INTRODUCTION
Research background
In the 21st century, globalization has become an integral aspect of higher education, facilitating academic exchange and collaboration worldwide, as noted by Altbach (2004) The shared values of democracy, modernity, and academic freedom have fostered a connected global academic community, enhanced by information technology and English as a common language Students increasingly seek to study abroad, motivated by the desire for independence, cultural immersion, and access to prestigious academic institutions This shift in focus from country selection to university choice highlights how globalization influences student migration patterns, directing them towards institutions that align with their academic aspirations and personal development.
Globalization's influence on higher education (HE) has raised concerns about brain drain, as talented individuals from developing countries migrate to the West for better educational opportunities and living conditions This creates a dilemma for these nations, as they struggle to retain potential students while facing limited access to universities However, academic globalization can transform brain drain into "brain gain," as many expatriates may return to capitalize on opportunities in their home countries' emerging economies Altbach (2004) argues that universities risk exclusion from the 21st-century HE landscape if they fail to adapt to globalization's economic and social trends.
In the 21st century, universities are increasingly engaging in global competition and internationalizing their operations to enhance their ambitions This internationalization is viewed as a key strategy to boost higher education competitiveness and improve domestic universities, ultimately addressing the demands of economic development and competition (Lane, 2015; Owens).
Globalization significantly impacts higher education (HE) through economic and technological trends, as noted by Altbach (2004) However, internationalization provides countries with the flexibility to create policies that adapt to these global influences This process allows higher education institutions (HEIs) to pursue development paths that align with their unique needs rather than merely following globalization trends Despite this potential for tailored approaches, there is limited evidence of any country successfully opting out of the prevailing internationalization trend in higher education.
Internationalization in higher education (HE) has emerged as a significant driver of national strategies, largely due to its lucrative profit potential, as highlighted by Altbach & Knight (2007) The rise of for-profit universities and the establishment of multinational cooperation agreements exemplify this trend, with universities increasingly engaging in cross-border research, teaching, and student exchange programs Countries like the UK, US, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand are leading beneficiaries of global student profits, while Asian nations, including Japan and China, are rapidly recognizing the value of international scholars Japan's initiatives, such as "The 100,000 by 2000" plan and the subsequent Global 30 Project, aimed to enhance educational quality and attract international students Similarly, China's Project 985, which funds elite universities, has successfully drawn numerous international students by fostering research and attracting top-tier lecturers.
Japan and China's proposals highlight the advantages of higher education (HE) internationalization, which De Wit & Hunter (2015) define as the intentional integration of global dimensions into post-secondary education to improve quality and societal contributions However, these initiatives align more closely with Internationalization at Home (IaH) than with broader internationalization or Internationalization Abroad (IA) Knight (2006) describes IA as encompassing cross-border education and mobility, while IaH focuses on incorporating international elements into domestic curricula, languages, and extracurricular activities Beelen & Jones (2015) emphasize that IaH involves integrating international and intercultural dimensions into both formal and informal curricula for all students The concept of IaH was first introduced at the 1999 EAIE Conference in response to the prevailing notion that internationalization equated solely to student mobility, particularly highlighted by the Erasmus program Although IaH gained recognition, its prominence has waned compared to IA over the years (de Wit & Altbach, 2021a) Ultimately, while countries may profit from internationalization efforts, they often experience benefits during the process, making IaH crucial for building capacity, especially in developing nations (de Wit & Altbach, 2021b).
Problem statement
In Vietnam, English Medium Instruction (EMI) plays a significant role in higher education's internationalization, as highlighted by Duong and Chua (2016) To grasp the impact of government initiatives promoting this internationalization, it is essential to examine the functioning of EMI programs While current research has explored various aspects of EMI, including policy and management (Nguyen et al., 2017; Tran & Nguyen, 2018), the perspectives of Vietnamese lecturers have been largely overlooked Notably, Vu and Burns (2014) are among the few to address this gap, focusing on pedagogical issues, learning styles, language proficiency, and resource accessibility Despite lecturers being vital to internationalization efforts (Robson et al., 2018), their insights on EMI's role in enhancing higher education in Vietnam remain underexplored.
Research purpose
EMI programs are widely adopted in higher education systems globally, yet their benefits and challenges vary by country In Vietnam, while EMI programs are prevalent at the university level, research on their implementation remains limited This study employs a qualitative approach, focusing on lecturers' roles in developing EMI-related learning practices, which indirectly influence students The findings will assist university administrators and educational policymakers in formulating or revising policies based on the insights gained.
Research questions
In light of the above-mentioned issues, this study attempted to answer three research questions:
1 What are the lecturers' beliefs and attitudes on the implementation of EMI programs in their HEIs?
2 What are the most significant problems that lecturers in EMI programs face?
3 How do the lecturers perceive the role of EMI programs towards HE IaH in Vietnam?
Research scope and time
This research gathered primary data through in-depth interviews with randomly selected lecturers from various universities nationwide The focus is specifically on lecturers teaching English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs during the epidemic in Hanoi, with interviews conducted online.
Research significance
This study aims to inform Vietnamese higher education institutions (HEIs) and policymakers about the practical issues surrounding the implementation of English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs The insights gathered from lecturers' perceptions will provide valuable recommendations for the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) and university administrators, enabling them to make timely adjustments for more effective EMI adoption in the future Additionally, this research contributes to the theoretical framework of the EMI field by validating the feasibility of existing theories.
In this scope of this study, ROAD-MAPPING theoretical framework is validated.
Structure of research
The thesis will contain five chapters with the contents as follow:
Chapter 1: Introduction illustrates the research background and clarifies the problem and purpose of the study The research questions, and the significance of the study are also presented in this section
Chapter 2: Literature Review comprises 2 main sections, including literature review and theoretical framework In the first section, the two first subsections in turn emphasize the importance of world HE in general, then reviewing the development process of HE in Vietnam Subsequently, other subsections review EMI-related practice development both in the global context and in Vietnam The review of the many EMI literatures in different contexts in this chapter helps this study to identify issues that need to be investigated later Importantly, this chapter has an entire subsection that examines the research literature on lecturers' perspective on EMI practice development The last section focuses on expressing and describing the theoretical framework of this study
Chapter 3: Methodology focuses on describing how to collect and exploit qualitative data in this research This chapter also addresses the ethical aspects required when this research is conducted such as consent form, ensuring the confidentiality of the interviewees' identities as well as storing the collected data in the safest way
Chapter 4: Qualitative data analysis discusses the data collected from the interviews
The key findings are organized around central themes such as the Roles of English, Academic Disciplines, Language Management, Practices and Processes, and the impacts of Internationalization and Globalization This chapter also interprets these findings by addressing three primary research questions in a representative manner.
Chapter 5: Implications and Conclusions provides policy implications for EMI practices in the future.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature review
The higher education (HE) system plays a crucial role in national development by stimulating both the economy and social progress According to Jamil Salmi, a World Bank HE expert, governments and educational institutions aiming to establish world-class universities must first consider the necessity of such institutions for their country This inquiry stems from the understanding that economic growth and global competitiveness are increasingly reliant on knowledge, with universities serving as key contributors to that knowledge (Salmi, 2009).
Founded in 1810, the University of Berlin emerged in Prussia as a response to the devastation caused by Napoleon's defeat of the Prussian army in 1806, symbolizing a hope for intellectual revival amid a struggling society (Nguyen, 2019) The Prussian reformers envisioned the university as a means to restore the nation's spirit and foster significant educational reform, particularly in training public servants who would later lead the country's recovery and modernization (Nguyen, 2017) In contrast to England's industrial revolution, Prussia remained predominantly agricultural, and Napoleon's attempts to impose French educational dominance only intensified the urgency for reform By the end of the 19th century, the University of Berlin had become a beacon of modern higher education, influencing university models across Europe, the United States, Japan, and China.
Similar to Germany, the United States emerged as a superpower through rapid advancements in higher education (HE) that fueled its economic, social, and defense capabilities This growth was significantly bolstered by a continuous influx of talent from Europe and beyond, particularly during the tumultuous years following Nazi Germany's reign The "Made in America" label remains a dominant force in higher education, unlikely to be overtaken in the foreseeable future This success is not merely a product of migration; American universities have established their global reputation through two pivotal post-war periods of transformation.
2001) In the first period, President Abraham Lincoln signed the Morrill Land Act
In 1862, the American government enacted a land allocation law to foster the development of higher education (HE) amidst the turmoil of the Civil War, reflecting a strong belief in its role in national reconstruction and economic growth This legislation laid the foundation for the expansion of universities in the 20th century, particularly after World War II, when the GI Bill enabled returning veterans to pursue higher education The post-war era, starting in the 1960s, marked a significant transformation in American universities, making higher education accessible to a diverse range of students rather than just elites This inclusivity inspired generations of aspiring students worldwide to pursue degrees at prestigious American institutions The advancements in science and technology driven by these universities were crucial for the remarkable economic progress seen in the United States and Germany.
Asian countries, including China, India, Singapore, Korea, and Japan, are increasingly recognizing the crucial role of universities in advancing fields like economics and defense, similar to the post-World War II realization in the United States These nations aim to elevate their universities to world-class status to enhance human resource training and scientific research, which are vital for economic growth, national prestige, and bridging the knowledge gap with the West Historically, Japan and China established their universities, such as Peking University (1898), Tokyo University (1886), and Kyoto University (1897), with the urgent mission to reform their countries in response to the perceived threats from Western powers.
Universities have become vital symbols of innovation and national power, driving the need for scientific and industrial advancement This has led developing countries to send students to advanced higher education institutions in the U.S and Europe, as well as to establish prestigious branch universities at home, reflecting a growing global exchange of ideas As students and academics embrace a global identity, universities strive to enhance their quality to attract top talent However, Altbach (2015) notes a concerning trend where the economic role of universities often overshadows their social responsibilities, with historical instances of universities being misused for political agendas Despite recognizing the importance of scientific research for economic growth, some developing societies still grapple with cultural constraints and academic structures that hinder progress In particular, many Asian universities emphasize rote learning over independent thinking, leading to limited freedom of expression in both academic and social contexts (Levin, 2010).
As universities achieve universal access, they face the challenge of maintaining educational quality amidst an influx of students seeking degrees for better job prospects This surge can lead to a compromise in academic standards for financial gain, placing significant pressure on faculty When institutions prioritize quantity over quality, they risk producing disengaged graduates who lack genuine enthusiasm for learning, ultimately harming societal progress A society cannot thrive if its universities cultivate passive students who do not engage critically with their education or challenge established ideas Therefore, higher education plays a crucial role in shaping the future of a nation, especially in the 21st century, where globalization complicates the mission of universities.
2.1.2 The Vietnamese HE system in the stages of development
During the feudal period in Vietnam, higher education primarily aimed at exam success and official training rather than fostering logical thinking (Phuong, 2006) Vietnamese universities, established to serve public needs, saw limited progress during the French invasion, lagging behind global higher education advancements (Welch, 2010) Traditional Confucian learning was replaced by scientific disciplines, yet access remained restricted to a select few, influenced by foreign cooperation, particularly from the former USSR, which shaped the Soviet-style education system in the North until 1986 (Harman & Bich, 2010) The shift to a market economy in 1987 marked the beginning of the Doi Moi period, initiating significant changes in higher education alongside socio-economic development However, Vietnam's goal of becoming a knowledge economy faces challenges, as only 11% of the workforce holds a university degree (Parajuli et al., 2020).
(see Figure 1) Thus, it is very likely that the proportion of the labor force with a university degree in Vietnam will not increase significantly by 2050
Figure 1 Vietnam’s Labor Force Distribution by Education Level
(Source: World Bank (2018) Vietnam’s Future Jobs: Leveraging Mega-Trends for
This also reflects the low access to higher education in Vietnam (see Figure 2) From
From 2000 to 2016, Vietnam's Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) lagged significantly behind other East Asian countries By 2016, Vietnam's GER was 15 years behind Malaysia's, and it was even lower than the Philippines' GER in 2002, despite notable advancements A study by Tran et al (2022) examined the economic impact of 172 Vietnamese higher education institutions and revealed a lack of efficiency in their performance from 2012 to 2016.
Figure 2 Tertiary Education GER in some East Asia countries, 2000-2016
In Vietnam, the internationalization of higher education (HE) is driven by various processes and activities, including the implementation of IaH (Internationalization at Home), which utilizes an indirectly directed force (Nguyen & Tran, 2018; Ryu & Nguyen, 2021) This movement has its origins in the broader context of educational reforms aimed at enhancing global engagement.
Since 2005, the Higher Education Reform Agenda (HERA) has aimed to fundamentally transform Vietnam's higher education system from 2006 to 2020, aligning it with the nation's socio-economic development and the need for a skilled workforce Key components of this agenda include preparing for international agreements, fostering internationalization at home (IaH), and enhancing cross-border higher education Additionally, the "Strategy for Education Development for Vietnam 2011–2020" further emphasizes the importance of internationalization, reinforcing HERA's goals by promoting international cooperation, increasing funding for lecturers to study abroad, and establishing modern universities and research centers The Vietnamese government's approach to higher education internationalization operates at three levels: student mobility, advanced and joint programs at the institutional level, and the establishment of excellent universities in collaboration with foreign governments.
At the student level, studying abroad is viewed as a realistic answer for the country to the human resource demand and to catch up with regional and national advancements
At this level, both talented students and faculty are involved, with the government launching initiatives like Project 322 and Project 911 to support qualified candidates studying abroad However, these projects lack policies to encourage the return of these students and the Vietnamese diaspora, failing to create appealing working conditions for those who prefer to advance their careers overseas Additionally, policies related to student mobility are vulnerable to unexpected challenges, such as pandemics, immigration restrictions, and the impacts of events like Brexit (de Wit & Altbach, 2021b).
The Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) has established APs, joint or twinning programs, and HQPs to enhance English proficiency among graduates compared to those in mass programs These initiatives are conducted in English and provide students with access to innovative materials and curricula from top 200 global universities While these programs play a crucial role in promoting the internationalization of higher education in Vietnam, they represent a significant advancement in educational quality and global competitiveness.
In Vietnam, the focus on "policy borrowing" has led to a curriculum that lacks genuine international elements, as noted by Tran et al (2018) The educational programs primarily cater to high-demand fields like business administration, accounting, finance, and banking (Hoang et al., 2018) However, access to these programs is restricted to a small group of elite students who can afford the high tuition fees (Hoang et al., 2018; Tran & Marginson, 2018).
In terms of the governmental level, the government initiated an ambitious project in
The "Excellent University" project, launched in 2006, aimed to establish or upgrade institutions in Vietnam to become research universities that meet global education and research standards with support from developed countries Despite its ambitious goals, concerns arose regarding financial dependence and a shortage of qualified full-time faculty, as many foreign lecturers were only part-time (Hoang et al., 2018) Consequently, the internationalization of Vietnamese higher education (HE) appears to be viewed as an end goal rather than a means to enhance education quality, research, and societal service (de Wit & Altbach, 2021b) This indicates that while the Vietnamese HE system seeks greater internationalization, it has been relatively inactive in proposing initiatives or policies to achieve this aim Nguyen (2009) characterized the state of Vietnamese HE internationalization as an improvement in international and regional cooperation and integration within the field.
Theoretical framework
The ROAD-MAPPING framework, developed for English-medium education in multilingual university settings (EMEMUS) by Dafouz and Smit (2016), addresses the lack of consensus among theoretical perspectives in English Medium Instruction (EMI) This framework is crucial for capturing the diversity and complexity of various educational contexts It combines multiple viewpoints, serving as a reference for analyzing specific situations while recognizing the interplay of global and local influences By facilitating comparative analyses across different settings, ROAD-MAPPING enables researchers to draw broader conclusions beyond isolated cases.
The term EMEMUS reflects the current trend in universities worldwide, highlighting the significance of English-medium education for academic and global communication It also emphasizes multilingualism in higher education, focusing on English as a primary medium of instruction This approach underscores the language's vital role in academia, the internet, commerce, and research To effectively address various aspects of English Medium Instruction (EMI), ROAD-MAPPING serves as a comprehensive model that can inform policymakers and stakeholders about effective EMI policy strategies (Tri & Moskovsky, 2019).
ROAD-MAPPING is founded on three key theories: twenty-first-century sociolinguistics, language ecology, and language policy, alongside the concept of social practice as discourse The sociolinguistic perspective highlights the critical role of language in shaping social interactions and order, emphasizing that modern societies are increasingly dynamic and fluid Language ecology explores the interactions between languages and their social environments, revealing the interconnectedness of various agents within any context This understanding is complemented by language policy, which addresses intentional efforts to modify linguistic landscapes.
Dafouz & Smit (2016) argue that social practices in teaching and learning are shaped by discourse, which serves as a mode of thinking and knowledge construction in specific contexts Their framework outlines six key dimensions—Roles of English, Academic Disciplines, Language Management, Agents, Practices and Processes, and Internationalization and Globalization—each centered around the concept of discourse This positioning highlights discourse as a crucial entry point to explore the various components of social behavior in educational settings.
Figure 3 The ROAD-MAPPING framework (Dafouz & Smit, 2016)
This study examines the perspectives of Vietnamese lecturers on the implementation of English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) programs within the context of government policies English functions as a crucial academic language alongside other languages, serving various roles in communication and education The research categorizes academic disciplines into hard vs soft and pure vs applied, highlighting their distinct characteristics relevant to EMI Language management involves the policies that dictate the execution of EMI, often lacking clarity and being implicitly understood The framework identifies stakeholders involved in EMI decision-making, such as strategy planning and assessment Additionally, the study explores EMI teaching practices that shape disciplinary knowledge and instructors' insights Finally, it addresses the impact of internationalization and globalization on higher education institutions in the modern knowledge economy.