Bryan Ellis and Christophe Viavattene 18 Integrated Water Resource Management and Sustainability
National Institute of Research in Rural
Engineering of Water and Forestry
Center of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences
National Research Council andDepartment of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences
Division of Flood Hazard Research Middlesex University
Division of Ecotechnology Department of Engineering and Sustainable Development
Mid Sweden University ệstersund, Sweden
Department of Earth and Climate Sciences San Francisco State University
Key Laboratory of West China’s Environmental System
Lanzhou University Lanzhou, Gansu, People’s Republic of China and
Department of Geography Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, Michigan
Business Development, Marketing and Communication Section
Water Research Commission Pretoria, South Africa
Geographical Faculty Department of Hydrology and Water Resources Protection
Perm State UniversityPerm Krai, Russian Federation
WRS Infrastructure and Environmental, Inc.
Shaheed Bhagat Singh (Evening) College
Department of Civil Engineering andCenter for Earth Sciences
Department of Hydrology and Water Resources
School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Maryland College Park, Maryland
Department of Water Resources Engineering Tarbiat Modares University
Geographical Faculty Department of Hydrology and Water Resources Protection
Perm State University Perm Krai, Russian Federation
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Maryland College Park, Maryland
Department of Civil Engineering Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology
Department of Civil Engineering Lamar University
Center of Pharmacological and Botanical Studies National Research Council
B Singh and Dilip Kumar 28 Water Security: Concept, Measurement, and Operationalization
Introduction
Scientists widely agree that we are currently in a new geological epoch called the Anthropocene, highlighting the significant influence of humans on Earth's processes This raises important questions about how to responsibly manage these impacts This chapter advocates for the implementation of engineered aquifers, referred to as anthropocenic aquifers, as a key component of responsible mine engineering in ecologically and culturally sensitive regions facing water constraints.
Understanding the Anthropocene
The Earth has undergone significant evolution over geological timescales, with each epoch characterized by distinct sedimentary rock sequences recognized by the International Commission on Stratigraphy A notable example of such a transition is the K-T boundary, marking the shift from the Cretaceous to the Tertiary period approximately 65.5 million years ago This boundary signifies the end of the Mesozoic Era and the beginning of the Cenozoic Era, coinciding with meteorite impacts, including one at Chicxulub in the Yucatan Peninsula The K-T boundary is particularly significant due to its high iridium concentration, a rare element linked to meteorites, found in this geological layer at levels far exceeding normal background values, making the transition from the Cretaceous to Tertiary distinctly identifiable.
The transition from the Holocene to the Anthropocene is a recent phenomenon, with increasing agreement among scientists on its significance While the precise date of this transition remains debated, many researchers propose that it occurred between 1945 and 1950, marking a pivotal shift in Earth's geological history.
Recent sediment samples from major river systems have revealed elevated levels of radionuclides and heavy metals, with a noticeable spike occurring on a specific date.
South Africa faces future economic growth constraints due to the allocation of nearly all national water resources, prompting the need for alternative management strategies As the country relies heavily on a mining-based economy, exploring the mining sector's role in addressing water scarcity is crucial Traditionally, water management has focused on large dams, but a shift towards managing evaporative losses and storing water in aquifers presents a viable solution This chapter proposes using mining techniques to engineer aquifers as part of mine closure strategies, which could enhance water yields by significantly reducing evaporation This approach not only benefits society by improving water availability in water-scarce regions but also mitigates post-closure liabilities for mining companies Furthermore, the presence of elevated radionuclides and heavy metals in river sediments, particularly in the Witwatersrand Mining Basin, underscores the Anthropocene's impact on South Africa's aquatic ecosystems, marking a significant transition linked to deep-level gold mining and its associated environmental challenges.
The Holocene–Anthropocene transition in South Africa is believed to have occurred between 1945 and 1950, marked by increased levels of radionuclides and heavy metals in wetland systems along the watershed divide between the Orange and Limpopo River Basins This area overlaps with the Witwatersrand Mining Basin, known for its gold-bearing reefs and extensive karst aquifer systems The unintended consequences of mining have led to heavy metal and radionuclide accumulations, posing significant risks to the country's developmental potential if not properly managed This situation calls for innovative approaches to responsible mining practices in South Africa, particularly in addressing pollution plumes.
South African Hydrology
South Africa's economy is heavily reliant on mining, yet it faces significant water constraints, with an average annual precipitation of only 497 mm The National Water Resource Strategy (NWRS) revealed that by 2000, nearly 98% of the country's total water resources had already been allocated at a high assurance of supply level Additionally, the region experiences high evaporative demand, often surpassing precipitation levels by two to three times.
Many of the 19 water management areas (WMAs) are overallocated, with some exceeding capacity by as much as 120% The most stressed WMAs align with the hydrological boundaries of the Limpopo River Basin, shared by Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, resulting in demand surpassing supply Mining, particularly in water-constrained regions rich in platinum group minerals and coal, will remain a key driver of future development These resources, located within the Limpopo River Basin, raise important questions about mining's potential to foster short-term economic growth while enhancing local water security post-closure.
• The conversion ratio of mean annual precipitation (MAP) to mean annual runoff (MAR)
• The ramifications arising from what is known as the hydraulic density of population
The MAP–MAR conversion ratio indicates how effectively rainfall and precipitation are transformed into usable water in rivers, serving as a crucial hydraulic foundation for economic development.
Africa's MAP–MAR conversion rate stands at a mere 20%, significantly lower than Asia and North America's 45%, South America's 43%, and Europe, Australia, and Oceania's 35% This stark statistic highlights Africa's limited water resources and its characterization as being “hostage to hydrology.” The economic performance of numerous African nations is closely tied to rainfall, indicating that the presence of hydraulic infrastructure could potentially separate economic growth from environmental factors like rainfall.
The MAP–MAR conversion rates at the river basin level in South Africa significantly differ from the continental average, particularly in the economically vital Orange and Limpopo river basins, both of which have a conversion ratio of 5.1% However, this ratio drops to a mere 3.4% when focusing solely on the South African sections of the Orange basin, compared to the national average of approximately 8.5% This highlights the importance of scale in assessing water resource management.
Understanding the importance of scale is crucial for recognizing the role of infrastructure as the essential foundation for a nation's economic development.
The Orange River in South Africa has a mean annual precipitation to mean annual runoff (MAP–MAR) ratio of 3.4%, producing an annual streamflow of 6,500 million cubic meters, which is stored in dams with a total capacity of 17,658 million cubic meters, resulting in a dam storage–MAR ratio of 271.3% This indicates that the storage capacity is nearly three times greater than the river's annual water flow, highlighting a limit to storage in semiarid regions due to increased evaporative losses from flat, shallow dam profiles Given the Orange River's critical role in South Africa's economy, it is evident that future economic growth will be constrained by this water resource In contrast, the Limpopo River Basin, with a MAP–MAR of 5.1%, has a streamflow of 5,295 million cubic meters, stored in 100 dams with a combined capacity of 3,060 million cubic meters, leading to a dam storage–MAR ratio of 57.8% Although this suggests potential for further dam development, high silt loads and climate change predictions indicate that both river basins are expected to face hotter and drier conditions, complicating future water management efforts.
The water resources of the Orange and Limpopo River Basins are fully developed, which poses a significant constraint on future economic growth, particularly in mineral resource sectors, a fact not yet acknowledged by key decision-makers Additionally, the changing hydraulic density of population—defined as the number of people supported by a specific unit of water over time—raises important implications This concept, highlighted by Falkenmark's pioneering work, addresses the critical question of whether there is a finite limit to the population that can be sustained by a given water supply.
In a global study utilizing a conceptual "flow unit" of water (1 × 10^6 m³/year), Falkenmark assessed the population of all known countries in relation to water availability, leading to the creation of the Water Crowding Index (WCI) and the concept of a water barrier, defined as 2000 people per 10^6 m³/year This water barrier acknowledges the role of technology in managing water scarcity, exemplified by Israel's advanced technology despite its water constraints Falkenmark's research indicated that no country with a WCI exceeding 2000 p/10^6 m³/year demonstrated social cohesion or sustained economic development, while a WCI of 1000 p/10^6 m³/year is considered the upper limit for sustainable water supply Consequently, a WCI between 1000 and 2000 p/10^6 m³/year indicates water stress This foundational work was recognized by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on October 21, 2011, during a workshop titled "Facing the Human Security Dilemma," which led to a Round Table discussion aimed at addressing new water challenges.
The principal author presented data on South Africa during the Anthropocene, highlighting the Water Consumption Index (WCI) in the Limpopo River Basin, which was 4219 p/10^6 m^3/year in 2000 and is projected to rise to 4974 p/10^6 m^3/year by 2025 due to demographic trends This figure exceeds the water barrier value by more than double and is expected to reach 2.5 times that value by 2025, raising concerns about social cohesion and the economic development potential in a region that is both mineral-rich and water-scarce, while facing increasing technological constraints.
Possible Solution: Anthropocenic Aquifers
In the Anthropocene era, it is essential to engage in responsible earth-forming activities, particularly within the mining sector By refining our approach, we can intentionally design aquifers that serve beneficial purposes during the post-closure phase of mines, thereby reducing evaporative losses and addressing high Water Conservation Index (WCI) challenges This shift can transform mining operations from temporary land users to active partners in regional development Ultimately, mine engineering has the potential to foster innovative water management technologies that extend beyond mere mineral extraction, benefiting society as a whole.
The gold industry in South Africa is nearing the end of its productive life, leading to significant media attention on the adverse effects of acid mine drainage (AMD) and radionuclide contamination The lack of effective mine closure planning has highlighted the social and ecological repercussions of mine closures, raising concerns for future mining projects Consequently, these legacy issues are hindering the ability to secure funding for new operations, as negative media coverage impacts investor confidence.
An innovative approach is being developed to utilize mine voids for creating aquifers as a component of strategic mine closure plans This concept is grounded in three fundamental principles.
The business case for mining becomes significantly stronger when the void left after mining can be transformed into a valuable asset that benefits society during the post-closure phase This approach enhances the net present value (NPV) of the mining operation by allowing for the full cost of closure to be discounted, thus making mining stocks more appealing to institutional investors.
Transition to absolute water scarcity
Water problems associated with pollution and temporary disruption
Each cube represents a standard “flow unit” of water of
1 million cubic meters per annum
Falkenmark’s concept of water crowding highlights the competition among people for limited water resources Water-stressed conditions arise when the demand is between 600 and 1,000 people per 1 million cubic meters per year, while absolute water scarcity is defined by a demand of 1,000 to 2,000 people per 1 million cubic meters per year, with 2,000 people marking the critical water barrier.
The Desert Research Foundation of Namibia (DRFN) highlights the importance of transforming liabilities into assets in the mining sector of Southern Africa By effectively managing the impacts of acid mine drainage (AMD) and other mining-related challenges, investors can reduce guarantee costs, ultimately altering the business case for mining operations This shift not only enhances profitability but also promotes sustainable practices in the industry.
The MAP–MAR conversion ratio in the Orange and Limpopo River Basins is notably low, indicating a significant imbalance in water availability Furthermore, projections for climate change indicate that these river basins are likely to experience increased temperatures and reduced rainfall, exacerbating the existing challenges.
The focus of policy should transition from capturing streamflow through dam construction to minimizing evaporative losses This shift highlights the importance of groundwater storage, which appeals to both corporations and government due to its potential to significantly reduce evaporation and enhance supply reliability.
High Water Crisis Index (WCI) values in regions like Limpopo indicate that future job creation will be essential for maintaining social stability Turton has hypothesized that water scarcity hampers economic growth, exacerbates poverty, and increases frustration, potentially leading to xenophobic violence when a clear adversary is identified This hypothesis is relevant to the documented instances of xenophobic violence in South Africa, suggesting the need for further independent validation.
Collectively this makes a sound case for the consideration of anthropocenic aquifers as a deliberate part of a mine closure strategy.
Case Study: Elands Platinum Mine
Elands Platinum Mine (EPM) is located about 10 km east of Brits in the North West Province, within the platinum-rich Bushveld Igneous Complex (BIC) While traditional land use has been predominantly agricultural, mining activities are increasingly significant New mining developments typically rely on existing surface water sources, which are under strain, leading to water availability becoming a critical issue for future economic growth Additionally, natural climate variability, potentially worsened by climate change, heightens water insecurity, emphasizing the urgent need for innovative water resource management strategies.
The Department of Water Affairs (DWA) established the National Water Conservation and Demand Management Strategy (NWCDMS), which emphasizes minimizing water loss and promoting efficient usage In alignment with this strategy, EPM aims to transform its groundwater management practices to enhance sustainability Additionally, the DWA has introduced an artificial recharge strategy to incorporate artificial recharge as a viable water management solution.
The Integrated Water and Waste Management Plan (IWMP) is a key component of South African water legislation, requiring applicants for water use licenses to submit technical information This plan must detail the impact assessment and outline effective management strategies, including measures for optimizing and reusing water resources.
Xstrata, as a responsible corporate citizen, has implemented an Integrated Groundwater Resources Management Plan (IGRMP) as part of their Integrated Water Management Plan (IWMP) to enhance water resource optimization at EPM The IGRMP is integrated into the IWMP, which involves a continuous process of improvement An hourly water balance simulation model was utilized to evaluate various water management scenarios, visualizing the mine's water flows, storage facilities, and rates against a Google Earth backdrop Scenarios tested included underground water storage, open pit water harvesting, and tailings storage return flows.
The EPM is situated atop the mafic rocks of the Rustenburg Layered Suite (RLS), which is a component of the Bushveld Igneous Complex (BIC) The RLS is structured into distinct zones, including the basal marginal zone (norite), the lower zone (norite), the critical zone (comprising pyroxenite, norite, anorthosite, and chromitite), the main zone (gabbro-norite), and the upper zone (magnetite-gabbro).
The UG2 chromitite layers, located in the upper critical zone, serve as the main target for mining operations In the Brits area, the Bushveld Igneous Complex (BIC) intrudes into the Pretoria Group, with the Magaliesberg Formation forming the base of the BIC The geological strata in this region strike NE–SW and dip toward the NW At the EPM site, the mining reef exhibits a dip of 18° and will be extracted to a depth of approximately 1200 meters below ground level (mbgl).
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) conducted by Africa Geo-Environmental Services (Pty) Ltd (AGES) revealed critical findings regarding local hydrogeological conditions, identifying three aquifer types: upper perched, middle weathered and fractured, and lower fractured The upper perched aquifer, dependent on rainfall, has a thickness of 1 to 5 meters and yields less than 0.1 L/s, making it unviable The middle aquifer is a semi-confined, shallow weathered type with a thickness of 5 to 30 meters, yielding between 1 and 5 L/s, but suffers from poor water quality, particularly high nitrate levels Fault zone fractured rock aquifers serve as preferential flow pathways, leading to variable spatial distribution and the emergence of secondary fault zone aquifers Notably, borehole water samples at EPM show high nitrate concentrations exceeding 25 mg/L, which surpasses the domestic water supply limit of 20 mg/L, indicating generally poor water quality.
740 mg/L and the average EC value is 100 mg/L The upper limit for TDS in domestic water supply is
A conceptual model was developed based on aquifer conditions, leading to the simulation of nine scenarios to assess groundwater flow and its impacts The simulated inflow rates into the open cast workings at a final mining depth of 60 meters were calculated across the length of the operation.
300 and 700 m 3 /day, and dewatering of the open cast mine for 5 years will lower the existing groundwater
A water balance simulation for the EPM indicates that man-made aquifers in South Africa's platinum industry could effectively address future water demands The study, presented to the Department of Water Affairs in Pretoria in 2011, highlights that simulated inflow rates into underground mine workings at a depth of 1000 meters range from 800 to 1000 cubic meters per day, with water levels potentially varying between 5 and 15 meters up to 2 kilometers from open cast operations.
During the deep groundwater assessment [36], 10 exploration boreholes were drilled to depths ranging from 150 to 198 m The highest blow yield recorded was 30 L/s with major water strike at
The study identifies a borehole with a depth of 148 m and a long-term yield potential of 5 L/s, contributing to a combined yield of 11.5 L/s over a 24-hour pump cycle Water quality assessments show variability between class 0 and class 3, with high nitrate levels in upper aquifers potentially contaminating deeper compartments Continuous monitoring of water levels and temperatures reveals significant differences between deep and shallow aquifers Two permanent data loggers have been installed in Eastern limb water (ELW) 2 and 5 to track long-term groundwater fluctuations Additionally, an exploration borehole (ELW 15) drilled at the old Hernic quarry (OHQ) demonstrated a testing yield of approximately 25 L/s, with a minimal water level drawdown of 0.05 m during step tests, positioning it as a viable emergency abstraction point.
The mine sources its raw water from the eastern channel of the Hartbees Irrigation Board (HIB) and stores it in the OHQ The Hartbeespoort Dam, situated in a region with annual precipitation of approximately 600–700 mm, experiences significant evaporation losses of around 1700–1800 mm per year, contributing to its highly eutrophic condition The OHQ is an old open pit, 40 meters deep, which has been partially filled to a certain depth.
The OHQ, located at a depth of 28 mbgl and filled with water to approximately 21 mbgl, consists of waste rock primarily made up of anorthosite and norite It is divided into western (W_Qry) and eastern (E_Qry) portions by a dolerite dyke During groundwater exploration, an ODEX borehole (ELW 15) was drilled into the backfilled area on the western side of the OHQ Before initiating the aquifer recharge project, water was extracted from the OHQ using a floating barge equipped with four pumps, directing it to a treatment plant for purification suitable for both potable and process applications.
The natural rock filter significantly reduces source water turbidity, leading to operational cost savings The ELW 15 system allows for extended access to quarry water, providing additional storage during major canal breakdowns by utilizing deeper borehole water This management strategy increases water storage capacity from approximately 80,000 to 330,000 m³, and the simulation model indicates that the mine can operate effectively despite variable irrigation water availability.
160 days without makeup water In contrast, with only the barge, it can run for a mere 39 days, so the additional yield from the aquifer is significant from a risk mitigation perspective.
Water quality, specifically nitrates, is a concern Initial measurements for ELW 15 were 18.2 mg/L, similar to the regional groundwater measurements and close to the allowable domestic water limit of 20 mg/L (class
The OHQ has a limit of 10 mg/L for class 1 and 20 mg/L for class 2, but the water storage and evaporation processes create a salt sink, leading to increased salinity in the backfilled area over time, which diminishes its strategic storage potential To address this issue, boreholes can be utilized to dewater the OHQ while introducing low TDS and low nitrate source water for dilution Additionally, if nitrate levels rise excessively within the OHQ, canal water can be redirected to the water treatment plant, enhancing operational redundancy.
The OHQ features a slight westward dip in topography, with water flowing from east to west The rehabilitated western portion offers ample space for additional boreholes, making it the chosen site for a new well field Astersat images were utilized to pinpoint the backfilled area of the OHQ, followed by multiresistivity profiling to determine the boundaries of the high wall and the deepest section of the OHQ As a result, six drilling sites were identified and selected based on these findings.
Future of Anthropocenic Aquifers
The EPM results indicate that mine voids can serve as strategic storage solutions, enhancing supply reliability amid persistent water insecurity and high evaporation rates from open dams In South Africa, these insights are being implemented in two key areas, including Tharisa Minerals, situated 40 km from EPM This mine currently lacks raw water sources, with alternative supply expected only in 2014 due to new infrastructure As the company prepares to launch a 100 kiloton/month platinum/chrome circuit, which necessitates increased water supply, it is evaluating the feasibility of utilizing an old open pit for this purpose.
Resistivity imaging section Eland-7, Eland plats February 2007.
Geophysical profile No 7 at EPM indicates that the backfilled open pit has intercepted both upper and lower aquifer water, which then decants into a local stream Initial studies suggest that this site could serve as a sustainable source of process water for the platinum industry in South Africa Three boreholes, drilled between 28 and 36 meters below ground level, have shown blow yields exceeding 20 liters per second, with water quality characterized by low total dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended solids (TSS), and nitrates Consequently, the backfilled void is poised to become a viable water source for the mine in the future.
Touchstone Resources (Pty) Ltd has proposed a purpose-engineered aquifer as part of the formal mine closure strategy for a new coal mine currently in the planning phase, as illustrated conceptually in Figure 1.5.
Incorporating managed aquifer recharge into the national water management policy could enhance mine closure strategies in South Africa, addressing the challenges faced in this area By intentionally integrating this approach into mine planning, we can create sustainable solutions that benefit both water resources and mining operations.
Carbonaceous backfill (acid-producing waste)
Noncarbonaceous backfill (aquifer) High wall
Acid-extraction manifold Recharge manifold
Concrete ring shaft to sump through backfill
FIGuRE 1.5 Conceptual design of an engineered aquifer for a rehabilitated open cast coal mine (Image courtesy of Anthony Turton.)
Nitrate levels in old Hernic Quarry
The study by Botha and Maleka (2011) highlights that man-made aquifers in South Africa's platinum industry can effectively address future water demands The rehabilitation process is designed as a sequenced series of events, ultimately leading to the creation of an artificial aquifer at the end of the mine's lifecycle This innovative approach not only supports sustainable water management but also offers significant advantages for environmental restoration and resource availability.
The proposed mine pit will span approximately 22 km in length, 1.6 km in width, and reach depths of about 200 m, offering a probable live storage capacity of around 1 million cubic meters However, this area is characterized by extreme aridity and a high Water Consumption Index (WCI), which poses challenges for future job creation prospects.
The proposed mine marks the beginning of a new mining venture in an untouched area rich in potential This initial excavation could serve as a strategic storage site, aligning with the EPM case, for all upcoming mines planned in the region.
The proposed mine's proximity to a heavily silted dam, essential for irrigation, raises concerns about its future functionality As the dam may become ineffective during the mine's operational lifespan, the engineered aquifer could serve as a crucial alternative water source for human consumption in a densely populated region, despite its limitations for sustaining irrigated agriculture in the future.
Engineering an aquifer transforms a potential liability at closure into a valuable asset, which lowers the costs associated with the guarantee instrument and positively alters the mining business case to be more appealing to investors.
The mine aims to establish a sustainable partnership for long-term rural development, leading to the creation of a new Social Charter for Mining in a country with a historically poor performance in post-closure mining practices.
The planned aquifer project is currently under a feasibility study, with the involved company choosing to remain anonymous due to the project's novelty and pending decisions This area features a coal seam approximately 2–3 meters deep, covered by high-quality sandstone overburden with elevated saline content and low transmissivity By removing the overburden, the rock's transmissivity and storativity can be significantly improved after backfilling Following the flushing of initial salts, water quality is expected to reach manageable levels The coal seam contains various strata separated by carbonaceous middling, which needs effective management for metallurgical coal production A viable solution is to treat the middlings at the source using a briquetting plant, which can generate revenue and minimize waste, aligning with international best practices Alternatively, returning the carbonaceous waste to the pit's bottom and capping it can create anoxic conditions to mitigate acid mine drainage (AMD) potential over time.
The design concept features a manifold system installed in the carbonaceous waste stratum beneath a capped barrier, directing water to a central sump for continuous quality monitoring This setup maintains a slightly negative piezometric pressure, minimizing the flow of acid mine drainage (AMD) into adjacent aquifers Sequential placement of noncarbonaceous backfill will include another manifold in its lower layers to ensure uniform drawdown above the capped barrier, also connecting to the central shaft constructed with reinforced concrete rings until the environmental critical level (ECL) is achieved At this point, a decision will be made regarding the optimal recharge method, either through vertical boreholes in the backfill or horizontal manifolds The backfilled pit will be completed with a whaleback and revegetated as part of a comprehensive environmental management plan (EMP).
The detailed engineering design is still in progress, leaving the concept in its early stages In South Africa, increasing public pressure due to the negative impacts of insufficient mine closure strategies, particularly highlighted by a high Water Contamination Index (WCI) in the Limpopo River Basin, indicates that embracing this concept will be a natural progression in future mine design and operations.
Summary and Conclusions
In the Anthropocene era, where human activities significantly affect geological processes, it is crucial to act responsibly in light of the global population reaching 7 billion By 2025, an estimated 1.8 billion people will face absolute water scarcity, with two-thirds of the population experiencing water stress This situation poses risks to social cohesion and job creation, particularly in regions already facing high water scarcity issues Consequently, mining companies must reconsider their roles, transitioning from independent entities to partners in rural development By adopting international best practices, such as modifying designs to separate waste streams at the source and strategically sequencing backfill, these companies can turn potential liabilities into valuable assets for society after closure South Africa, known for its deep-level gold mining, has the opportunity to lead in creating innovative anthropocenic aquifer systems.
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Noureddine Gaaloul is a water expert and full researcher in the National Research Institute for Rural
Dr [Name], a hydraulic engineer from the University of Carthage's Engineering, Water and Forestry (INRGREF-Tunis), boasts over 15 years of national and international expertise in water management, emphasizing environmental considerations He earned his PhD in Water Sciences and Technology from the University of Bordeaux I, France, in 1992 Currently, he works with the Geology Company of Mining and Research (B.R.G.M.—French) and has played a significant role in strategic studies for the Tunisian Ministry of Agriculture and Hydraulic Resources His contributions include developing Tunisia's strategy for adapting agriculture and water resources to climate change An accomplished author, he has published numerous papers and reports, and has presented at prestigious national and international conferences, including the international conference on Seawater Intrusion in Coastal Aquifers.
Saeid Eslamian received his PhD from the University of New South Wales, Australia, with Professor
David Pilgrim He was a visiting professor in Princeton University, USA, and ETH Zurich, Switzerland
He is currently an associate professor of hydrology in Isfahan University of Technology He is founder
2.1 Introduction 18 2.2 Concept of Seawater Intrusion and Saline Groundwater 19 General View of Groundwater Problems • Hydrogeochemical
Processes • Seawater Intrusion • Groundwater Modeling 2.3 Artificial Recharge Techniques in Semiarid Areas 22 Artificial Recharge • History of Artificial Recharge • Methods for Artificial Recharge
2.4 Tunisia’s Experience in Artificial Recharge 28
A 40-Year Artificial Recharge of the Aquifer by Water from the Dam • A 26-Year Artificial Recharge of the Aquifer by Treated Wastewater • Treated Wastewater Reuse for a Seawater Intrusion Hydraulic Barrier
2.5 General Discussions 42 2.6 Summary and Conclusions 44 References 45
National Institute of Research in Rural
Engineering of Water and Forestry