INTRODUCTION
Rationales
Reading is a vital language skill that serves as the foundation for developing other language abilities, particularly for academic success in higher education It is regarded as the primary method for accessing a wide range of information sources, forming the basis for comprehensive understanding and knowledge acquisition.
According to Celce-Murcia (2001), the development of synthesis and critical evaluation skills is crucial for effective reading Anderson (2003) emphasizes that reading is a vital skill for English learners, significantly impacting their overall success in the language acquisition process Additionally, both internal and external factors play a significant role in enhancing comprehension.
Effective reading strategies and learning styles are crucial for successful language acquisition These strategies serve as intentional methods to understand the author's message, as noted by Olshavsky (1977), and involve problem-solving actions aimed at achieving comprehension or production objectives, according to Wenden (1987).
Reading strategies are defined as techniques and skills that enhance learners' ability to read effectively and efficiently (1989) These strategies are selected by individuals to navigate reading materials, while learning styles are personal traits that vary among learners, making certain methods and resources more effective for some than others (Burke & Dunn, 2003).
Sternberg and Grigorenko (2001) emphasize the distinction between styles and strategies, noting that styles function unconsciously while strategies require deliberate decision-making In the context of language learning, Bailey et al (2000, p 118) support this differentiation, underscoring the importance of conscious choice in employing effective learning strategies.
Learning styles differ from learning strategies; while learning styles are automatic traits unique to individuals, learning strategies are deliberate actions taken by students to enhance their learning experience.
Understanding learners' individual learning styles is crucial for teachers to create effective learning tasks tailored to diverse needs When a teacher promotes a specific learning approach, some students may struggle to engage and learn effectively Therefore, teachers must be aware of different learning styles to enhance their teaching methods and better meet students' needs This awareness should influence pedagogical strategies and encourage differentiation of materials, considering both the difficulty level and the unique learning styles of each student.
Students who understand their learning preferences are better equipped to utilize different techniques that enhance their educational experience, ultimately leading to greater satisfaction According to Claxton & Murrell (1987), recognizing individual learning styles allows students to perceive themselves as learners, which can significantly improve their performance and learning outcomes.
In Vietnam, English is viewed as a foreign language, with students dedicating 6 to 10 years in school and an additional 2 to 3 years at university to its study Despite this extensive education, students often struggle to achieve proficiency in real-world communication This gap in language achievement can be attributed to a disconnect between the teaching methods employed by educators and the learning preferences of students, as well as the ineffective application of learning strategies.
Numerous studies have explored the effectiveness of reading strategies on comprehension, yet limited research has examined the relationship between preferred learning styles, reading strategies, and outcomes, particularly in the context of Vietnamese EFL teaching This gap in literature motivates our study at the International School - Thai Nguyen University, aiming to investigate the diverse learning styles of students, the reading strategies they use, and their corresponding achievements in reading comprehension.
This study examined how learning styles and reading strategies affect reading comprehension achievement, aiming to help teachers tailor their instructional methods to accommodate diverse language learners.
Statement of the problem
Learning is a multifaceted process that involves acquiring knowledge through various methods such as studying, teaching, practicing, and experiencing (Rusman, 2011) It extends beyond passive listening in classrooms; instead, it encompasses active engagement with information through activities like reading, researching, and experimenting Understanding students' learning styles is crucial for teachers, as it allows them to tailor their teaching strategies and activities effectively Dunn (1990) emphasizes that awareness of these preferences helps educators address learning difficulties and reduce student frustration Furthermore, Chang (2003) highlights the significant influence of recognizing learning styles on curriculum design and teacher training Macfarlane (2004) warns that a lack of interest or understanding of students' educational backgrounds can damage teacher-student relationships By exploring students' language learning style preferences, teachers can develop effective language learning strategies that enhance language achievement.
Research by Yu (1996), Reid (1987), Peacock (2001), Stebbins (1995), and Tuan (2011) suggests that a mismatch between teachers' instructional styles and students' language learning styles can adversely affect language acquisition This study examined how learning styles and reading strategies influence reading comprehension achievement, with learning styles and reading strategies as independent variables and academic reading achievement as the dependent variable.
Significance of the study
This study aims to enhance understanding of the relationship between learning styles and language learning strategies in relation to academic reading achievement It may identify preferred learning styles among language learners preparing for the IELTS reading module The findings could provide teachers with general guidelines to align their teaching practices with the learning styles of their students Teaching style encompasses the behaviors and beliefs of instructors, influencing how they present information, engage with students, and manage coursework.
Teaching style plays a crucial role in enhancing students' learning experiences and academic outcomes By identifying students' learning styles, educators can implement effective teaching strategies that cater to individual needs, making the learning process more engaging Claxton and Murrell (1987) emphasize that understanding learning styles enables teachers to recognize the diverse backgrounds students bring to the classroom, guiding the design of tailored learning experiences Additionally, this study serves as a valuable resource for researchers interested in exploring the effects of learning styles and strategies on language achievements.
Aims of the study
This study aimed to identify the preferred learning styles of English language learners at the International School of Thai Nguyen University, enabling teachers to tailor their instructional approaches to diverse learner preferences Additionally, it sought to explore the relationship between perceptual learning style preferences and the selection of reading strategies among students Finally, the research investigated the correlation between students' learning styles, preferred reading strategies, and their language reading achievement in the IELTS reading module.
Research questions
With the aforementioned aims, the study attempts finding answers to the following research questions
1 What are the preferred learning styles of the non-English majored students at Thai Nguyen University?
2 What is the relationship between learning styles and reading strategies uses?
3.What is the relationship between learning styles, reading strategies towards academic reading achievement?
Scope of the study
A study conducted with 152 second-year students at the International School of Thai Nguyen University, the sole institution within the university where English is the medium of instruction, aimed to explore the relationship between various quantifiable variables The diverse student body, hailing from countries such as Laos, Myanmar, the Philippines, East Timor, and Nigeria, undergoes a one-year intensive English course to prepare for English lectures, with a required language proficiency level of B2 (CEFR), equivalent to an IELTS score of 5.5 or FCE examination The research employed a correlation design and utilized a quantitative approach to collect data, focusing on the students' practice of four macro language skills, primarily for exam preparation.
The study is divided into five chapters
Chapter 1 - Introduction relates to the rationale for the research Besides, it shows the significance of the study, the aims and objectives, research questions, the scope, the methods and the design of the study
Chapter 2 - Literature review supplies an overview of theoretical background and previous studies involved in the research topic
Chapter 3 - Research Methodology describes the methods used for this study, data collection instruments, data collection procedures and data analysis procedure
Chapter 4 - Findings and Discussion provides the findings and discussion of the research based on results of the action research methodology
Chapter 5 – Conclusion and Recommendation comes up with the summary, implications and some suggestions for further studies
In Chapter 1, the researcher outlines the study's preliminaries, including the rationale, research problem statement, scope, aims, significance, and the research questions addressed The subsequent chapter will delve into the theoretical framework, define key terms, and review related work in the field.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theoretical framework
The concept of learning styles, introduced in the 1960s, emphasizes that while all individuals can learn, they do so at different speeds and in various ways Recognizing these differences allows teachers to adapt their practices, enhancing the learning experience (Gappi 2013:70) However, mismatches between students' and teachers' learning styles can lead to discomfort, boredom, and lack of motivation, resulting in poor performance (Felder & Spurlin 2005:103) It is crucial for educators to help students identify their learning styles and provide constructive feedback, while also encouraging exploration of diverse learning methods (Farajolahi & Nimvari 2014:159) Awareness of their own learning styles enables students to take control of their education, maximizing their potential (Farajolahi & Nimvari 2014:159) Ultimately, learning styles represent the conditions under which students learn best, serving as their comfort zones (Tuan 2011:287).
Learning styles are defined in various ways, leading to confusion and differing interpretations According to Curry (1991), there is significant variation in how learning styles are conceptualized, which affects predictions related to learning outcomes, academic achievement, and behavior.
Many research works have then explored the types and the nature of strategy use, the effectiveness (if any) of language learning styles (LLS) However, as stated by Phakiti
Current research highlights a significant gap in empirical evidence regarding the relationship between language learning strategies (LLS) and their practical application in context (2003, p.7) Rees-Millers (1993, p.11) emphasizes the need for empirical studies to evaluate the effectiveness of learner training before its implementation in classrooms Consequently, further research is essential to explore LLS among EFL learners, particularly in mountainous regions, to guide them in selecting appropriate strategies for acquiring the target language.
In the EFL context, this study utilizes Reid's (1995) framework, defining learning styles as an individual's inherent and preferred methods for absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills This concept outlines a profile of how individuals approach learning, serving as a blueprint for their perceptions, interactions, and responses within the learning environment (Dürnyei, 2015).
Definitions and nature of learning styles
As stated in the previous part, learning style is defined variously Below are some definitions of learning styles:
“The term learning style refers to the general approach preferred by the student when learning a subject, acquiring a language, or dealing with a difficult problem.”
“Learning styles are internally based characteristics, often not perceived or consciously used by learners, for the intake and comprehension of new information.”
Learning style encompasses a blend of environmental and perceptual preferences that affect our physical and sensory needs, alongside cognitive variables that shape our understanding and organization of the world Additionally, social preferences, influenced by cognitive, personality, and emotional factors, play a significant role in determining our behavioral tendencies in learning scenarios.
An individual's learning style refers to their preferred methods for processing information and acquiring knowledge and skills It encompasses the habits, strategies, and consistent mental behaviors they exhibit during deliberate educational experiences Understanding one's unique mode of learning can enhance the effectiveness of their educational journey.
Learning styles are unique to each individual, indicating that students do not all learn in the same way Each person adopts a preferred approach to learning, often leaving behind methods that are less comfortable for them For instance, some students require a quiet environment to study effectively, while others may need to engage physically, such as walking or vocalizing their study material aloud.
Different researchers have varying opinions on the nature of learning styles According to Keefe (1982), learning styles are relatively stable as learners interact with their environment Ehrman and Oxford (1990) argue that these styles are inherent characteristics that persist regardless of teaching methods or classroom settings Reid (1998) notes that learners often use their learning styles unconsciously to absorb and understand new information However, Ehrman and Oxford also suggest that learners can acquire new styles over time and adapt existing ones as they become more aware of them.
Learning styles are not fixed at birth; they can evolve over time due to various situations and environmental influences Rewarding learners for certain styles can enhance their preference for those methods, while tasks designed for specific styles can also shape these preferences Additionally, one's value system, influenced by socialization, plays a role in developing learning styles Kinsella and Sherak (1998) emphasize that learning styles are not innate but can be reinforced by classroom dynamics and values, leading learners to favor the methods they frequently encounter, especially when they achieve academic success Ultimately, learning styles represent habitual approaches to acquiring knowledge.
A brief discussion of learning style models
Numerous classifications of learning styles have emerged from both theoretical and practical studies, with Coffield et al identifying 71 distinct models in their review (Matheoudakis & Alexiou, 2010) These classifications reflect various approaches based on different student characteristics during the learning process De Bello (as cited in Hein & Budny, 1999) highlights that some models are multidimensional, encompassing cognitive, affective, and psychological traits, while others focus on a single dimension Each new approach builds upon the previous ones, contributing to the evolving understanding of learning styles (Güven, 2004) Notable learning style approaches and their corresponding models include several well-established frameworks.
Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model
Honey and Mumford‟s Learning Styles Model
Reid‟s Perceptual Learning Style Preferences
2.3.1 Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model
The Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model is a prominent framework that emphasizes the biological and developmental traits influencing how individuals acquire new knowledge and skills This model identifies five distinct learning style stimuli, each accompanied by specific elements that reflect a person's unique learning characteristics.
Environmental stimuli include factors such as sound, light, temperature, and room design, while emotional stimuli encompass motivation, persistence, responsibility, and structure Sociological stimuli arise from various learning contexts, such as studying alone, in pairs, or with peers and teachers Physiological stimuli relate to perceptual experiences, learning intake, daily energy patterns, and mobility needs Lastly, psychological processing stimuli are characterized by global or analytic thinking styles, hemispheric dominance, and impulsive or reflective tendencies.
Kolb‟s learning style model which is based on Kolb Experiential Learning Theory was developed by Kolb Based on this experiential model, learning is defined by Kolb as
Knowledge is created through the transformation of experience, as highlighted by Baker, Jensen, and Kolb (2002) This process is represented in a circular model of individual learning styles that encompasses four key stages: concrete experience (CE), reflective observation (RO), abstract conceptualization (AC), and active experimentation (AE), as noted by Kaya, ệzabacı, and Tezel (2009) The Kolb's learning cycle visually illustrates these interconnected stages, emphasizing the dynamic nature of learning.
Figure 2.1 The Kolb’s learning cycle (Güven, 2004, p.27)
According to Kolb (as cited in Kolb & Goldman, 1973), learning involves two key dimensions: transitioning from abstract conceptualization to concrete experience and from active experimentation to reflective observation Kolb's model illustrates how individuals perceive knowledge through concrete experiences and abstract concepts, while integrating it through reflective observation and active experimentation Learning occurs through four modes: feeling (concrete experience), watching (reflective observation), thinking (abstract conceptualization), and doing (active experimentation) Kolb (as cited in Kaya, ệzabacı & Tezel, 2009) emphasizes that all learning requires a cycle of these four modes, although individuals may favor one mode over the others (as cited in Groat, 1998) The four distinct learning styles identified by Kolb—converger, diverger, assimilator, and accommodator—are based on this learning cycle.
2.3.3 Honey and Mumford’s Learning Styles Preferences
Honey and Mumford's learning styles model, derived from Kolb's experiential learning framework, categorizes learners into four distinct styles: activists, reflectors, theorists, and pragmatists This model outlines a learning cycle with four stages that highlight individual learning preferences The relationship between Honey and Mumford's learning styles and the learning cycle is visually represented in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2 Honey and Mumford’s learning styles associated with learning cycle
Activists thrive on experiential learning, engaging in diverse activities and collaborating in groups to share and test ideas They prefer dynamic environments over repetitive tasks, valuing hands-on experiences that foster creativity and interaction.
Reflectors prioritize gathering comprehensive information before making decisions, embodying the principle of "look before you leap." They focus on understanding the broader context by considering past experiences and valuing diverse perspectives.
Theorists strive to incorporate their observations into cohesive frameworks, allowing them to understand the relationships between different insights They focus on enhancing these frameworks by critically evaluating how new information can be integrated into their existing knowledge structures.
Pragmatists actively pursue and apply innovative ideas, focusing on their practical implications before assessing their value They believe that if a concept is effective, it is worthwhile; however, if it fails, they see little merit in analyzing its shortcomings (Prichard, 2009, p.43).
2.3.4 Reid’s Perceptual Learning Style Preferences
Reid’s perceptual learning style preferences model, developed in 1987, is designed for university foreign language learners to identify their preferred learning styles According to Reid (1995), these styles highlight the sensory differences among learners in how they understand and organize experiences The model categorizes learning styles into three main types: sensory or perceptual, cognitive, and affective/temperament styles Sensory learning styles emphasize the physical learning environment and the use of senses to gather information Research by Dunn (1990) indicates that visual learners may struggle in auditory teaching environments, while auditory learners may thrive in such settings Reid suggests that learning styles exist on a continuum, allowing learners to adapt their styles based on the context Cognitive styles focus on thinking and problem-solving abilities, distinguishing between field-independent learners, who prefer structured learning, and field-dependent learners, who favor collaborative and experiential methods Affective learning styles consider students' emotions and values, emphasizing motivation, engagement, and responsiveness to feedback in the learning process.
According to Mulalic, Shad, and Ahmad (2009), learners' styles are categorized into visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile based on their perceptions, along with social preferences for group or individual learning Reid (1995) identifies six primary learning style preferences: visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile, group, and individual Utilizing these learning style preferences can enhance individual performance and learning outcomes.
Visual learners excel in their studies by utilizing resources such as books, chalkboards, and workbooks, which enhance their ability to retain and understand information effectively According to Reid (1995), these students grasp instructions more easily through reading, making visual learning their preferred method for academic success.
Auditory learners excel in absorbing information through listening, as highlighted by Mulalic, Shad, and Ahmad (2009) According to Reid (1987), these students enhance their retention of knowledge by reading aloud To support their learning, auditory learners benefit from resources such as audio tapes, lectures, and engaging class discussions.
Kinesthetic learners, who prefer active involvement in their learning process, thrive through hands-on experiences such as drama, role-playing, and physical movement (Mulalic, Shad & Ahmad, 2009) To effectively retain information, these learners benefit from engaging in activities like field trips and role-playing, which allow them to physically participate in classroom practices (Reid, 1995).
There is one more learning style: Tactile major learning style preference Reid
(1995) indicates that tactile learners can learn well if they the chance to deal with hands-on experiences with materials such as experiments in a laboratory, handling and building models
In addition, the other learning styles which create the social aspects of the Reid‟s learning style preferences is group major learning style preference According to Reid
Factors affecting learning styles preference
Learning style preferences are influenced by various factors, with some having a greater impact on specific learners or stages A study by Ramayah et al (2011) highlighted that peer influence affects all four learning styles, while technology primarily impacts reading and writing, and cultural background significantly influences visual, aural, and kinesthetic styles Additional research has consistently supported the role of culture in learning styles (Charlesworth, 2008; De Vita, 2010; Lee, 2011; Song & Oh, 2011) Notably, Joy and Kolb (2009) found that cultural differences had a marginally significant effect on the preference for active experimentation versus reflective observation, which was more influenced by age and specialization, while culture notably affected the choice between abstract and reflective learning styles.
Research studies have highlighted diverse learning style preferences among language learners Reid (1987) found that Korean students favored visual learning, while Arabic and Chinese learners preferred auditory methods Similarly, Hyland (1993) noted that Japanese learners leaned towards auditory and tactile styles Rossi-Le (1995) reported that Spanish speakers also showed a strong preference for auditory learning, contrasting with Vietnamese learners who favored visual styles (Griffiths, 2008) Reid's investigation of 152 ESL students revealed significant differences in learning styles based on gender and grade level, with male students scoring higher in visual and tactile preferences than females, and graduate students outperforming undergraduates in both visual and auditory preferences Additionally, Lim (1995) utilized the Kolb Learning Style Inventory with 173 secondary school students, concluding that most identified as assimilators and divergers.
Research on learning styles and gender has yielded mixed results A study by Logan and Thomas (2002) examined the learning styles of university distance education students using the Honey and Mumford learning style questionnaire and the Grasha and Reichmann Learning Style Scale The findings indicated significant gender differences in learning styles, with female students exhibiting more pragmatic, theorist, and reflector styles compared to their male counterparts However, the results from the Grasha and Reichmann scale presented different outcomes.
Reichmann Learning Style Scale showed no significant difference between students‟ learning styles and their gender
In a study by Kumar, Kumar, and Smart (2004) involving 65 students from two mid-sized universities in the Midwest, the researchers utilized the Grasha and Reichmann Learning Style Scale to assess learning preferences The findings revealed that the predominant learning styles among the students were identified as participant, dependent, and collaborative.
A study conducted by Uzuntiryaki (2007) examined the learning styles of high school students using the Grasha and Reichmann Learning Style Scale, involving 265 tenth-grade participants The findings revealed that the students predominantly exhibited participant, dependent, and collaborative learning styles.
According to Dunn (1978), as referenced by De Porter and Hernacki (1999), various factors significantly influence learning styles, including physical, emotional, sociological, and environmental elements For example, some students may perform optimally in well-lit environments, while others thrive in bustling, crowded settings.
Learning styles are essential in shaping how individuals acquire knowledge, as they involve the transformation of personal experiences into effective learning processes (1984) Gardner (1993) highlights that these styles encompass a blend of cognitive, emotional, and physiological traits, which influence a learner's interaction with their educational environment Additionally, Stewart and Felicetti (1992) emphasize that learning styles represent the optimal conditions for student learning, indicating that an individual's learning style can significantly impact their educational success.
Learning styles, which can be visual, auditory, reading, or kinaesthetic, focus on how individuals prefer to learn rather than the content itself In foreign language education, teachers implement various strategies tailored to these learning styles, aiming to enhance students' language performance and overall learning experience.
Learning styles and academic achievement
Academic achievement, as defined by Ahmad et al (2011), is a measure of a student's success, reflecting the knowledge and skills acquired across various courses This achievement is assessed through tests, assignments, and final exams, influenced by the standards set by educational institutions (Garner-O’Neale & Harrison, 2013) High performers often demonstrate specific traits, including effective learning strategies and preferred learning styles.
Numerous studies have explored the connection between learning styles and academic achievement, revealing significant correlations (Kopsovich, 2001; Gokalp, 2013; Jilardi et al., 2011) Research indicates that aligning teaching methods with students' learning styles can substantially improve academic performance at primary and secondary levels (Smith & Renzulli, 1984) Teachers have sought various strategies to boost student achievement, with one effective approach being the identification of individual learning styles to leverage students' strengths (Abidin, 2011) Castro and Peck (2005) found that a student's preferred learning style could either facilitate or hinder their success in foreign language learning Abidin et al (2011) noted that students often exhibit multiple or blended learning styles, enabling effective learning and positively influencing overall achievement Furthermore, Dunn et al (1995) demonstrated that students taught in ways that matched their learning styles outperformed those whose learning styles were mismatched with instructional methods.
Accommodating a student's learning style can enhance their attitude toward learning, boost thinking skills, and foster creativity and academic success (Irvine & York, 1995) Research on learning styles has effectively categorized learners by their abilities Notably, Kolb (1984) identified four distinct learning styles—accommodation, assimilation, converging, and diverging—alongside four learning modes: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation.
In 1978, a comprehensive model was developed that examined the interplay of environmental, emotional, sociological, physical, and psychological learning styles, suggesting these factors are crucial for informing effective teaching strategies and enhancing academic achievement A study by Rajshree (2013) involving 200 students from 9th to 11th grades in Maharashtra revealed that kinesthetic learning styles were more dominant than visual and auditory styles among secondary school students Furthermore, a strong positive correlation was found between kinesthetic learning and academic success, indicating that the impacts of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning styles on academic performance are significant.
Research indicates that reflecting on individual learning styles enhances meta-cognition, which is crucial for developing effective learners capable of overcoming challenges and excelling in exams By focusing on learning styles, educators can promote meta-learning—an approach that emphasizes goal setting, strategy selection, and progress monitoring This method proves to be more effective in improving learning outcomes than traditional approaches that merely aim to present information or foster understanding (Hattie, Biggs, & Purdie, 1996).
Reading strategies and reading comprehension
Reading strategies have been defined differently by different researchers Anderson
Reading strategies are defined as deliberate actions that learners choose and manage to achieve specific goals (1999) These strategies, which vary based on context and the reader's awareness and intention, include three types of knowledge: declarative (understanding what the strategies are), procedural (knowing how to apply them), and conditional (recognizing when and why to use them) Strategic readers utilize these strategies to navigate tasks, focus on textual cues, comprehend material, and address misunderstandings (Block, 1986) Additionally, reading strategies are characterized as mental operations that facilitate comprehension during purposeful reading (Barnett, 1988) and encompass learning techniques, behaviors, and problem-solving skills that enhance effective learning (Oxford & Crookall, 1989).
Numerous studies have explored the connection between reading strategies and language proficiency, yielding varied results due to differences in subjects and academic contexts A notable study by Kate Tzu-Ching Chen and Sabina Chia Li Chen (2015) focused on high school students in Taiwan, revealing that students favored global reading strategies, followed by problem-solving and support strategies Additionally, research by Ngan Mai Hoang further contributes to this discourse.
A study conducted in 2015 at Northumbria University examined the connection between reading strategy usage and reading proficiency among Vietnamese students in the UK, revealing that these students were medium strategy users with no significant link between overall strategy use and reading comprehension Poole (2005) investigated the reading strategies of 248 university ESL students in the Midwest and South of the United States, finding that problem-solving strategies were frequently employed, while global and support strategies were used moderately Gorsuch and Taguchi (2008) discovered that Vietnamese college EFL students predominantly utilized bottom-up, top-down, and cognitive strategies during repeated reading sessions Additionally, Karbalaei (2010) compared reading strategy use between Iranian EFL and Indian ESL college students, concluding that Indian ESL students favored global, support, and metacognitive strategies, whereas Iranian EFL students primarily relied on problem-solving strategies.
Reading strategies and academic achievement
Effective reading strategies are essential for enhancing students' comprehension, particularly for those who struggle academically According to researchers O'Malley and Chamot (1990), the proficient use of these strategies promotes autonomous learning A study by Caverly, Nicholson, and Radcliffe (2004) demonstrated that developmental students significantly improved their performance on both teacher-made and standardized reading comprehension tests, highlighting the positive impact of cognitive, metacognitive, and affective strategies on their learning outcomes.
According to Rubin (1987), reading strategies are defined as intentional operations or routines that learners use to enhance their ability to acquire, store, retrieve, and utilize information These strategies not only streamline the learning process, making it quicker and more enjoyable, but also promote self-directed learning and improve effectiveness, allowing students to transfer skills to new contexts Additionally, they empower learners to take charge of their education and advance their second language proficiency.
Formal instruction in learning strategies significantly enhances students' strategic use and accelerates their learning process (Long & Crookes, 1992) However, it's crucial that these strategies are taught in context, as isolated, short-term instruction is ineffective for long-term development as strategic readers The process of becoming a strategic reader is gradual and may take several years To facilitate this development, Janzen (2002) identifies key factors that should be incorporated into formal strategy instruction.
Inserting strategies in the content area of students' regular course
Teaching strategies through direct explanation, teacher modeling, and feedback
Recycling the strategies over new texts and tasks
Effective teaching strategies enhance reading tasks when aligned with students' learning preferences and when students apply them meaningfully, leading to easier, faster, and more enjoyable learning experiences (Oxford, 2001b) The application of learning strategies aids in the internalization and retrieval of new information, distinguishing proficient readers from less skilled ones; the former use strategies systematically, while the latter employ them randomly (Vann & Abraham, 1990) Incorporating strategy training into academic courses allows students to practice, adapt, and evaluate strategies in various contexts, while teachers can model these skills to improve student performance It is crucial that strategies are taught in an organized manner, as structured use is more effective than frequent, uncoordinated application Successful strategy use enables readers to actively engage with texts, monitor comprehension, and connect new information with their existing knowledge.
Reading is a vital source of information and plays a crucial role in learning, providing learners with independent access to a wealth of knowledge, as well as enjoyment (Gunning, 2007) According to Schmidt, Rozendal, and Green (2002), reading ability is strongly linked to academic success, with poor reading skills often leading to school failure Mastering reading is essential for learners, as a lack of proficiency can significantly hinder their potential for success in educational settings (Bohlman & Pretorius, 2002; Martin & Carvalho, 2008).
The effectiveness of reading is heavily influenced by the strategies employed by readers, as they must engage in various tasks to fully understand a written text According to Johnston (1983), these strategies play a crucial role in determining reading success or failure.
Reading comprehension is a complex behavior that requires both conscious and unconscious strategies, including problem-solving techniques, to understand the writer's intended meaning This understanding is built upon schematic knowledge structures and various cues provided by the writer, such as words, syntax, and social context Readers generate hypotheses about the text, which they then test using logical and pragmatic strategies Since text is rarely fully explicit, much of the meaning must be inferred, as even the intended meanings of words depend on their context.
Gunderson (2014) outlines three levels of comprehension: literal-level comprehension focuses on basic memory and detail retention; inferential-level comprehension engages readers in thinking critically about the text to draw conclusions beyond the provided information; and critical and evaluative-level comprehension enables readers to assess the validity of a text, differentiate between opinion and fact, and apply the acquired knowledge in various contexts (p.28).
Reading strategies and learning styles
The reading process, viewed from a psycholinguistic perspective, involves a series of activities that begin with the reader's initial recognition of printed text and culminate in textual comprehension Successful comprehension requires readers to extract and integrate information from the text while connecting it to their background knowledge (Koda, 2005) This interaction can be understood as a holistic event, as described by Rosenblatt (1994), where cognitive, metacognitive, affective, and social dimensions converge Reading is a dynamic and complex process influenced by various factors, including the reader's background knowledge, personal attributes, strategies, task demands, and context (Anderson, 1999; Grabe, 2009; Koda, 2005) In second language education, research has highlighted the importance of reading strategies—conscious techniques that enhance comprehension (Sheorey & Mokhtari, 2001) Studies indicate that successful readers employ different strategies compared to their less successful counterparts, with recent findings suggesting that successful readers utilize these strategies more effectively or frequently (Anderson, 1991; Bouvet, 2002; Thampradit, 2006).
Research indicates that the awareness of strategic reading processes, combined with the effective use of reading strategies, is what sets skilled readers apart from unskilled ones (2001) Grabe (2009) highlights that successful second language readers employ a variety of strategies tailored to their specific goals and reading tasks Furthermore, the significance of reading strategy awareness has led to numerous studies examining the perceived use of these strategies among language learners and their reading abilities Findings suggest a correlation between learners' perceived strategy use and their self-rated reading skills (Alhaqbani & Riazi, 2012; Mónos, 2005; Sheorey & Mokhtari, 2001), as well as their performance on reading comprehension tests (Barnett, 1988; Madhumathi & Ghosh, 2012; Saeedeh, 2013).
Effective comprehension relies on various factors, with students' learning styles playing a crucial role (Balci, 2017) According to Ellis (1985), differences in personality, learning styles, motivation, aptitude, and age among language learners significantly influence their success in acquiring the English language Understanding these factors is essential for enhancing language learning outcomes.
One of these differences is learning style Learning style refers to an individual‟s habitual and preferred way of absorbing, processing and retaining new information and skills (Wang, 2007)
Each learning style has its unique strengths and weaknesses, indicating that no single style can define an ideal learner (Moradkhan & Mirtaheri, 2011) According to Richard & Platt (1992), a learning style refers to the specific approach a learner employs to absorb information, emphasizing personal enjoyment and comfort in the learning process This concept focuses more on how individuals prefer to learn rather than what they learn Additionally, each person has their optimal way of receiving and processing knowledge, with some preferring visual aids, others benefiting from auditory stimuli, and some excelling through hands-on activities (Barbe & Milone Jr, 1981).
Understanding the diverse learning style preferences of students is crucial for educators, as these variations influence how students perceive, engage with, and respond to their learning environment By recognizing these differences, teachers can tailor their approaches to better meet the unique needs of each student, ultimately enhancing the educational experience (Wang, 2007).
A number of researchers have argued that learning styles are an influencing factor in strategyuse (Cohen, 2003; Ehrman, Leaver, & Oxford, 2003; Ehrman & Oxford, 1990; Li
Research indicates a connection between learning styles and reading strategy use, as highlighted by various studies (Qin, 2006; Cesur & Fer, 2011; Jafari & Mahboudi, 2012; Williams, 2010; Anderson, 1991) However, there is a scarcity of empirical research specifically exploring this relationship (Corbitt, 2013; Díaz & Diez, 2009; Shen, 2010; Tsai, 2012).
Research has shown that various learning styles significantly impact the reading strategies employed by university-level English learners In 2009, it was suggested that pragmatist and reflexive styles influenced the frequency of these strategies Shen (2010) found that learners' perceptual learning style preferences played a crucial role in their ability to infer vocabulary in a second language Additionally, Tsai (2012) highlighted a strong correlation between reading strategy use and the learning styles of English learners in higher education.
A study conducted in 2013 examined the connection between perceived global strategy and learning styles among Spanish learners with learning disabilities, revealing a significant relationship However, the research found no correlation between learning styles and the perceived use of strategies in the non-at-risk student group.
Learning style has a major role in academic achievement (Purnomo, 2009, Saadi,
Research by Rizky (2013) revealed significant differences in English achievement among students based on their visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning styles Additionally, Gilakjani (2012) analyzed the learning preferences of Iranian EFL university students, finding that those who favored visual learning styles achieved the highest academic success in their major.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research design
Research design is the structured plan for conducting a study, including the methods used to address the research question (McMillan & Schumacher, 1984) This study employed a descriptive research design, which focuses on systematically collecting data to characterize a specific phenomenon without manipulating variables (Kumar, 2011) Additionally, the research was aligned with correlation research, which aims to identify the existence and degree of relationships between two or more measurable variables (Gay, 1996).
Research design serves as a blueprint for conducting studies, ensuring maximum control over factors that may impact the validity of findings (Burns & Grove, 2003) It is essentially a comprehensive plan detailing how, when, and where data will be collected and analyzed (Parahoo, 1997) The design must align with the research's purpose, as the objectives dictate the appropriate methodology and structure Thus, it is crucial for researchers to clearly define their research purposes and questions prior to establishing the research design, as these elements guide the overall methodology and framework for data collection and analysis (Cohen et al., 2002).
This study utilized a purely quantitative approach to collect data from students, focusing on preferred learning styles as the primary independent variable and reading strategies as the secondary independent variable, with academic reading achievement as the dependent variable According to Hunter, Laura, and Leahey (2008), the goal of the quantitative method in research is to develop and apply mathematical models, theories, and hypotheses related to the phenomena under investigation Data was collected through self-administered semi-structured questionnaires distributed among the students.
Participants
The study analyzed data from 152 second-year students at the International School, Thai Nguyen University (IS-TNU), the only institution within Thai Nguyen University that offers instruction in English across all disciplines Graduate students are required to achieve a B2-CEFR level in international exams such as IELTS or FCE Cambridge All participants completed an intensive year-long English course, consisting of 73 males (48%) and 79 females (52%), as illustrated in Table 1.1 and Figure 1.3, which detail the gender distribution of the participants.
Table 3.1 Number and percentage of participants by genders
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Figure 3.1 Number and percentage of participants by genders
Data collection instruments
3.3.1 Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire
The study utilized the Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire (PLSPQ), created by Reid in 1987, which is a self-reporting tool tailored for non-native speakers This validated questionnaire measures six learning style preferences—visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, tactile, group learning, and individual learning—through five statements for each category Participants rated their agreement on a five-point Likert scale, emphasizing quick responses without overthinking To enhance accuracy, the PLSPQ is available in both English and Vietnamese, catering to the predominantly Vietnamese participant group Reid's validation process involved the split-half method and correlation analysis, refining the original 60 statements to the final set used in the survey.
3.3.2 Survey of reading strategies (SORS)
The Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS), developed by Sheorey and Mokhtari (2002), is a 30-item self-assessment tool designed to measure the metacognitive awareness and perceived use of reading strategies among adolescent and adult ESL students This instrument evaluates the frequency of reading strategies employed by students using a 5-point Likert scale, where responses range from 1 ("I never or almost never do this") to 5 ("I always or almost always do this") The SORS encompasses three main categories: global reading strategies, which assess general reading abilities; problem-solving strategies, aimed at improving comprehension when faced with challenging texts; and support strategies, which include techniques such as note-taking and dictionary use to enhance understanding This comprehensive approach allows for a detailed analysis of students' reading strategies and their effectiveness in academic contexts.
The SORS categorizes strategies into three main types: global, problem-solving, and support strategies To analyze the frequency of use for each category, the researcher calculated the mean, median, and standard deviation The mean for each strategy was determined by summing the responses participants selected, which ranged from 1 to 4.
The researcher calculated the subscale scores by dividing them by the number of statements in each category Following the methodology of Sheorey and Mokhtari (2002), who classified metacognitive reading strategy use into high, medium, and low frequency levels, the researcher established score interpretations for students High scores are defined as 3.5 or above, medium scores range from 2.5 to 3.4, and low scores are 2.4 or below The overall average for each category in the SORS questionnaire indicates the most and least utilized reading strategies.
To enhance data analysis, a student demographic background questionnaire was incorporated alongside SORS and PLSPQ This questionnaire gathered essential information, including participants' gender, age, nationality, native language, self-assessed English reading proficiency, duration of English study, and daily reading habits in both English and their native language outside the classroom Participants were assured of the confidentiality of their responses, and they were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time if they felt uncomfortable.
Data collection procedures
The researcher obtained permission from the administration of International School-Thai Nguyen University to conduct a study on second-year students With the assistance of instructors, the researcher administered the Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire during class time Students were informed about the survey and completed the background questionnaire in class, while volunteers filled out the PLSPQ at the end of the session.
15 minutes of the class Participants were shown the formula to figure out their own perceptual learning styles which were Major Learning Style Preference, Minor Learning Style Preference or Negligible
In the subsequent week, participants completed a second survey, responding to the 30-item Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS) They identified the metacognitive reading strategies they believed they employed while reading in English The researcher emphasized that there were no correct or incorrect answers, encouraging honest responses from the participants, after which all completed forms were collected.
Data analysis instruments
This study investigates the relationship between students' learning styles and reading strategies, and their impact on academic achievement Data were collected using the Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire and the Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS) Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 20, with 160 surveys distributed, resulting in 152 valid responses after excluding unintelligible forms and those with a single option selected.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Results of the research question 1
What are the preferred learning styles of the non-English majored students at Thai Nguyen University?
Table 4.1 Number and percentage of participants by learning styles
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Figure 4.1 Number and percentage of participants by learning styles
According to the data presented in Table 4.1 and Figure 4.1, the most favored learning styles among participants were visual and group learning, with preferences recorded at 42.8% and 31.6%, respectively In contrast, other learning styles such as tactile, auditory, kinesthetic, and individual were significantly less preferred, with percentages of 9.9%, 7.9%, 5.3%, and 2.6%, respectively.
Results of the research question 2
What is the relationship between learning styles and reading strategies uses?
The descriptive statistics (Table 4.2) show that the participants use reading strategies at medium level (M = 3.1684)
Table 4.2 The mean score of the reading strategies uses
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation
*OVRSORS: Overall uses of SORS
Table 4.3 Mean score of major, minor, and negligible learning styles
Std Error 95% Confidence Interval for
Minimum Maxi mum Lower Bound Upper
Table 4.4 Test of Homogeneity Variances for visual learners
Test of Homogeneity of Variances
Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig
Sig of Levene test = 0.209 > 0.05 so we can use the results in the ANOVA
Table 4.5 Sig F of the ANOVA for Visual learning styles
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig
There is a significant difference between major learning styles, minor learning styles, negligible styles, and the use of reading strategies at the p < 0.05 level (F (2,149) =1.007, p
= 0.0368) Figure 2.1 shows that visual learners as major learning styles use reading strategies more often (M=3.18)
Figure 4.2 Visual learning styles and the use of reading strategies
Table 4.6 Test of Homogeneity Variances for tactile learners
Test of Homogeneity of Variances
Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig
Sig F = 0.0368