001 to
Hoa Binh Center Nature Resource and Environment of Monitoring
2 The average rainfall every year from 2001 to 2020
Know the rainfall pattern average from 2001 to 2020
3 Number of days in the year