INTRODUCTION
Research background
Vietnam, a developing country in Asia, is actively working to enhance its higher education (HE) system as part of its internationalisation strategies Following the 'Doi Moi' policy in the mid-1980s, which shifted the country from a centralized to a market-oriented economy, Vietnam has made substantial reforms to modernize its outdated Soviet-style education system These efforts align with the nation's broader socio-economic policies and aim to position Vietnam as a host for international students, reflecting its commitment to improving educational standards and global engagement.
Internationalisation is essential for enhancing the competitiveness of higher education development and increasing labor capacity (Lane, 2015; Owens & Lane, 2014) As stated by Prime Minister Thu Tuong Chinh Phu in the Strategy for Education Development in Vietnam 2011–2020, internationalisation is one of the eight key strategies for educational advancement It focuses on fostering international cooperation in areas such as program development, research, and the mobility of students and staff within national policy frameworks (Tran & Marginson, 2018a) In Vietnam, this strategy is vital for promoting quality education, aligning with international standards, and improving skilled human resources in the Asia-Pacific region.
The Vietnamese government has implemented several reform strategies aimed at socio-economic and educational development for the period of 2011 to 2020, as highlighted by Tran and Marginson (2018) These initiatives include the Strategies for Socio-Economic Development and the Education Law, which reflect a commitment to enhancing the higher education system Additionally, the government is focusing on internationalisation efforts, shifting from a passive approach to a more active and proactive stance in reforming the higher education landscape (Hoang et al., 2018).
Vietnamese higher education (HE) has been shaped by significant international influences throughout its history, including the Qin dynasty's invasion, French colonialism, American occupation, and Soviet impact Following the Doi Moi reforms, foreign influences have permeated various aspects of the education system, such as language, policies, governance, and curriculum The Vietnamese government has actively encouraged outbound mobility to meet the demand for skilled professionals, yet inbound mobility remains limited due to the current educational and bureaucratic framework Most international students in Vietnam originate from Southeast Asian countries, highlighting the region's influence on the nation's higher education landscape.
Vietnam is enhancing its internationalisation initiatives by granting universities greater autonomy, implementing English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) programmes, and establishing partnerships with foreign higher education institutions The country is also promoting joint training, curriculum borrowing, and international collaborations, including exchange programmes and research cooperation, to bolster its educational framework.
Vietnam National University (VNU) in Hanoi, established as the country's first modern university and one of its two national universities, traces its roots back to the University of Indochina, founded on May 16, 1906 In December 1993, VNU was restructured by merging the University of Hanoi with several other prominent institutions in the capital Today, VNU stands as Vietnam's leading higher education and research center, dedicated to cultivating highly skilled human resources and talents to support the nation's development.
VNU is a unique institution in the Vietnamese higher education system, reporting directly to the Prime Minister and enjoying significant autonomy in areas such as personnel organization, academic programs, and scientific research Aiming to become a premier interdisciplinary research university, VNU focuses on developing high-quality human resources, fostering talent, and promoting advancements in science and technology The university also plays a crucial role in reforming Vietnam's higher education system by expanding and integrating academic programs to meet international standards Since 1993, VNU has accelerated globalization efforts to enhance Vietnam's scientific, technological, and socioeconomic foundation.
Problem Statement
Since 1999, Vietnam has welcomed international students, with a steady increase in their numbers over the years By 2019, the total reached a peak of 7,250 international students studying in the country.
Vietnam, a developing country in Asia, has seen a significant rise in the number of inbound students, highlighting its emergence as a non-traditional yet appealing study destination for international students.
Viet Nam n u m b er o f stud ents
Figure 1.1: The Flow of International Students Studying in Vietnam (1999 – 2019)
(Source: UIS, compiled by the author)
5 might be influencing factors for them to choose Vietnam for graduate study International students come from different regions: Asia, Africa and Europe
The choice of degree-seeking international students to study in Vietnam remains largely unexplored, with existing research primarily focusing on outbound student mobility This highlights a significant research gap regarding inbound student mobility in Vietnam Consequently, the researcher aims to investigate the motivations behind international students' interest in studying in Vietnam and the factors that influence their decision to pursue education in the country.
Purpose of the study
This research investigates the key factors motivating international students from Asia, Africa, and Europe to pursue their studies at a prominent national institution in a developing country, specifically focusing on VNU in Hanoi It aims to identify the critical influences on students' decisions to enroll in a prestigious university in such contexts and explores the regional variations in these factors across Asia, Africa, and Europe.
The research was conducted to answer the following two main questions:
1) What factors influence degree-seeking international students from Asia, Africa, and Europe to choose Vietnam as a study destination?
2) How do these factors vary from region to region?
Significance of the study
This research aims to enhance the understanding of student mobility as a key aspect of higher education internationalization It examines the factors influencing international students from Asia, Africa, and Europe in selecting a developing country, specifically Vietnam, for their studies, focusing on political, economic, social, cultural, and academic dimensions Additionally, it analyzes how these factors vary across different regions, addressing a gap in existing literature Utilizing both quantitative and qualitative research methods within a specific case study, the study seeks to provide insights into the unique influences affecting international students' decisions to study abroad.
6 insightful information for enhancing the internationalisation of HE in a developing country in the context of Vietnam, especially inbound student mobility in Vietnam
There are two key terms in the study, and they need to define clearly for a complete understanding of the purpose of the research
According to UIS, international (or internationally mobile) students have crossed a national or territorial border for education and enrolled outside their country of origin
Studying abroad provides access to high-quality education and essential skills that may not be available domestically, while also connecting students to labor markets that offer greater returns on their educational investments (OECD, 2020).
Limitation of the study
This research centers on a prominent university, aiming to provide valuable insights into the factors influencing international students' decisions to study abroad within a specific institutional context However, the findings should not be generalized to encompass all universities and colleges in Vietnam, as the broader higher education system is outside the scope of this study Additionally, the impact of COVID-19 on these dynamics is acknowledged but not fully explored.
The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a significant shift to online classes, resulting in a limited presence of international students on campus, which poses challenges for researchers in data collection Despite these obstacles, this study aims to contribute to the existing literature on inbound student mobility in higher education within the context of Vietnam, a developing country in Asia.
Structure and overview of the study
The research consists of five chapters:
Chapter 1: Introduction – provides the research's introduction and background It also presents the problem statement, the study’s purpose followed by the research method, and its significance Lastly, the chapter discusses the study's limitations and structure
Chapter 2: Literature review – This chapter briefly presents the study's theoretical framework and the Push-Pull theory It describes the overview of the related literature on topics comprising globalisation and the internationalisation of HE The chapter then elaborates on the study's analytical framework in four dimensions: political, economic, social/ cultural and academic Finally, the chapter discusses each indicator used for data analysis
Chapter 3: Research Methodology – This chapter will consist of four sections
The article outlines the research design, focusing on a convergent mixed-methods approach and its justification It details the study's population and sample, encompassing both qualitative and quantitative respondents, along with the research instruments used, such as an interview guide and a questionnaire Additionally, the chapter discusses the selection of cases at the national and university levels, including the rationale for choosing Vietnam as the host country, the leading national university, its sub-universities, institutes, and programs Furthermore, it elaborates on the data collection methodology, which involves both online and paper-based survey questionnaires and in-depth interviews The chapter concludes with a description of the data analysis methods and the process of data merging.
Chapter 4: Findings and Discussions – This chapter analyses and discusses the research findings in two parts Firstly, the chapter discusses the factors influencing international students of Asia, Africa, and Europe to study abroad in a developing country by four key dimensions: political, economic, social, cultural, and academic factors Each indicator will be presented and discussed briefly Then, the chapter describes the additional or potential factors influencing international students’ choice to study abroad in Vietnam The second part presents findings from the region-by- region analysis, including impacting factors of international students for choosing study destination and their variations It will elaborate on the motivations of African, Asian, and European students studying in Vietnam
Chapter 5: Conclusions and recommendations – This chapter presents the conclusion of the whole research and elaborates on the study's main contributions Finally, the chapter will end with a piece of advice for future research
Chapter 1 outlines the study's background, emphasizing the global context and Vietnam's historical evolution, particularly in higher education internationalization at VNU, Hanoi It articulates the problem statement, research purpose, and key research questions, highlighting the study's significance and defining essential terminology Additionally, the chapter addresses the limitations of the study and concludes with a summary of the overall structure and overview of the research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theoretical Framework
The Push-Pull migration theory, proposed by Lee (1966), serves as the theoretical framework for this research, highlighting the factors influencing migration decisions It categorizes these factors into "Push" elements, which are domestic social, political, and economic conditions that drive individuals, particularly students, to study abroad, such as increased competition for university admissions (Bodycott & Lai, 2012) Conversely, "Pull" factors attract students to specific countries, including the reputation of educational institutions, recommendations from peers and family, and opportunities for employment in the host country (Mazzarol et al.).
This study examines the factors influencing international students' decisions to study in developing countries, with a particular focus on Vietnam's attractive "pull" factors Utilizing the push-pull theory established by Lee (1966), which originally addressed migration, this research highlights how 'push' factors drive individuals away from their home countries while 'pull' factors draw them to host nations for improved opportunities.
Figure 2.1: Basic Push-Pull Model
The theory has widely been used for researching international student mobility to explore students’ migration flow (Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002) During the 1960s and
Push + Pull factors Home country
In the 1970s, McMahon (1992) explored the dynamics of student migration from Third World countries to the US through the lens of outbound "push" and inbound "pull" models Push factors include economic conditions, global economic participation, government education priorities, and local educational opportunities in the home country Conversely, pull factors consist of the host country's strong economic status, economic connections between the home and host nations, cultural or political ties, and available scholarships or assistance Mazzarol et al further affirmed that these push-pull factors significantly impact students' decisions to pursue education abroad.
In the context of international student mobility, 'Push' factors refer to the social, political, and economic conditions in a student's home country that compel them to seek education abroad, such as intense competition for university admissions due to overpopulation (Bodycott & Lai, 2012) Conversely, 'Pull' factors attract students to specific countries for their studies, including the reputation of institutions, recommendations from peers and relatives, and job opportunities available in the host country (Mazzarol et al., 2000; Chen, 2017) The push-pull theory offers valuable insights into the trends and flow of international student mobility (Lee, 1966) This research aims to explore the factors influencing international students' decisions to study in developing countries.
“pull” factors This theory provides a better understanding of their behaviour
International students come from diverse backgrounds, including social, cultural, academic, and linguistic differences, which affect their motivations to study abroad While it is challenging to generalize the common "push" factors that encourage them to leave their home countries, this study emphasizes the importance of the host country's "pull" factors that attract international students, recognizing that these factors may vary among individuals A conceptual framework was employed to explore these influencing factors in detail.
2.1.2 Globalization and Internationalization in HE
Knight (2004, 2008) posits that internationalisation is transforming higher education, while globalisation simultaneously reshapes internationalisation According to Knight and de Wit (1997), globalisation entails the cross-border flow of technology, economy, knowledge, people, values, and ideas, influencing countries uniquely based on their histories, traditions, cultures, and priorities Knight further defines internationalisation as the integration of international, intercultural, and global dimensions into the objectives, core functions, and delivery of higher education at both institutional and national levels.
The concept of internationalization in higher education (HE) has been prevalent in political science and international relations for decades, gaining traction since the early 1980s (Knight, 2004) Over the years, the terminology surrounding this concept has evolved, reflecting the changing activities from the 1960s through the 1980s (Knight, 2011) By the early 21st century, the focus shifted towards academic mobility, emphasizing the movement of students, research, programs, and educational providers.
Figure 2.2: Conceptual Framework of the study
Social/ Cultural “Pull” factors Academic “Pull” factors
According to Knight (2012), internationalization occurs in two main streams: "at home" and "abroad or cross-border." The "at home" aspect encompasses curriculum development, teaching and learning, open-access education, and the involvement of both domestic and international students and faculty In contrast, the "abroad or cross-border" component involves the movement of people, programs, policies, and knowledge across national boundaries Additionally, Knight and de Wit (1997) identified four key rationales for internationalization: social/cultural, political, academic, and economic.
According to Altbach & Knight (2007), internationalisation can be categorized into four types: traditional internationalisation, European internationalism, developing-country internationalisation, and individual internationalisation Traditional internationalisation focuses on campus-based initiatives like study-abroad programs and international studies majors, aiming to enhance institutional competitiveness and prestige rather than generate profit European internationalism, exemplified by the ERASMUS program, seeks to foster economic and political ties by enabling EU students to study abroad Developing-country internationalisation targets the attraction of international students to enhance quality and prestige while generating revenue Lastly, individual internationalisation involves self-funded students who carefully choose their study destinations and fields.
OECD (2019) described nearly 8 million students studying abroad without considering the possible implications of the COVID-19 pandemic (de Wit & Altbach,
2021) Student Mobility is not uniform, and there are several forms: degree mobility, credit mobility, and certificate mobility (de Wit & Altbach, 2021) They defined that
“degree mobility means students pursuing a full degree abroad (Bachelor's, Master's,
Credit mobility allows students to study abroad for a short period, typically up to one academic year, and transfer their credits back to their home institution (de Wit & Altbach, 2021) In contrast, certificate mobility involves shorter stays aimed at enhancing skills and language proficiency without earning a degree or credits (de Wit & Altbach, 2021) Traditionally, degree mobility has been characterized by students moving from lower- and middle-income countries to higher-income countries, but recent trends show that some middle-income countries are now hosting international students Credit mobility primarily occurs between high-income nations, such as the U.S and Europe, with varying durations; in the U.S., it ranges from 6 weeks to 1 year, while in Europe, it lasts from two months to 1 year Certificate mobility is a global phenomenon with varying lengths depending on the location.
2.1.4 Trends in international students’ mobility
The landscape of international student mobility has evolved, with the United States remaining the leading host country, followed by France, Germany, the UK, and Australia (OECD, 2019) Historically, student mobility trends have shifted from North-to-North in 1965, to South-to-North in 1985, with China, India, and South Korea emerging as top sending countries Recently, there has been a notable increase in South-South movement, with countries like China, South Korea, Malaysia, India, and Russia becoming significant host nations Additionally, Singapore, China, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates are now popular destinations for international students Regional education hubs in Asia, including Singapore, Japan, Malaysia, and India, are competing in research and technology, driven by factors such as affordability, improved education quality, active promotion, and welcoming environments that attract international students (de Wit & Altbach, 2010; Knight, 2011).
2021) Their targets are neighbouring countries and Africa for recruitment as the global North is less accessible and welcoming (OECD, 2019)
2.1.5 Intraregional student mobility in Asia
Since the early 21st century, intraregional international student mobility in Asia has surged, with Japan, China, and South Korea emerging as the top destinations Additionally, Malaysia and Thailand have become increasingly popular among ASEAN countries These nations have experienced a notable influx of students from neighboring regions, including Africa, Europe, and the Americas, with the highest numbers coming from ASEAN countries This student flow is driven by enhanced collaboration among higher education institutions, promoting greater mobility across Asia Furthermore, globalization has fostered the "East Asianization of East Asia," leading to increased economic interdependence in the region.
After the 1900s, the UK and Australia saw a decline in popularity among Asian students, who increasingly preferred to pursue higher education within their home regions This trend indicates that students are drawn to study in their native areas due to lower costs and the quality of education available Furthermore, the establishment of the Socio-Cultural Community at the 2003 ASEAN Summit highlighted the importance of education as a key component of ASEAN integration, underscoring the significant role of higher education in fostering political integration within East Asia.
In 2005, ASEAN + 3 countries, including China, Japan, and Korea, began efforts to enhance regional education cooperation, which gained momentum in 2009 As cross-border higher education in Asia became more dynamic, an initiative resembling the European ERASMUS program was launched (Kuroda et al., 2018, p.8).
Recruiting international students has emerged as a vital business in traditional education hubs like the US, UK, and Australia, as highlighted by Altbach (2004) Education is now recognized as one of the 12 service sectors under the General Agreement on Trade in Services, focusing on cross-border educational opportunities (Knight, 2004) Additionally, countries such as Germany, France, and Asian nations like India, China, and Malaysia are gaining popularity and competitiveness in this arena (OECD and IBRD/THE WORLD BANK, 2007) The commercialization of international higher education has turned it into a significant economic venture, with nations increasingly interested in the import and export of educational services, particularly in the Asia Pacific region.
Analytical Framework…
This section outlines the development of an analytical framework for higher education internationalization, focusing on four key dimensions: political, economic, social/cultural, and academic factors, as identified by Knight & de Wit (1999) and Knight (2004) Each dimension includes carefully selected indicators that assess the factors influencing international students' decisions to study abroad in developing countries, as detailed in Table 2.6.
20 Democratic Republic of the Congo 3 2 8
3 Diplomatic relations with the home country of international student
1 Scholarship opportunities or financial assistance
2 Low costs of tuition fees/ living
3 Better employment opportunities after graduation
4 Availability of part-time employment
2 Interest in learning the Vietnamese language
4 Opportunity to gain international experience
1 Quality of Vietnam Higher Education
3 Availability of advanced research facilities
4 High-quality teaching staff Source: Developed by the author based on previous literature
Studies about influencing factors that make international students’ destination choice to study abroad have been conducted by many scholars for a couple of decades
Most studies on international student mobility have utilized a push-pull framework, highlighting that push factors are unfavorable conditions in the home country, such as economic and social issues, that compel students to seek education abroad Conversely, pull factors are the appealing attributes of the host country, including the reputation of educational institutions, international recognition of qualifications, high-quality teaching, and favorable geographical conditions.
Political factors play a crucial role in influencing international students' choices regarding study destinations, as highlighted by Altbach (1998) Key indicators affecting these decisions include the political stability of the host country, its membership in ASEAN, the strength of diplomatic relations with the students' home countries, and the ease of visa processing.
Political stability is a crucial factor influencing international students' decision to study in Malaysia, as it ensures safety in the host country (Dora et al., 2009) Both parents and students prioritize the security of their chosen destination for tertiary education In terms of safety, Vietnam ranks 64th out of 163 economies on the 2020 Global Peace Index and 12th in the Asia-Pacific region, highlighting concerns regarding its safety for international students (Institute for Economics & Peace, 2020, p.8).
Vietnam, a member of ASEAN located in Asia, is gaining popularity as a study destination for international students This interest is driven by ASEAN's integration with European programs like ERASMUS, as noted by Altbach & Knight (2007) Additionally, the trend of "ASIANIZATION OF ASIA" is influencing more Asian students to pursue their education within the region, as highlighted by Kuroda et al (2010).
3 The Diplomatic relations with the home country of the international student
Diplomatic relations between countries play a significant role in influencing international students' decisions to study abroad Despite limited literature on this topic, the author aims to explore how these diplomatic ties specifically impact international students studying in Vietnam.
International students prioritize countries with simplified visa processing, as straightforward procedures enhance the appeal of studying abroad Countries that streamline their visa application processes are often more attractive options compared to those with complicated requirements.
Economic factors drew international students to Vietnam to study abroad They are scholarship opportunities or financial assistance, low tuition fees and living costs
24 compared to other countries, better employment opportunities after graduation, and availability of part-time employment These pull factors related to economics are attractive to international students studying in Vietnam
1 Scholarship opportunities or financial assistance
Scholarship opportunities are essential for students from developing countries seeking to study abroad, as they often rely on financial assistance from host countries (McMahon, 1992; Li & Bray, 2007; Dora et al., 2009; Altbach, 1998) However, the limited availability of scholarships can pose significant challenges for those from disadvantaged backgrounds.
2 Low costs of tuition fees and living
Cost is a primary factor influencing the choice of study abroad destinations, as highlighted by Mazarrol & Soutar (2002) International students often evaluate direct expenses, including tuition fees, travel costs, and living expenses, when making their decisions The appeal of lower tuition fees and overall study costs significantly attracts students to various host countries.
3 Better employment opportunities after graduation
Most international students expect the benefits of studying abroad, especially economically, for example, employment opportunities or future career prospects (Nghia, 2015; Chen, 2017; Nghia, 2019)
4 Availability of part-time employment
Mazzarol and Soutar (2002) highlight that international students not only consider tuition and living expenses but also prioritize part-time work opportunities while studying abroad due to financial concerns The presence of part-time job options significantly enhances the appeal of studying in foreign countries for these students.
Social/ Cultural factors include cultural attractiveness, interest in learning the Vietnamese language, a safe environment in Vietnam, and the opportunity to gain international experience
Cultural attractiveness plays a vital role in Vietnam's appeal as a developing country, significantly influencing international students' decisions to study abroad Research indicates that exposure to diverse cultures motivates students to seek educational opportunities overseas (Nghia, 2019; Zhou & Zhang, 2018; Dora et al., 2009; Li & Bray, 2007).
2 Interest in learning the Vietnamese language
Studying abroad offers a unique opportunity to enhance language skills and cultural competency (Nghia, 2019; Zhou & Zhang, 2018; Chen, 2017; Nghia, 2015) In Vietnam, while international students typically need a foundational understanding of the Vietnamese language to enroll in local universities, this requirement does not apply universally, particularly for those from bilateral and international institutions Nonetheless, many international students express a genuine interest in learning Vietnamese, enriching their educational experience.
According to the 2020 Global Peace Index, Vietnam ranks 64th out of 163 economies, evaluated based on safety and security, domestic and international conflict, and militarization levels Research indicates that factors such as crime rates, security, and racial discrimination significantly influence students' choices when selecting a study destination (Zhou & Zhang, 2018; Chen, 2017; Maringe & Carter, 2007; Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002).
4 Opportunity to gain international experience
International students from developing countries often view studying abroad as a valuable opportunity to gain international life experience, which serves as a significant "pull" factor influencing their decision to study overseas (Altbach, 1998; Nghia, 2015; Chen, 2017; Zhou & Zhang, 2018; Nghia, 2019).
When evaluating the factors that influence international students' decisions to study abroad, key academic elements include the quality of higher education in Vietnam, the reputation of its institutions, the availability of advanced research facilities, and the presence of highly qualified teaching staff.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The study determines the influencing factors that international students choose a developing country to study abroad The study used the concurrent mixed methods design
The study utilizes a concurrent approach combining quantitative and qualitative methods, as illustrated in figure 3.1 A survey was administered to gather quantitative data, while qualitative insights were obtained through interviews with long-term international degree-seeking students at VNU, Hanoi The research focuses on four key dimensions: political, economic, social/cultural, and academic This dual data collection aims to enhance the validity and generalizability of the study's findings.
This study explores the key factors influencing international students' decision to choose Vietnam as their destination for higher education, while also examining regional variations in these factors The research is conducted by VNU, a prominent and comprehensive university located in Hanoi.
The research focused on VNU, which comprises eight universities, four schools, and one institute, encompassing a diverse target population It specifically examined full-time degree-seeking international students at both undergraduate and graduate levels during the 2019-2020 academic year This demographic was chosen due to their increased participation and experience in school activities, which is expected to yield more insightful and meaningful information compared to short-term exchange students who engage in limited programs.
The criteria used for choosing participants in both qualitative and quantitative research are as follows:
1 Participants need to be international students
2 Participants must study universities, institutes, and schools at VNU, Hanoi
3 Participants need to be undergraduate or postgraduate students
In this qualitative research, purposive snowball sampling was employed to gather data from 28 international students across 14 countries, including Laos, Myanmar, South Korea, Cameroon, China, the Republic of Congo, Japan, Nigeria, Ukraine, Germany, Haiti, Russia, Sri Lanka, and Serbia The participants comprised 57% from Asia, 25% from Africa, and 18% from Europe Semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted both online and in-person, with face-to-face interviews held in Hanoi for students present during the absence of social distancing measures Online interviews were arranged for those unable to travel to Vietnam due to the COVID-19 pandemic Participants were purposefully recruited, and additional respondents were identified through initial interviewees, utilizing the snowball sampling technique, focusing exclusively on undergraduate students.
30 postgraduate students were selected for interviews Students studying at VNU universities, schools and institutes were interviewed individually The interviewees represented six different universities, schools and institutes
The study involved 28 interviewees, comprising 20 males and eight females, aged between under 25 and 45 years Among them, 21 participants were enrolled in a Master’s Program, while six were in a Bachelor’s Program Over one-third of the students focused on Humanities, Literature, and Linguistics, with the remainder pursuing various disciplines such as social sciences, information technology, and natural sciences Detailed demographic data, including the interviewees' countries of origin and fields of study, can be found in Tables 3.1 and 3.2, with comprehensive information available in Appendix 3.
Country of Origin Number of Students
Table 3.1: Interviewees by country of origin
Table 3.2: Interviewees by disciplines and institutions
Disciplines USSH ULIS UET VJU IFI LS
Interviews were conducted both online and in person, primarily at VNU's international students' dormitory and various campus cafes While most participants communicated in English, four students from Myanmar spoke in Burmese, which was later translated into English for transcription The remaining interviews were transcribed verbatim in English.
The researcher is tasked with obtaining Informed Consent to ensure trust and safeguard participants' privacy through confidentiality (Ryen, 2004; Babbie, 2014) Prior to the interviews, consent was sought via email, informing participants about the research subject, its nature, and their right to withdraw (Ryen, 2011) Interviews were conducted only after receiving approval from participants Due to time constraints, oral consent was obtained from two online interviewees, while all onsite participants signed an Informed Consent Form before their interviews.
Pilot interviews with two international students, one from Myanmar and the other from Mongolia, were conducted to validate the interview questions The feedback from these interviews led to revisions and reordering of the questions to enhance their effectiveness.
This case study reveals that over 50% of interviewees were from Asia, with 25% from Africa and only 17% from Europe, reflecting UIS data that indicates Asia as the primary source of inbound students to Vietnam Consequently, the regional demographics significantly shaped the interview outcomes To mitigate potential biases, the researcher formulated research questions tailored to each region.
In the 2019-2020 academic year, 150 international students were invited to participate in a study at a university, resulting in a 49.33% return rate with 74 completed surveys After excluding 12 incomplete responses, 62 valid answers were analyzed, representing 18 different countries The majority of respondents, 55%, hailed from Asia, while 39% were from Africa and Central America, and 6% from Europe The survey was distributed both in paper format at the international student dormitory in Hanoi and online via a Survey Monkey link for those studying remotely due to the COVID-19 pandemic Demographic data revealed that 64.5% of respondents were male and 35.5% were female, with a diverse representation from various programs and academic levels at the university.
The surveyed students are predominantly aged 25-34, with one-third under 25 A significant 75.8% are graduate students, while 24.2% are undergraduates, primarily studying Engineering and Technical Science, followed by Humanities, Social Science, and Law Notably, 38.7% hail from the International Francophone Institute, and 25.8% from Vietnam Japan University, with the University of Engineering and Technology having the fewest participants among the six VNU institutions The largest group of respondents comes from Haiti (19.4%), followed by South Korea (17.7%) and Myanmar (16.1%) Financially, 40.3% of students receive family support, 32.3% benefit from scholarships, and 27.4% are self-funded.
Age (Nb) under 25 years old 15 24.2
Table 3.3: Demographic of survey respondents
University of Engineering and Technology (UET) 1 1.6
University of Languages and International Studies (ULIS) 8 12.9
University of Social Sciences and Humanities (USSH) 11 17.7
Source of Financial Support (Nb)
In-depth interviews were conducted to explore the factors influencing international students' decisions to study abroad in Vietnam, a developing country The research utilized open-ended and semi-structured interview formats to gather comprehensive insights.
The interview guide featured 35 questions designed to ensure consistency in the information gathered from each participant It was organized into four main categories, focusing on the factors that influence the decision to choose Vietnam as a study destination For more information on the interview guide, please refer to Appendix 5.
The quantitative survey comprised a questionnaire divided into three sections: demographic data, influencing factors, and potential factors affecting study abroad destination choices The demographic section included nine questions, while the influencing factors section featured sixteen ranking order questions that required respondents to prioritize four key dimensions: political, economic, social/cultural, and academic factors Additionally, there was one question addressing potential factors The survey's main content is detailed in Table 3.4, and the questionnaire was administered in English to facilitate data collection.
Table 3.4: The main content of the survey
Before data collection, pilot testing was performed to ensure the validity of the interview guide and survey questionnaire Based on feedback from respondents, the drafts were subsequently refined and enhanced.
Case selection
3.2.1 National level: Vietnam as a case
Vietnam, a lower-middle-income country in Asia, is recognized as one of the fastest emerging economies, with GDP growth rising from 6.56% in 2016 to 7.48% in 2019 Since implementing political and economic reforms in 1986, Vietnam has transitioned from a centralized to a market-oriented economy under socialist principles The country began welcoming international students in 1999 and has actively promoted initiatives to enhance international student recruitment As a case study, Vietnam offers valuable insights into internationalization in student mobility, particularly in the context of the recent shift towards South-South mobility among developing countries in Asia.
VNU, Hanoi, stands as a pivotal institution in Vietnam's higher education landscape, ranked 201-250 in the QS Asia University Rankings 2020 and recognized in the QS Global Ranking of top universities under 50 years old by 2021 With substantial government financial support and autonomy, VNU reflects the nation's identity and pride, making it an exemplary case for representing Vietnam in educational studies.
VNU Hanoi consists of eight universities, four schools, and one institute, with a specific focus on international students Some of these institutions have a limited capacity for international enrollment, leading to the selection of a case university based on the availability of these students Additionally, the number of degree-seeking international students is significantly lower than that of exchange international students.
The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly restricted the number of international students attending onsite classes This research involved institutional-level analyses from four universities, one institute, and one school, specifically USSH, ULIS, UET, VJU, IFI, and LS, all of which are public institutions based in Hanoi.
The University of Social Sciences and Humanities (USSH) in Hanoi is a prominent research institution that partners with over 100 universities globally, including collaborations with Toulouse II in France and Lund University in Sweden USSH offers training programs in Vietnamese and Vietnamese Studies in cooperation with universities from the US, Korea, China, and Japan, providing certificates for courses lasting from three months to one year, as well as a degree through a 2+2 model.
ULIS, a leading university in Southeast Asia, specializes in language studies at the undergraduate level, offering degrees in pedagogy and linguistic studies across various languages, including Arabic, English, French, German, Japanese, Korean, Mandarin Chinese, Russian, Spanish, and Thai.
Since its establishment in 2004, UET, also recognized as the College of Technology (Coltech), has gained international acclaim as one of Asia's leading universities It stands out as a center of excellence in talent development, scientific research, and technology transfer.
VJU, established in 2016 as the seventh university of VNU, Hanoi, is a prestigious binational institution led by the Japanese government, aimed at providing high-quality education in Vietnam Founded under a 2010 joint statement between Japan and Vietnam, VJU benefits from JICA's support in areas such as curriculum development, faculty training, and university management, positioning it as a Center of Excellence The university offers cross-disciplinary programs that integrate literature and science, with ongoing collaboration from Japanese universities to enhance curricula and research initiatives.
To enhance teaching quality, 38% of the faculty comprises Japanese professors The curriculum now includes Japanese language education and internships in Japan, aimed at promoting Japanese language and culture.
The International Francophone Institute (IFI) is a prestigious research and training organization located at the University Center France in Hanoi, supported by the Francophone University Association (AUF) It provides double Master's degree programs and short-term educational offerings in collaboration with La Rochelle University, University Claude Bernard Lyon 1, and the University of Toulon in France IFI boasts a robust network of French and Francophone partners while striving to establish a triangular partnership model involving Vietnam, Europe, and South Africa Additionally, its cooperation with non-French-speaking nations, including Japan and ASEAN countries, is on the rise.
LS is a top law school in Vietnam, providing a range of academic programs including undergraduate, postgraduate, and doctoral degrees in law It has received the Third Labor Medal and numerous certificates of merit from both the State and Vietnam National University (VNU).
Data collection
At the beginning of the Chapter, it stated that this study employed a mixed- method design in which the qualitative and quantitative data were concurrently and separately collected
From January to March 2021, qualitative data were gathered through semi-structured, in-depth interviews with 28 international students from various countries These interviews, conducted both face-to-face and online, allowed for flexible probing of responses Prior to each interview, participants were contacted to explain the research's purpose and significance, and all interviewees signed consent forms to ensure informed consent.
Participants in the study were fully informed about its nature and had the right to withdraw at any time (Ryen, 2011, p 418) They were asked for permission to participate, and the consent form was provided in English Each interview lasted between 45 to 60 minutes and was recorded with the interviewees' consent The researcher subsequently transcribed the interviews, resulting in over 160 pages of transcripts.
The survey questionnaire was conducted simultaneously as the qualitative research, from January to March 2021 The survey was carried out in two ways: paper- based and online surveys
The researcher obtained permission from the VNU dormitory administration to conduct a paper-based survey, distributing hard copies of questionnaires to international students residing in the dormitory and collecting them two days later, achieving a high return rate of 75% with 45 out of 60 questionnaires completed Additionally, the researcher sought approval from the university's international students' office to access email addresses of those unable to travel to Vietnam due to the COVID-19 pandemic, subsequently sending them a survey link for an online questionnaire.
A web-based survey service, Survey Monkey, was utilized to gather data for the online survey Due to difficulties in directly contacting some international students, the Snowball method was employed for data management By mid-March, the researcher collected 30 responses, and after nearly two months, the total number of completed questionnaires—both paper-based and web-based—reached 74 However, only 62 of these respondents were valid for analysis, as the remaining participants did not complete all questions.
Data analysis
The study used a concurrent triangulation data analysis method, requiring two stages (Creswell, 2012) Firstly, quantitative and qualitative data were collected and
40 analysed concurrently Then the two datasets were compared to “examine if there is convergence, differences or some combinations” (Creswell, 2009, p.213)
The qualitative interview data were analyzed using thematic analysis, a robust method for understanding diverse experiences, thoughts, and behaviors within a dataset (Braun & Clarke, 2012) The coding process involved both inductive and deductive approaches; inductive coding identified themes and variations, while deductive coding categorized concepts based on existing literature (Boyatzis, 1998) This dual coding strategy enhances the depth of analysis, as noted by Babbie (2016).
Anonymity in research is maintained when neither the researchers nor the readers can link specific responses to individual respondents To ensure this confidentiality, pseudonyms such as IR 1 and IR 2 were assigned to interviewees, where "IR" denotes Interview Respondent and the numbers reflect the alphabetical order of the countries involved.
The survey data from 62 respondents was analyzed using IBM SPSS version 25, employing descriptive statistics to assess demographic, political, economic, social/cultural, and academic factors Frequency distributions and percentages were computed for each category, and rankings were established based on the total number of responses for each indicator Respondents ranked indicators from 1 to 4, with scores multiplied accordingly: a rank of 1 received a multiplier of 4, rank 2 received 3, rank 3 received 2, and rank 4 received 1 The total scores were calculated and divided by the number of respondents to derive an average score, allowing for a ranking of indicators from highest (1) to lowest (4).
First, the study was treated with a different initial data analysis for each qualitative and quantitative data set and then combined and interpreted (See Figure
3.2) However, it is not easy to compare the different datasets In addition, the discrepancies emerging from the two datasets are challenging to resolve
Figure 3.2 Concurrent Triangulation Design (Source: Creswell, 2009, p.210)
Chapter 3 outlines the research methodology and the rationale behind the selected methods, employing a mixed-method model for both qualitative and quantitative research The study collected data concurrently and separately, utilizing the triangulation method to assess the convergence or divergence of the two datasets across four dimensions: political, economic, social/cultural, and academic factors, with sixteen specific indicators for analysis International students from 20 countries participated, with qualitative data analyzed through NVivo software and quantitative data through IBM SPSS The chapter also details the demographics of research participants, the selection of the case country and institution, and the data collection and analysis processes, ultimately merging the data to interpret the findings.
- Represent the results Merge the two datasets
- Transform the data and relate or compare the data
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION…………………………… ………42 4.1 Factors influencing international students’ choice to study abroad in Vietnam
Political factors
Political factors significantly impact international students' decisions to study in Vietnam In a recent survey, 37.1% of respondents identified the "political stability of Vietnam" as the most crucial factor influencing their choice of study destination, while 22.6% rated it as the second most important consideration.
A survey revealed that 13 respondents (21%) considered a specific factor as the third most important, while 12 respondents (19.4%) ranked it fourth, resulting in a total score of 172 and an average score of 2.77 In contrast, the indicator regarding “Diplomatic relations with the home country of international students” was deemed essential by 19 respondents (30.6%), with ten respondents (16.1%) rating it second, 22 respondents (35.5%) as third, and 11 respondents (17.7%) as fourth, leading to a total score of 161 and an average score of 2.6.
In a recent survey regarding ASEAN membership, 11 respondents (17.7%) identified it as the most important factor, while 19 respondents (30.6%) placed it second, and both 16 respondents (25.8%) ranked it third and fourth, resulting in a total score of 149 and an average score of 2.4 Conversely, the "Ease of visa processing" was deemed the top priority by 9 respondents (14.5%), with 19 (30.6%) ranking it second, 11 (17.7%) third, and 23 (37.1%) fourth, leading to a total score of 138 and an average score of 2.23.
According to Table 4.1, the quantitative survey revealed that the most influential factor for respondents was the political stability of Vietnam, with an average score of 2.77, ranking it first The second most significant factor was the diplomatic relationship with the home country of international students, which received an average score of 2.6, placing it in second rank.
Among the ASEAN member countries, Vietnam ranks third with an average score of 2.4 as a significant influencing factor for studying abroad Conversely, the ease of visa processing is considered the least influential factor, receiving an average score of 2.23 and ranking fourth.
Table 4.1: Average score and rank order of political factors ranked by international students studying at VNU, Hanoi
Diplomatic relationship with the home country of international student 2.6 2
According to the demographic data described in the previous Chapter 3, out of
A survey of 62 respondents revealed that 55% (34) were from Asia, 39% (24) from Africa, and 6% (4) from Europe This distribution aligns with UIS data, indicating that the higher number of students from Asia compared to Africa and Europe significantly influences the survey's overall results.
In a qualitative interview involving 28 participants, 57% were from Asia, 25% from Africa, and 18% from Europe The subsequent qualitative analysis of these interviews aims to clarify, confirm, or contrast the findings from the quantitative survey Notably, one student from mainland China shared insights that contribute to this analysis.
“political stability of Vietnam” That is consistent with the quantitative data
IR-4: There are many different countries which are not stable If I choose a country which is not stable, it will be dangerous for me So, I chose Vietnam
Regarding the “Diplomatic relationship with the home country of international student”, one Russian student from Europe mentioned it as follows:
The IR-24 agreement plays a crucial role in fostering educational exchange between our countries, enabling us to send students to Vietnam for study while also welcoming Vietnamese students to Russia This mutual collaboration is a fundamental aspect of our partnership.
The second one is that the relationship between our people is perfect and
I feel at ease in this environment, as there is no pressure regarding the global health situation The friendliness of the local people, particularly the older generation who remember the Soviet Union's support for Vietnam's freedom and resistance against American forces, contributes to this comfort Additionally, the longstanding tradition of cooperation between our countries and the presence of Russian companies operating in Vietnam are significant factors in fostering positive relations.
Vietnamese companies operating in Russia are good opportunities to gain jobs involving Russia and Vietnam if you know the Vietnamese language
The findings of four political factors are as follows
Political stability in host countries significantly influences international students' decisions to study abroad, as evidenced by quantitative data showing that students from Myanmar, Haiti, and Laos prioritize this factor In fact, "political stability" emerged as the top influencing element in the survey results Both Myanmar and Haiti, despite their geographical differences, share similar political instability, prompting students to seek education in safer, more stable environments Interestingly, qualitative interviews revealed that students from these nations did not explicitly express a preference for political stability, highlighting a discrepancy between their survey responses and personal sentiments.
While I initially focused solely on the political situation, I realized that I also need to consider the rules and regulations in my current location Since my stay is temporary, particularly in Japan, I believe there are protective laws in place for foreigners As long as I adhere to these laws, I should be fine, although I was previously unaware of this aspect.
Laotians view Vietnam as a prime destination for education, largely due to its comparable political system, which aligns closely with their own, in contrast to neighboring countries like Thailand and China.
Recent trends in international student mobility indicate a shift towards studying in ASEAN and Asian countries, with Vietnam emerging as a popular destination In a quantitative survey, respondents identified Vietnam as the third most influential factor in their decision-making process Qualitative interviews revealed that many participants emphasized this influence even more strongly African students, in particular, are drawn to Vietnam due to its strategic location in Asia and its status as an ASEAN member Additionally, they perceive the technological advancements in ASEAN countries, including Vietnam, to be superior to those in their home countries.
IR-1: I think all ASEAN has good technology Vietnam is an ASEAN country, so I had an excellent opportunity to study computer science
IR-23: I am interested in coming to an Asian country to study and do a Master's
Moreover, their choice of destination seems based on their interest in the study One Nigerian student mentioned it in the interview:
Asian countries, particularly Vietnam, are significantly impacted by climate change, experiencing severe floods and storms similar to those in Japan and the Philippines As a result, studying in Vietnam offers a unique opportunity to gain deeper insights into climate change, more so than pursuing education in Europe My goal is to enhance my understanding of climate change by learning in a country that faces these challenges firsthand.
The trend of "Asianization of Asia" is evident as an increasing number of Asian students opt to pursue their studies within the region, with Vietnam emerging as a popular destination for international education This shift highlights a growing preference among students from Asia to study abroad in neighboring countries.
IR-3: I came to VJU mainly because it is in Vietnam, not Japan, and is a part of ASEAN, raising the economy
Besides, Myanmar students mentioned that they tended to study in Asia and chose Vietnam because of the member countries of ASEAN Their responses were as follows:
IR-18: I would like to learn in Asian countries
IR-19: Vietnam is not strange for me because it is located in Asia and is a member of ASEAN
IR-20: Vietnam is a neighbouring country I chose Vietnam to study because it is a member country of ASEAN, and I feel safe, and it is not very far from my home country
IR-21: When I go oversea to study, I plan to go to ASEAN countries
Moreover, European students chose Vietnam as a study destination for ASEAN's member countries and its location in Asia One student stated that:
Economic factors
Economic factors play a crucial role for international students studying abroad, with key indicators including scholarships, low tuition fees, living costs, better employment opportunities post-graduation, and part-time job availability A survey revealed that 25.8% of respondents identified low tuition and living costs as the most important factor, while 46.8% ranked it second, 21% third, and 6.5% fourth, resulting in a total score of 181 and an average score of 2.92 In terms of better employment opportunities after graduation, 32.3% ranked it as the most important, 30.6% as second, 29% as third, and 8.1% as fourth, leading to a total score of 178 and an average score of 2.87.
“Scholarships or financial assistance” was ranked the most important factor by
22 respondents (35.5%), the second important factor by nine respondents (14.5%), the third important factor by seven respondents (11.3%) and the fourth important factor by
Out of 62 respondents, 24 individuals (38.7%) highlighted the importance of part-time job availability, contributing to a total score of 153 and an average score of 2.47 Specifically, four respondents (6.5%) identified it as the most crucial factor, while five respondents (8.1%) ranked it as the second most important factor.
49 respondents (38.7%) as the third important factor and 29 respondents (46.8%) as the fourth important factor The total score is 108, and the average score is 1.74
Table 4.2: Average score and rank order of economic factors ranked by international students studying at VNU, Hanoi
Economic Factors Average Score Rank order
Low costs of tuition fees and living 2.92 1
Better employment opportunities after graduation 2.87 2
Availability of part-time job 1.74 4
According to Table 4.2, the quantitative survey revealed that the most significant factor influencing respondents to study abroad in Vietnam was the low costs of tuition and living, with an average score of 2.92, ranking first Following closely was the prospect of better employment opportunities, which garnered an average score of 2.87, ranking second Scholarships or financial assistance ranked third with an average score of 2.47, while the availability of part-time jobs was considered the least influential factor, receiving an average score of 2.23 and ranking fourth.
Vietnam offers lower fees and costs compared to other developing countries in Asia, making it an attractive study destination for international students, particularly those from Asia and Africa Many students from these regions seek affordable education options, which aligns with the findings of this study Qualitative data supports this quantitative result, as African students have specifically highlighted cost as a significant factor in their decision to study in Vietnam.
One of the key reasons I chose this school is the low tuition fees and affordable living costs The financial support provided by the school, combined with the overall low cost of living, made it an ideal choice for me.
The IR-2 program offers an affordable tuition fee of $3,650 for two years, making it a cost-effective choice for students Additionally, the option to pay the tuition every three months adds to the convenience, ensuring that financial commitments are manageable.
France is 2000 Euro, which is costly It is only one time Here we have to pay four times One part is 21 million dongs
Asian students also mentioned this in the interviews as follows:
IR-4: It attracts me If I choose another country, it is expensive I do not like western countries
IR-9: It is one of the essential points Living costs and tuition fees are cheaper in Vietnam than in Japan, so I chose Vietnam to study
IR-14: Vietnam is cheaper than Laos In Vietnam, some products are pretty cheap compared to my country
Each economic factor will be presented and discussed briefly in the following section
Studying abroad and getting scholarships are the highest achievements for international students Some say that getting a scholarship to study abroad is like
“winning the lottery” Most international students looked for scholarship programs for
International students from developing countries prioritize financial considerations when studying abroad, often seeking opportunities for professional development and safety In a recent study, they ranked "low costs of tuition fees and living" and "better employment opportunities after graduation" as their top concerns, with 32.3% of respondents indicating they received scholarships Notably, one-third of these students were complete scholarship winners, while others received partial funding Qualitative interviews revealed that two-thirds chose Vietnam for their studies primarily due to the availability of scholarships and financial assistance.
Myanmar, similar to Vietnam, is a developing country that has seen a rise in the number of its students studying in Vietnam in recent years The Vietnamese government offers scholarship programs specifically for Myanmar students, including the JAIF (Japan ASEAN Integration Fund), which is jointly sponsored by both the Japanese and Vietnamese governments This initiative targets international students from Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia, positioning Vietnam as an attractive study destination for those seeking educational opportunities in Asia.
The IR-18 scholarship amount was less appealing compared to those offered by other countries I only decided to accept it after confirming that my family would not need to provide financial support; otherwise, I would have declined the offer.
Initially offered a partial scholarship by IR-21, I expressed my inability to afford it However, they later provided a full scholarship, which was essential for my decision to join the program Without the full scholarship, I would not have participated.
Scholarships played a crucial role in students' decision-making processes regarding their education abroad A student from Sri Lanka shared that he initially came to Vietnam for his Bachelor's degree, supported by a scholarship, and is now pursuing a Master's degree with continued financial assistance from the university.
I received a scholarship from the Vietnam government, which is a significant achievement in my country Studying abroad is highly valued, and my family is thrilled about this opportunity They have always supported me throughout my educational journey, making this accomplishment even more meaningful.
Vietnam, a developing country, offers a range of scholarships—including full, half, and partial scholarships—as well as tuition fee waivers to attract international students These diverse scholarship programs have generated significant interest among students worldwide A student from Cameroon shared their positive experience regarding these opportunities in a recent interview.
IR-2: I have got a half scholarship The school supports 50%, and I must pay half the fee
Vietnam, a former French colony and a member of the Francophone University Agency (AUF), is part of a network that promotes higher education in French-speaking countries AUF represents various institutions and plays a significant role in the Francophone Summit During the colonial era, France also colonized several African nations, which are now members of AUF The Institut Français d'Indonésie (IFI) stands out as the only French institute in the Asia Pacific, attracting numerous African students The scholarship offered includes a 50% tuition discount, a monthly stipend, and accommodation for students from French-colonized countries, as highlighted by a student from Cameroon.
IR-1: Before I came here, I had many chances to study in Germany and
I chose to study in Vietnam due to the scholarship provided by AUF and the opportunity to improve my French language skills Opting for other countries would require significant financial resources and advanced English proficiency, making Vietnam the most viable choice for my education.
Vietnam also has an agreement between governments to recruit more international students For example, Laos A student from Laos reported about it in the interview
Social/ Cultural factors
Social and cultural factors play a significant role in motivating international students to study abroad, particularly in Vietnam Key indicators influencing this decision include the appeal of Vietnamese culture, a desire to learn the Vietnamese language, the perception of a safe environment, and the opportunity to acquire valuable international experience The findings of this study, along with a detailed discussion, will be presented in the following sections.
In the quantitative survey, respondents ranked the social/cultural factors according to the agreement order while deciding to study abroad The indicator
The opportunity to gain international experience emerged as the most significant factor, with 30 respondents (48.4%) identifying it as their top priority, followed by 17 respondents (27.4%) ranking it second, eight respondents (12.9%) third, and seven respondents (11.3%) fourth This resulted in a total score of 194 and an average score of 3.13 Additionally, "culture attractiveness" was considered the most important factor by 11 respondents (17.7%) and the second most important by 22 respondents (35.5%).
21 respondents (33.9%) as the third important factor and eight respondents (12.9%) as the fourth important factor The total score is 160, and the average score is 2.58
In a recent survey, 21% of respondents identified "Safe environment in Vietnam" as the most important factor, while 22.6% ranked it as the second most important Additionally, 29% of participants considered it the third most significant factor, and 27.4% placed it in the fourth position.
The analysis reveals that the total score for the importance of learning the Vietnamese language is 119, with an average score of 1.92 Among respondents, 12.9% identified it as the most crucial factor, while 14.5% ranked it second, 24.2% as the third important factor, and 48.4% as the fourth Overall, the findings highlight a varied perception of the Vietnamese language's significance among participants.
Table 4.3 Average score and rank order of social/ cultural factors ranked by international students studying at VNU, Hanoi
Social/cultural factors Average Score Rank order
Interest in learning the Vietnamese language 1.92 4
Opportunity to gain international experience 3.13 1
Table 4.3 presents the average scores and rankings of survey responses regarding factors influencing the decision to study abroad in Vietnam The most significant factor identified was the "Opportunity to gain international experience," with an average score of 3.13, ranking first Following this, "Culture attractiveness" ranked second with an average score of 2.58, while the "Safe environment in Vietnam" ranked third with a score of 2.37 Lastly, the "Interest in learning the Vietnamese language" was considered the least influential factor, with an average score of 1.92 It is important to note that these findings reflect overall trends and may not accurately represent individual respondents' views.
Studying abroad offers a unique opportunity to immerse oneself in the culture of the host country and embrace international life In qualitative research, African interviewees indicated that the desire to experience this international lifestyle significantly influenced their decision to choose Vietnam as their study destination One student from Cameroon highlighted this sentiment, emphasizing the importance of cultural immersion in their educational journey.
IR-1: In VNU, many students come from Europe, America, or other countries That is my motivation for me to come here
Asian students expect to gain international life experience when studying in Vietnam One Chinese student said that international experience was significant for him (IR-4)
Another student from China also responded that he expected to gain experience while studying in Vietnam (IR-3)
European students are less inclined to study in Vietnam, as they come from well-developed countries and may not seek international experiences there Nonetheless, they expressed a desire to immerse themselves in Asian culture and lifestyle.
Each economic factor will be presented and discussed briefly in the following section
Studying abroad offers international students the opportunity to immerse themselves in the host country's culture, making it an attractive experience Vietnam, with its rich culture and beautiful traditions, stands out as a compelling destination for those seeking cultural enrichment while pursuing their studies.
“culture attractiveness” as the second influencing factor In the qualitative interview, many Asian and European students responded that Vietnam culture was attractive to them Asian students stated as follows:
IR-3: I think culture is a huge trend It attracts me, and I have come to
IR-4: Yes, for me, it is exciting I study in Vietnam because there are many cultural differences and similarities between Vietnamese and
One student from Japan explained why he wanted to study in Vietnam as follows:
IR-10: The biggest reason is to study Vietnamese culture and do research It is exciting, and I want to learn more
One Myanmar student said that culture attracted her to study in Vietnam as follows:
IR-19: Vietnamese culture is not strange to me compared to European culture, which is also one thing I feel It also attracts me to study in
Luckily, in this study, international students from Europe could be interviewed, and they reported how culture attracted them in their interviews One student from Russia confessed that as follows:
IR-24: I think it is exciting I was always very interested in learning about Asian culture, and Vietnamese culture is fascinating, the mix of
Chinese and Southeast Asian culture in terms of architecture, literature,
59 food, language, fashion, music, and so on So, I would say Vietnam is the sum of east Asian culture
Another student from Serbia elaborated
IR-26: Of course, before I applied for this university, I spent one year in
Having spent a year in Malaysia and visited 15 countries while living in five others across Europe, the USA, and Central America, I have gained invaluable insights into diverse cultures and people Vietnam, with its rich culture and appealing education system, has particularly captured my interest My experiences have fueled my desire to delve deeper into the unique aspects of Vietnamese society, and I am eager to explore and learn more about this fascinating country.
The openness of Vietnamese people also attracted international students to study in Vietnam That was reported by a Serbian student as follows:
I appreciate the Vietnamese culture primarily due to the warmth and kindness of its people My desire to learn more about their rich traditions and customs is fueled by these personal connections This experience allows me to deepen my understanding of their vibrant culture.
Moreover, one Ukrainian student also expressed that Vietnamese culture influenced her to study in Vietnam
In addition, Vietnamese food is becoming popular among people An international student from Japan responded how the food influenced her to choose Vietnam to study abroad
IR-9: I like Vietnamese food I think Japanese cuisine and Vietnamese cuisine are the best for me That is why I want to live here If
Vietnamese food were not delicious for me, maybe I would not be here, and I did not choose and study here
Vietnam's welcoming culture has made it an attractive destination for international students, who have praised the warmth and friendliness of the local people Many students described their experiences using words such as "kind," "helpful," and "tolerant," highlighting the open-mindedness of the Vietnamese As a result, numerous international students expressed their intentions to return to Vietnam after their initial visit, showcasing the positive impact of the country's hospitality on their overall experience.
IR-26: The most influential thing is the mindset of people and the energy
I can feel through their smiles The language I started studying
Vietnamese two years ago, I had a chance to visit Vietnam, and when I
60 came here, I fell in love with the country of the people, and I believe it is the main reason for studying in Vietnam right now
Regarding the social culture of Vietnamese, he stated:
IR-26: I am amazed by it That is why I said that is the main reason why
I am here now The first time I encountered Vietnamese social culture in
In 2018, I had the opportunity to explore the countryside near Hanoi, where I encountered the warm hospitality of the Vietnamese people Eager to share their culture and knowledge, they welcomed me and showed a genuine interest in learning about my experiences Their strong social skills were evident, as many approached me to offer help, often sensing my needs without me having to express them This enriching exchange inspired me to learn extensively from them.
In short, “culture attractiveness” may be the most influencing factor for European and Asian students in their responses
2 Interest in learning the Vietnamese language
Learning a language requires time and dedication, and many international students opt for English-speaking countries to improve their English skills However, some students choose Vietnam to enhance their Vietnamese language abilities Despite this, a quantitative survey revealed that the desire to learn Vietnamese is the least influential factor for international students studying in Vietnam, with only a few students pursuing Vietnamese as a primary academic goal.
In the qualitative research, different international students wanted to learn the Vietnamese language for other purposes One student from mainland China stressed his interest in learning Vietnamese as follows:
The relationship between China and Vietnam is intricate, shaped by a long and complex history By choosing to learn Vietnamese, I aim to deepen my understanding of both the country's past and its current dynamics.
International students from Japan also confessed why they wanted to learn the Vietnamese language in Vietnam
IR-9: I need to develop my Vietnamese language skills Of course, in
Studying in Japan is an appealing option, but improving Vietnamese language skills can be challenging there Therefore, I opted for Vietnam, considering factors such as lower living costs, the language environment, and a more conducive atmosphere for language learning.
IR-10: I want to learn more about Vietnamese history or culture and language, so my concern is that I need to look there, just the reason I
61 want to study the Vietnamese language environment better in Vietnam than in Japan
Academic factors
Academic factors in Vietnam's higher education (HE) are assessed through four key indicators: the quality of HE, the reputation of institutions, the availability of advanced research facilities, and the presence of highly qualified teaching staff Notably, 35.5% of respondents identified the "Quality of Vietnam HE" as the most crucial factor, with the same percentage ranking it as the second most important The average score for this indicator was 2.97, totaling 184 points Additionally, the "Reputation of institutions" was deemed the most important by 33.9% of respondents, while 35.5% rated it as the second most significant factor, further highlighting the importance of institutional reputation in the academic landscape.
64 respondents (9.7%) as the fourth important factor The total score is 182, and the average score is 2.94
In a recent survey on educational priorities, the indicator "Qualified teaching staff" emerged as the most crucial factor for 27.4% of respondents, with 12.9% ranking it second, 35.5% placing it third, and 24.2% considering it fourth, yielding a total score of 151 and an average score of 2.44 Conversely, "Advanced research facilities" was deemed essential by only 3.2% of participants, while 16.1% rated it as the second most important factor.
15 respondents (24.2%) as the third important factor and 35 respondents (56.5%) as the fourth important factor The total score is 103, and the average score is 1.66
Table 4.4 Average score and rank order of academic factors ranked by international students studying at VNU, Hanoi
Academic factors Average Score Rank order
Quality of Vietnam Higher Education 2.97 1
Table 4.4 shows the average score and rank order for responses in each question item in the quantitative survey It indicates that survey respondents were pulled by
The quality of higher education in Vietnam stands out as the most influential factor, achieving an average score of 2.97 and ranking first Following closely is the reputation of institutions, with an average score of 2.94, securing the second position The third most significant factor is the presence of qualified teaching staff, which received an average score of 2.44.
“Advanced research facilities (average score =1.66, rank = 4)” as the least influencing factor for studying abroad in Vietnam The results were consistent with qualitative research
In qualitative research, interviewees highlighted that the reputation of higher education institutions in Vietnam was a significant factor in their decision to study there African students indicated that they researched educational standards prior to their arrival and expressed satisfaction with their findings One student from Congo articulated this sentiment, emphasizing the importance of quality education in their choice.
IR-1: We did not make progress in education in my country Vietnam is much better than Congo For the education system, Vietnam is more advanced than Congo
Asian interviewees also stated that they recognised the quality of Vietnam HE One student from Laos elaborated as follows:
IR-14: Quality HE is one reason I chose Vietnam to study because it is highly qualified I think education in Vietnam is higher than in my country
Moreover, one Russian student from Europe responded about Vietnam HE as follows:
The IR-24 program has proven to be of good quality, especially when compared to similar offerings in Russia, despite my lack of formal education there My initial experience has shown me that the quality is commendable.
Each academic factor will be presented and discussed briefly in the following section
1 Quality of Vietnam Higher Education
International students perceive the quality of higher education in Vietnam as high, attracting individuals from various regions to study in the country This sentiment was consistently reflected in both quantitative and qualitative research, with over one-third of survey participants identifying this factor as a top priority Additionally, qualitative interviews further clarified and reinforced the findings from the quantitative survey.
In the qualitative research, African interviewees responded about it in the interview One Congo student elaborated as follows:
IR-5: The French diploma is most important because of its high value in my country France is a developed country, so that people may respect you with a French degree
A significant number of African students at VNU are enrolled in double degree programs offered by IFI, which allow them to earn qualifications from both Vietnam and France These students benefit from the opportunity to study in their native language, French.
Asian students responded that they came to study in Vietnam because of its high quality of education One Laotian student stated as follows:
IR-17: I think education in Vietnam is better than in Laos That is why I came to Vietnam to study
Recently, there has been an increased number of Myanmar students studying in Vietnam, and when they responded about the quality of Vietnam’s HE, one Myanmar student confessed as follows:
IR-20: Myanmar and Vietnam seem to have similar levels, but
Vietnam's education is better than Myanmar’s, and it is ahead of
Myanmar So that I study in Vietnam
Another Myanmar student also commented on Vietnam HE:
Many Vietnamese students are currently studying abroad, leading to a perception that the education system in Vietnam may not be as strong However, it is possible that the quality of education in Vietnam surpasses that of Myanmar, with VNU ranking between 800 and 1000 globally.
Another thing is Japan's education involvement When Japan and
Vietnam combine, the rank will be higher than the current level
There is a growing trend of European students studying in Vietnam, primarily as exchange students, with a relatively small number pursuing full degrees A Russian exchange student, who is now undertaking a PhD in Vietnam, shared his insights on this experience.
The teaching quality at DAV is impressive, with well-qualified professors who demonstrate intelligence and high standards Although I cannot compare it directly to my experience in Russia, where I recently began my Master's degree, I find the level of education at DAV to be excellent The rigorous assignments and diverse tasks assigned by the faculty contribute to a high-quality learning environment.
In short, the quality of Vietnam’s HE appeared to be the influencing factor for international students of Vietnam to some extent
Institution reputation is a critical factor impacting international students' higher education choices, encompassing elements such as prestige, global ranking, employer recognition, and academic partnerships While there is no standardized measurement for reputation, a recent study found that 35% of survey respondents identified it as a key influence in their decision to study abroad, ranking it as the second most important factor.
In the qualitative research, two-thirds of the interviewees said they focused on this factor before joining the institutions African students in this study reported that
67 they cared about the institution's reputation when considering studying abroad Cameroon students responded as follows:
The school's strong reputation is essential, as many alumni have secured excellent jobs and pursued PhDs Their positive recommendations highlight the institution's quality, making it a compelling choice for my education.
Finding accurate information about schools and institutes online can be challenging Despite the difficulties, I was drawn to a particular institution due to its positive reputation, which I discovered through various social media platforms and online sources Ultimately, experiencing the reality of the institution firsthand is essential for making an informed decision.
Institution links with a foreign university may attract international students to come and study One Nigerian student elaborated on it:
VNU is a prestigious university in Vietnam with international recognition, offering collaborative programs with foreign institutions in the US and Australia This global connection enhances its appeal, attracting students who seek a university experience enriched by international partnerships.
Moreover, Asian students from mainland China responded as follows:
IR-4: I have been following Vietnam for a long time I know that
Vietnam boasts numerous cooperative universities that partner with various countries, including academically strong nations like Japan This collaboration opens up opportunities for Vietnamese schools to engage in educational exchanges and partnerships Notably, there are existing collaborations between Vietnam and countries such as the United States and England, further enhancing the potential for international academic cooperation.
Germany and France So, I chose this university Japan has a relationship with Vietnam So, I decided
As discussed in the previous section, many South Korean students are currently studying in Vietnam One Korean student explained how he came to know and joined his university
Potential/ Additional factors
This study investigates the "Pull" factors that influence international students' decisions to study in Vietnam, employing a mixed-method approach that combines quantitative and qualitative data The research utilizes an analytical framework encompassing four dimensions—political, economic, social/cultural, and academic—each with distinct indicators The quantitative survey is structured in three sections: the first collects demographic information, the second ranks the four dimensions and their themes, and the third identifies additional factors impacting the decision to study abroad This comprehensive approach reveals new potential influences on international students' choices to pursue education in Vietnam.
In-depth interviews were conducted to gather qualitative data, which were analyzed using NVivo software The analysis involved both inductive and deductive coding methods, with deductive coding emphasizing categories and themes informed by existing literature The initial findings presented deductive codes, while the subsequent discussion will explore inductive coding, highlighting themes and variations that emerged directly from the data.
The political similarity of the home country of international student
Survey data and interviews reveal that the political similarities between an international student's home country and their chosen study destination significantly influence their decision For instance, two Congolese students, whose native language is French due to their country's colonial history, selected Vietnam as their study destination because of its communist government and shared colonial past with France.
In 2002, my country transitioned from a communist system to capitalism, leading to a significant Vietnamese presence within our borders Despite this shift, the government's flag still resembles the traditional communist flag, symbolizing our historical ties to that system, while we now also embrace a distinct red flag representing our current identity.
A student from Haiti chose to study in Vietnam due to the shared historical experience of French colonization in both countries Believing that a similar political background would enhance her learning experience, she applied for a scholarship from AUF to pursue her studies in Vietnam.
Vietnam, once a French colony, shares a historical connection with many countries that experienced French colonization The Agence Universitaire de la Francophonie (AUF) aims to unite all Francophone nations, fostering collaboration among countries with similar colonial pasts As a non-governmental organization, AUF provides valuable opportunities through programs designed to strengthen ties within the Francophone community.
Laos and Vietnam share a border and a strong educational partnership, with the Vietnamese government providing significant financial support, including scholarships, to Laotian students Many interviewees expressed that Vietnam's similar political system contributes to their comfort while studying there One Laotian student highlighted this sentiment in their feedback.
Laos and Vietnam share a similar political system, which enhances communication between the two nations As a result, many Laotians are familiar with the Vietnamese language The strong political ties between Laos and Vietnam, encompassing various cities and provinces, further piques my interest in pursuing studies in this region.
In sum, the factor “Political similarity of the home country of international student” influences the international students, particularly from Congo, Haiti and Laos, to study in Vietnam
Vietnam, a developing nation in Southeast Asia and a member of ASEAN, has transitioned from a communist system to a market-oriented economy through significant economic and political reforms.
Since its reforms in 1986, Vietnam has evolved into one of the world's rapidly growing economies, which significantly influences international students' decisions to study there In qualitative interviews, respondents highlighted Vietnam's emerging economy as a key factor in their choice, with one South Korean student explicitly noting its impact on their decision to pursue education in Vietnam.
IR-13: At first, I didn’t think about studying in Vietnam But when I came here, I met a Vietnamese guy who is a lawyer and also patents of
Tony I traded with him, and he was my companion with my uncle, and
The conversation I had with him was eye-opening, as we explored the future of Vietnam and the perspectives of its people I realized that Vietnam possesses more opportunities than Korea, prompting me to reflect on my own future Ultimately, I aspire to pursue a career in international affairs, recognizing Vietnam as a powerful nation within ASEAN and a key player in regional cooperation.
Korea a lot So, I felt that if I want to work and stay here for a long time,
I think I need to study here to understand how Vietnamese people believe and how Vietnamese people lead So, I attended this university
A European student shared his decision to study abroad in Vietnam, noting that he never perceived it as a developing country He elaborated on his reasons for choosing Vietnam, highlighting its unique opportunities and experiences.
IR-26: Though Vietnam is considered a developing country, it overgrew
More and more foreign investors and more and more people speak
Another student from Germany expressed why he chose Vietnam to study as follows:
Vietnam, especially Hanoi, has undergone dramatic changes over the past six years, making it a dynamic and exciting place to be The emotional atmosphere here fluctuates between relaxation and exhaustion, which I find appealing In contrast, Germany is highly developed but tends to remain static, lacking the same level of excitement These aspects make my experience in Vietnam far more interesting.
In short, the “emerging economy of Vietnam” appeared attractive to international students from developed countries like South Korea and Germany for study abroad
The geographic proximity of the destination country plays a significant role in students' decisions to study abroad, particularly in Vietnam Both quantitative and qualitative research indicate that the distance between home and host countries is a crucial factor for international students A notable portion of survey respondents, along with one-fourth of interviewees, acknowledged that this proximity influenced their choice to study in Vietnam One Korean student specifically highlighted this aspect in their response.
IR-11: Vietnam is cheaper and near, kind of nearly to my country
Laos, located near Vietnam, allows students to frequently return home due to its close proximity One student highlighted the convenience of travel, stating, "I can go back quickly because there are many buses available."
Proximity not only saves time but also travel costs Another Laotian student stated:
IR-16: It’s a neighbour country, and it is easy to go back home and save for the travelling cost if I go back to my homeland monthly or yearly
IR-17: Vietnam is the nearest country to my home country Laos, and I can return home very quickly
Myanmar students also responded that geographic proximity is one factor to consider in choosing Vietnam for study
IR-18: It is easy for Asian countries not far from my country to return home when I wish
IR-20: I feel safe, and it is not very far from my home country
In sum, the factor “geographic proximity” may influence Asian students such as South Korea, Laos and Myanmar to study abroad in Vietnam
How influencing factors vary among the regions of Asia, Africa and Europe
A recent study revealed that the factors influencing international students' choice of study destinations differ by region, particularly in the context of Vietnam European students are primarily drawn to Vietnam by social and cultural factors, while African students are more motivated by academic and economic considerations In contrast, Asian students are influenced by a combination of political, economic, and academic factors when deciding to study in Vietnam.
Beyond these differences, it is likely to interpret the findings from the analysis as keeping proof for three regions studying in Vietnam These influencing factors
The study's sample of 80 students may not fully represent the diverse populations of Europeans, Africans, and Asians, nor does it claim to encompass all international students in Vietnam The findings are based solely on a limited group of participants, and the subsequent sections will explore the various factors influencing international students from different regions studying in Vietnam, along with interpretations of these influences.
European students often come from a continent known for its political, economic, and social stability, and they frequently study abroad to immerse themselves in new cultures According to the European Commission (2014), participants in the EU-ERASMUS program cited "the ability to live abroad, study or master a foreign language, and make new friends" as their primary motivations for participating Social and cultural influences play a significant role in their decision to study and work in Vietnam, where many choose to remain rather than return to their home countries, perceiving Vietnam as a safe and attractive environment This contrasts with international students in traditional study destinations, who typically seek to enhance their academic and economic prospects.
European students in this study are motivated by social and cultural ties to study in Vietnam, aligning with previous research that highlights their desire for intercultural skills and international work opportunities (Cantwell et al., 2009) A significant number express a strong interest in mastering the Vietnamese language, reinforcing findings that language competency is a crucial factor for international students (Nghia, 2019, 2015; Zhou & Zhang, 2018; Chen, 2017) Additionally, the allure of Vietnamese culture plays a pivotal role in their decision to study in Vietnam, emerging as a major influence in their choice of study destination This supports existing literature that indicates European students pursue studies abroad to broaden their horizons and experience diverse cultures.
Studying abroad significantly enhances job prospects and English proficiency (West, 2000), a finding supported by recent literature highlighting the importance of experiencing foreign cultures (Nghia, 2019; Zhuo & Zhang, 2018; Li & Bray, 2007) Vietnam, known for its rich culture and diverse cuisine, draws international students eager to explore its culinary offerings Interestingly, the study revealed that having social connections in Vietnam also motivates European students to choose this country for their studies, likely due to the warmth and friendliness of the Vietnamese people towards foreigners.
The Vietnamese government's relationship with European countries has strengthened, leading to an increase in international students studying in Vietnam, particularly from Eastern Europe Following economic reforms in 1986, Vietnam expanded its international ties, becoming a welcoming communist nation European students in this study prioritized academic factors, specifically the reputation of institutions and the quality of teaching staff, which aligns with trends observed among international students globally Despite being a developing country, Vietnam's higher education institutions strive for international recognition, though they have yet to fully achieve their goals European students typically focus on humanities and social sciences, pursuing various degrees, including Bachelor's, Master's, and PhDs While degree mobility traditionally favors movement from lower- to higher-income countries, globalization in higher education has prompted European students to consider studying in less developed nations Despite the limited number of inbound students from Europe, findings indicate that these students are motivated by a desire to experience Asian culture, with the Vietnamese language and unique cultural aspects playing a significant role in their decision to study in Vietnam.
African students in this study are notably more focused on academic and economic outcomes compared to their European counterparts, with over 80% participating in double degree programs offered by IFI These programs confer two individual qualifications upon meeting the criteria set by partnering universities, as noted by Knight (2011) Kuroda et al (2018) highlight that Joint Diploma Programs provide advanced learning opportunities, facilitate academic careers unattainable at a single institution, and allow students to earn degrees from multiple universities in a shorter timeframe and potentially at a lower cost Specifically, African students often obtain degrees from both Vietnam and France within two years, reflecting their high academic aspirations and commitment to contributing their skills to their home countries post-graduation Nonetheless, a minority of these students express intentions to migrate to developed nations for further professional development.
Before enrolling in academic programs in Vietnam, many African international students prioritized the reputation of the institutions, aligning with Maringe and Carter's (2007) findings that highlighted the importance of high-quality, internationally recognized qualifications, particularly in the UK This emphasis on quality education is significant regardless of whether the country is developed or developing Additionally, recommendations from friends and relatives played a crucial role in shaping their decisions, as noted by Mazzarol & Soutar (2002), who emphasized the influence of personal connections on international students' choices of study destinations.
It is valid for African students in this study who were informed about the institutions by friends
Financial assistance, such as scholarships, has drawn African students from Francophone countries to pursue their studies in Vietnam This study highlights that these students received scholarships funded by AUF, reinforcing findings by Oliveira and Soares (2016) that emphasize the critical role of scholarship availability from international higher education institutions in influencing the decision-making process of international students.
In this study, most African students enrolled in the French Institute in Vietnam, drawn by the French-language instruction, which contrasts with the Vietnamese universities' internationalization strategy emphasizing English Medium Instruction (EMI) These students, hailing from French-speaking countries, prefer French for their studies and often seek educational opportunities linked to their historical colonial ties All participants are pursuing Master's degrees, with some aspiring to PhDs in developed nations like France and the UK, focusing on disciplines such as Social Science, Natural Science, ICT, and Law Notably, 80% of these students are engaged in ICT studies, including fields like artificial intelligence and digital marketing, reflecting current trends.
Americanos (2011) highlighted that the low cost of living and the availability of well-paid part-time jobs significantly influence international students' choice of institutions in Cyprus This aligns with findings from African students, particularly those from English-speaking countries like Nigeria, who often lack scholarships and prioritize affordable living and tuition costs when studying abroad Supporting the research of Mazzarol and Soutar (2002), it is evident that cost factors play a crucial role in study abroad decisions In comparison to developed countries, Vietnam offers a more economical option for higher education, attracting African students who rely on part-time jobs for financial support, as their families may not provide sufficient assistance The current literature confirms that the availability of part-time employment is a key factor in international students' decisions to study abroad Vietnamese institutions facilitate this by allowing international students to work part-time while pursuing higher education, alleviating financial concerns and enhancing their study experience.
Less than half of the African students surveyed indicated that they chose Vietnam due to its status as an ASEAN country One African interviewee highlighted his decision to study in Vietnam, citing its advanced technology compared to his home country Additionally, he noted that Vietnam lacks a historical relationship with African nations Prior to their arrival, many students had limited knowledge about Vietnam, primarily gathering information through friends and online resources.
Traveling to Vietnam often requires 2 to 3 transit stops, leading to increased travel costs Many African countries share historical ties with their former colonizers, like the UK and France, which provides their citizens with opportunities to study abroad in these nations.
Vietnam, once a French colony like the Democratic Republic of Congo, has become an appealing study destination for international students from Africa, particularly from Congo The political similarities and colonial ties influence this choice, alongside factors such as scholarships, low tuition costs, and partnerships established during the colonial era According to UIS, the influx of African students began in 2005, with numbers peaking in 2019, likely driven by the growing popularity of AUF scholarships and positive alumni recommendations.
The majority of international students in Vietnam come from Asian countries, driven by academic and economic factors similar to those influencing African students Additionally, social and cultural aspects play a crucial role in their choice of Vietnam as a study destination This study supports Marginson's (2002) findings that the increase in Asian international students is linked to geographical, economic, and social factors, including proximity, cost, and cultural familiarity Vietnam's geographical closeness and cultural similarities make it a more appealing option for Asian students, particularly for those from Laos, compared to European countries.