Traditional View of Work
Doing Your Job
Do you love your job? If not, it might be time to reflect on whether you're being allowed to fully utilize your talents and creativity Are your skills being underappreciated or misused? If you often experience the "Sunday night blues," these could be signs of burnout Remember, many believe that "work is called work for a reason," but it shouldn't feel like a burden.
As amazing as it may seem, work does not have to be a drain on your energy
Enjoying your work can energize you, as seen in the lives of many artists, athletes, musicians, and professors who find fulfillment in their careers By redefining your perspective on work and having a supportive management team, you too can enhance your job satisfaction and reduce uncompensated overtime This book will guide you on how to enjoy your work more, provided that executives support these changes Furthermore, by learning Lean Six Sigma, employees can understand the flaws in their bosses' systems, reinforcing the idea that they are not the problem, but rather the system is This realization can significantly boost self-esteem and job satisfaction.
Reacting to Daily Crisis
In a bustling urban university, administrative assistants like Sarah face daily challenges filled with repetitive mini-crises that demand immediate attention Each day, she navigates a lengthy “to-do” list, tackling the same questions from faculty and students, such as class locations, computer functionality, and office hours This constant barrage of inquiries not only distracts her from her essential tasks but also leads to frustration and a sense of stagnation Ultimately, many employees find themselves merely trying to survive the day without significant issues, highlighting the need for more meaningful engagement in their roles.
So, how can you prevent daily crises from messing you up? The third major objective of this book is answering this question.
Lean Six Sigma View of Work
A New Perspective on Life and Work
Lean Six Sigma embraces nine principles which, when understood, may cause a transformation in how you view life in general, and work in particular The nine principles are listed below.
Principle 1: Life and business are processes.
Principle 2: All processes exhibit variation.
Principle 3: Two causes of variation exist in many processes.
Principle 4: Life and business in stable and unstable processes are different. Principle 5: Continuous improvement is economical, absent capital investment. Principle 6: Many processes exhibit waste.
Principle 7: Effective communication requires operational definitions.
Principle 8: Expansion of knowledge requires theory.
These principles are presented below and illustrated from the point of view of every- day life Later in the book, they are illustrated from the perspective of work.
1.2.1.1 Principle 1: Life and Business Are Processes
A process consists of interconnected elements that convert inputs into outputs to achieve a specific goal, known as a "mission statement." Processes are present in every aspect of life, especially within organizations, making their comprehension essential for success.
The transformation of a process adds value through time, place, or form Time value refers to an output's availability when needed, such as having food when hungry or tools at hand Place value indicates that the output is accessible where required, like gas in a vehicle's tank instead of an oil field Form value means the output is in the required format, for instance, sliced bread for a toaster or paper with holes for a binder.
Transformation of inputs into output by adding time, form, or place value
Ralph, a 55-year-old man who is healthy, financially stable, and possesses a good sense of humor, found himself unhappy at age 45 due to his lack of long-term relationships with women Despite his appealing qualities, he had been searching for a wife for two decades, resulting in a repetitive pattern of short relationships lasting 4 to 6 months each, averaging two relationships per year Over this 20-year period, Ralph experienced approximately 40 different relationships, highlighting his desire for marriage and children.
Ralph continued living the process shown in Figure 1.2 for more than 20 years
It depressed and frustrated him but he did not know what to do about it Read the next principles to find out more about Ralph’s situation.
1.2.1.2 Principle 2: All Processes Exhibit Variation
Variation among people, products, services, and processes is natural and should be anticipated, but it needs to be minimized This article focuses on unit-to-unit variation in outputs, which can lead to issues downstream in production or service delivery, impacting customer satisfaction It is important to distinguish this type of variation from diversity, such as racial, ethnic, or religious differences, which actually enhance an organization by contributing diverse perspectives to decision-making.
Unit-to-unit variation in process outputs, whether in products or services, presents a crucial opportunity for improvement By analyzing this variability, organizations can identify strategies to minimize it, leading to enhanced consistency Reducing variability simplifies planning, forecasting, and resource budgeting, ultimately making operations more efficient and manageable for everyone involved.
Ralph reflected on his love life and recalled the reasons behind approximately 30 of his 40 breakups He created a detailed list outlining each reason and subsequently illustrated a line graph depicting the annual frequency of his breakups.
Use an e-dating service, or go to social gatherings, or get fixed up on a blind date.
Start dating a woman Continue dating one special woman Break up.
Get depressed over breakup Obsess about reason for breakup.
Figure 1.2 Ralph’s relationship with women process
The actual number of breakups fluctuates annually, as illustrated in Figure 1.3 Ralph aspires to have zero breakups each year, reflecting his contentment in a long-term relationship The gap between the actual and ideal number of breakups signifies unwanted variation Lean Six Sigma management provides valuable insights into the causes of this waste and variation, enabling individuals to align the actual output of a process more closely with its ideal output.
Your weight can fluctuate daily, with an "ideal" weight representing a medically determined optimum level In contrast, your "actual" daily weights may differ significantly, potentially resulting in an unacceptably high average weight with considerable variation This unwanted variation highlights the gap between your ideal and actual weights "Lean Six Sigma" management provides valuable insights into the causes of this variation, enabling you to align your actual weights more closely with your ideal weight.
1.2.1.3 Principle 3: Two Causes of Variation
Variation in a process can be attributed to two main causes: special causes and common causes Special causes arise from identifiable factors external to the process, often linked to specific individuals or unique local conditions.
Time Series Plot of Number of Breakups
Figure 1.3 Time series plot of number of breakups, by year
Common causes of variation in a process arise from its inherent structure, with factors such as stress, values, beliefs, and communication levels among family members contributing to this variability Typically, the majority of variation within a process can be attributed to these common causes, as noted by Gitlow et al (2004, 2006) When a process displays both special and common causes of variation, it becomes unstable, leading to unpredictable future outputs.
A process that exhibits only common causes of variation is stable (although possibly unacceptable); its output is predictable in the near future.
In 1929, Dr Walter Shewhart developed control charts at Bell Laboratories, addressing the management's concerns about significant variations in telephone quality despite strict material specifications and extensive worker training.
Shewhart created an insightful exercise to help management understand the distinction between common and special causes of variation He instructed managers to repeatedly write the lowercase letter "a" on paper, and at random intervals, he would push their arms, resulting in some letters having elongated tails This experiment effectively illustrated the impact of external factors on variation in a controlled task.
Actual v Ideal Weights by Day
Figure 1.4 Actual versus ideal weights by day
The elongated shape of the last "a" is a result of Shewhart pushing the manager's arm during its creation, illustrating a special cause of variation In contrast, the variations in the sizes of the other "a"s can be attributed to common variation.
“a” is perhaps three times as big as the smallest “a.” The variation in all the other
The common variation in the production of "a"s is influenced by the manager's ability to maintain consistent sizing To achieve more uniform "a"s, sending the manager to a calligraphy class could serve as an effective process improvement This training aims to minimize common variation and enhance the quality of "a" production.
Ralph applied statistical thinking to analyze his relationship patterns, specifically focusing on the common and special causes of variation in his breakups with women By creating a control chart to track the number of breakups per year, he discovered that these events were not isolated incidents but rather part of a common cause process in his interactions with women This insight allowed Ralph to view his relationships through a statistical lens, leading to a better understanding of his dating patterns.
Doing Your Job and Improving Your Job
Many individuals face daily exhaustion and frustration at work, striving to meet objectives and quotas, much like the woodcutter who neglects to sharpen his axe while focusing solely on cutting trees However, there's a more effective approach: rather than merely fulfilling job responsibilities, one can enhance their work processes by refining skills or developing innovative tools and methods By improving your job, you can simplify tasks and reduce unpaid overtime, leading to a more fulfilling and productive work experience.
By integrating the nine principles simultaneously, you can develop a fresh perspective on work that emphasizes both execution and continuous improvement This cyclical process involves diligently performing your tasks while consistently seeking ways to enhance them, much like a pianist dedicated to perfecting their craft.
The Recall Principle 1 emphasizes that both life and business should be viewed as interconnected processes rather than isolated crises While many focus solely on production processes, it's crucial to recognize that administration, sales, service, human resources, training, maintenance, paper flows, interdepartmental communication, and vendor relations are also integral processes Furthermore, the relationships between individuals are processes that can be studied, documented, defined, improved, and innovated for better outcomes.
Management's primary responsibility is to optimize the organization as a whole to achieve its objectives This often involves the strategic suboptimization of certain components, where specific departments may temporarily allocate resources to others to enhance overall profitability for the organization.
Viewing your job as a process is essential; otherwise, it can devolve into a chaotic cycle of crises that distract you from your core responsibilities.
As the number of crises increases, so do the hours of uncompensated overtime, largely due to the repetitive inefficiencies in work processes Improving these processes can reduce the frequency of crises, allowing you to focus on your core responsibilities To effectively manage your job, it is essential to view it as a flowchart, which can help identify and streamline these processes for better performance.
Figure 1.9 illustrates that your work is an ongoing process, characterized by daily starts and stops, but notes that it remains undocumented, indicated by the “?” The next step involves expanding Figure 1.9 into a more comprehensive and practical representation of your job.
A flowchart visually represents the steps and decisions involved in a process, serving as a tool for defining and documenting workflows For instance, an example flowchart for a call center data entry operator outlines the daily routine, starting with logging in, powering on the computer, and organizing tasks The operator then proceeds to complete each task sequentially throughout the day until the work shift ends.
A flowchart can help a manager, worker, or anyone else to understand, define, document, study, improve, or innovate a process.
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has established a standardized set of flowchart symbols for defining and documenting processes Each symbol's shape and the information it contains convey specific details about the corresponding step or decision in the process Figure 1.11 illustrates these fundamental flowcharting symbols that facilitate consistent process documentation.
Flowcharting a process, as opposed to using written or verbal descriptions, has several advantages, to include:
A flowchart functions as a communications tool because it is a pictorial view
N of the steps and decisions in a process that can be used by all stakeholders of the process.
A flowchart shows the functions of personnel, workstations, and subprocesses
N in a system, and their interrelationships.
A flowchart enables a viewer to spot logical errors and problems in a process.
Figure 1.9 Simplest flowchart of work
Clock into work at 9.00 am
Pick-up data sets to be entered into Database
Turn on computer and bring up programs
Verification of data entry by data set
Enter data set Enter data set
Clock out from work at 5.00 pm
Alert data set owner that data has been completed Correct errors
Figure 1.10 Flowchart of a data entry job
Flowcharts are easy to use when standard guidelines are adhered to These guidelines include creating flowcharts that progress from the top to the bottom of the page and from left to right.
Where the activity starts and where it ends should be determined.
Each step of the activity should be described using “one-verb” descriptions
(e.g., “prepare statement” or “punch-in to work”).
Each step of the activity should be kept in its proper sequence.
The scope or range of the activity being flowcharted should be carefully
N observed Any branches that leave the activity being charted should not be drawn on that flowchart.
Use the standard flowcharting symbols as shown in Figure 1.11.
1.2.2.1.3 Constructive Opportunities to Change a Process
When using a flowchart, changing a process is facilitated by:
1 Finding the weak sections of the process (for example, sections with high defect rates)
2 Determining the parts of the process that are within the process owner’s control
3 Isolating the elements in the process that affect customers
START or STOP symbol Process step symbol
Flow line Connector symbol Off-page connector symbol
When three specific conditions align, a prime opportunity for process improvement emerges Successful enhancements are more likely when they are either free from political interference or backed by the right political support, do not necessitate capital investment or have the required financial resources, and receive full commitment from the process owner.
Viewing your job as a series of processes allows you to identify and optimize small steps, leading to improvements in efficiency For instance, eliminating unnecessary signatures on a form can significantly reduce the cycle time required to process monthly reports.
In summary, an organization comprises various subprocesses that contribute to its overall functioning Each process involves customers and suppliers, which may be internal or external to the organization Customers can include end users or subsequent operations, and they can even be machines rather than humans Suppliers may consist of other companies delivering subassemblies or services, as well as prior operations in the process chain.
According to Recall Principle 2, all processes exhibit variation, which means that every job consists of small steps where inputs and outputs can fluctuate over time Even if these variations are subtle and undetectable by advanced measuring devices, they still exist Since no process is flawless, understanding the impact of this variation is crucial Often, variation can lead to significant problems in everyday situations, manifesting as crises that affect your workflow For instance, a data entry operator may experience disruptions due to inconsistencies in input or output, highlighting the importance of recognizing and managing process variation.
24 consecutive days, subgroups of 200 of your data entries are inspected by your supervisor Table 1.4 shows the above data entry data.
The plot in Figure 1.12 illustrates the fraction of defective entries over time, showing that on days 5, 6, 10, and 20, there were no defects, indicating unusually positive outcomes Conversely, days 8 and 22 experienced a spike in defects, suggesting negative performance This analysis highlights the significant impact of variation on the output of a process, emphasizing that fluctuations can lead to both praise and criticism in your work.
More on Common and Special Causes (Improve the Process to Eliminate Daily Crises)
(Improve the Process to Eliminate Daily Crises)
Dr W Edwards Deming emphasized that adjusting a stable process, which only exhibits common causes of variation, in response to undesirable or overly favorable results can lead to worse outcomes than leaving the process unchanged The core issue arises when common causes of variation are mistakenly treated as special causes, resulting in inappropriate adjustments to the process This phenomenon is known as "over-control of the process" or tampering.
Tampering with a process without a solid understanding of statistical thinking can lead to increased variation and decreased management effectiveness Deming (1994) emphasizes that taking action based solely on a defective item or customer complaints can inadvertently double the output variance or even destabilize the entire system.
Days to delivers By Supplier for 50 Consecutive Deliveries
Figure 1.38 Days to deliver goods by supplier for 50 consecutive deliveries for each supplier
What is required for improvement is a fundamental healthy change in the system, not tampering.”
Excessive control over organizational processes—such as safety, training, hiring, and customer relations—can lead to significant losses An experiment using a funnel illustrates this concept effectively We will outline the apparatus and procedure for this experiment, highlighting its relevance to management's goal of continually reducing variation.
To conduct the experiment illustrated in Figure 1.39, you will need the following materials: a funnel, a marble to drop through the funnel, a flat surface marked with x and y grids (such as graph paper), a pencil, and a holder for the funnel The experiment consists of five distinct steps.
1 Designate a point on the table top (flat surface) as a target and consider this target to be the point of origin in a two-dimensional space, where x and y represent the axes of the surface; hence, at the target (x,y) = (0,0).
2 Drop a marble through the funnel.
3 Mark the spot where the marble comes to rest on the table top (marked as graph paper) with a pencil.
4 Drop the marble through the funnel again and mark the spot where the marble comes to rest on the surface.
To effectively execute Steps 4 and 5, it is essential to establish a rule for adjusting the funnel's position relative to the target There are four potential rules available, with the second rule offering two distinct approaches for implementation.
To achieve a stable pattern of points on the tabletop, position the funnel at (x = 0, y = 0) and maintain its fixed position throughout all 50 drops This method will yield a circular pattern, as illustrated in Figure 1.40 Notably, the diameters of the circles formed through this technique (Rule 1) will consistently be smaller than those generated by any alternative methods (Rules 2, 3, or 4) employed in Steps 4 and 5 of the experiment.
Management's application of Rule 1 highlights their comprehension of the difference between special and common variation, and the distinct managerial actions needed for each This rule signifies that the process is overseen by individuals skilled in minimizing variation It illustrates that the position of marble drops is influenced solely by common causes, indicating that any special action, such as repositioning the funnel holder across the x-y plane, would only enlarge the diameter of the resulting circle Conversely, adjusting the funnel's height represents a genuine process improvement.
This is discussed at the end of this section.
The funnel is initially positioned at the target coordinates (x = 0, y = 0) before the first marble is dropped Each marble, represented by the coordinates (xk, yk), settles on the surface after passing through the funnel According to Rule 2, the funnel is then adjusted by moving it a distance of (−xk, −yk) from its previous position, effectively shifting it in the opposite direction of the marble's resting point This adjustment creates a stable pattern of resting points that approximates a circle However, experiments demonstrate that the diameters of the circles formed using Rule 2 are twice as large as those produced by Rule 1, as illustrated in Figure 1.41.
Rule 2 highlights the risks of management actions being influenced by individuals lacking sufficient knowledge to effectively manage process variation It suggests that common variation is often mistakenly treated as special variation, leading to misguided attempts to improve processes This principle is frequently applied in efforts to enhance operational efficiency.
1 Operator adjustment Operator adjustment to compensate for a unit of out- put’s not being on target is an example of Rule 2, assuming adjustments to the process are made from the last process measurement; (see Deming, 1994, pp 359–360) For example, 3.0 pounds of chemical are to be spread over each 100 square yards of paper in a paper mill A measuring device continu- ously monitors the amount of chemical If the amount of chemical per 100 square yards drops to 2.7 pounds, then the operator increases the amount of chemical to 3.3 pounds to compensate for the 0.3-pound downward drift If the amount of chemical per 100 square yards jumps to 3.5 pounds, then the operator decreases the amount of chemical from 3.3 pounds to 2.8 pounds to compensate for the 0.5-pound upward drift And so on.
2 Automatic process control The automatic adjustment of a process to hold output within specified tolerance limits is an example of Rule 2, assuming adjustments to the process are made from the last process measurement This type of process adjustment procedure is frequently called “rule-based process control (RPC).” RPC is widely used in industry.
In industrial applications, a variation of Rule 2, known as Rule 2a, is commonly utilized According to this rule, if the point (xk,yk) lies within a circle centered at (0,0) with a diameter of dspec, the funnel should remain unadjusted Conversely, if the point (xk,yk) is located outside this specified circle, adjustments to the funnel are necessary.
Rule 2a establishes a "dead-band" where no adjustments occur, as illustrated in Figure 1.42 This dead-band, regardless of its size, ultimately produces the same effect of doubling process variation as Rule 2 does when compared to Rule 1.
Variance analysis in cost accounting exemplifies Rule 2a, serving as a key method for organizations to monitor performance through efficiency and spending variances related to direct labor, direct materials, and overhead Traditionally, U.S manufacturers have utilized variance analysis to assess performance, where a favorable variance suggests that acceptable work is being performed, while an unfavorable variance indicates the opposite.
Four Questions You May Ask about Lean Six Sigma
Four questions you may want to ask about “Lean Six Sigma” management are:
1 Will I get more work if I improve my job?
2 Will I get fired if the improvement(s) I make eliminate my job?
3 Will I get release time from my regular job to work on Lean Six Sigma projects?
4 Will I get a share of the financial benefits generated by my Lean Six Sigma project efforts?
Pursuing Lean Six Sigma management prompts essential questions about organizational transformation, which is inherently challenging and introspective This change significantly impacts both individuals and the organization, requiring courage and strong character For successful transformation, top management must possess a deep commitment and personal discipline, while employees must adhere to the best practices established through Lean Six Sigma initiatives.
For a Lean Six Sigma initiative to succeed, it is crucial for top management to demonstrate commitment to the transformation process Despite the potential for widespread organizational improvement, many executives resist embracing Lean Six Sigma for several reasons: it may not align with their own ideas, they fear failing to achieve short-term objectives set by a Management by Objectives (MBO) framework, and they may be hesitant to change due to their personal success, even if the organization is struggling.
Back to the four questions listed above Each one can be answered from the perspective of a worker bee:
1 The answer to the first question — “Will I get more work if I improve my job?” — has two parts, depending on the nature of your “overtime work.” If you do no “overtime work,” then you will still be expected to put in a full work week However, your work will not be as pressured and stressful as it was before the improvement (or improvements) to your job If you do “over- time work” for extra compensation, then you may see a dramatic reduction in overtime hours For some workers, this reduction is a welcome change because of more leisure time For other workers, this reduction is a loss of income One solution to this loss of income is to expand your skill set to attract higher-paying “overtime work.” Higher-paying “overtime work” will likely result in more “joy in work.” If you do uncompensated overtime work, then your life is about to get much better!
2 The answer to the second question — “Will I get fired if the improvement(s) I make eliminate my job?” — in a true Lean Six Sigma company is an emphatic no First, if you are an employee who understands Lean Six Sigma and has used it to improve one or more processes, then you are very valuable A man- ager would be “nuts” to fire you In a Lean Six Sigma company, labor reduc- tions due to process improvement are accomplished using planning, patience, and natural attrition (retires, relocates, quits, etc.), not firing the people who are making the company more profitable.
3 The answer to the third question — “Will I get release time from my regu- lar job to work on Lean Six Sigma projects?” — is not so clear Some Lean Six Sigma companies require that project work provides a reduction to your regular work, while others do not Regardless, if management is serious about
Implementing Lean Six Sigma may require an initial investment of time and effort, but the long-term benefits, such as reduced workload, lower pressure, and decreased stress, make it a valuable endeavor In essence, the advantages gained from this methodology often outweigh the temporary challenges faced during its implementation.
4 The answer to the fourth question — “Will I get a share of the financial benefits generated by my Lean Six Sigma project efforts?” — is a function of management’s truly adopting the theory underlying Lean Six Sigma man- agement The theory calls for a dramatically different view of motivation The current practice of management relies primarily on extrinsic motivators (rewards and punishments) from a Management by Objectives (MBO) sys- tem to motivate people Usually, the financial rewards of project work are not shared with the worker bees in a company On the other hand, Lean Six Sigma management promotes a balance between extrinsic motivators and intrinsic motivators (that is, joy in work) Intrinsic motivators involve worker bees using Lean Six Sigma methods to improve their work and being moti- vated by the sheer pleasure of the act of work Extrinsic motivators include pay raises, promotions, and in some cases, profit-sharing For a more com- plete discussion of compensation systems in a Lean Six Sigma company, see the next chapter of this book.