123 SPRINGER BRIEFS IN ENVIRONMENT, SECURITY, DEVELOPMENT AND PEACE PEACE AND SECURITY STUDIES 24 Thanh Dam Truong Karim Knio The South China Sea and Asian Regionalism A Critical Realist Perspective[.]
The South China Sea Seen from the Perspective of Asian
Asian regionalism differs from European regionalism, as it lacks treaty-based cooperation and is characterized by weak legal and political ties among Pacific Asian countries Instead, it primarily manifests as a market-driven economic collaboration among various actors at both intra- and inter-industrial levels, both regionally and globally This form of regionalism is deficient in essential institutions for resolving intra-regional disputes, particularly territorial conflicts, and lacks cooperative security frameworks and multilateral arrangements to safeguard sea lines of communication (SLOCs).
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), established in 1967, is a unique intergovernmental organization dedicated to promoting peace and security in the region It is distinguished by its commitment to stability, supported by two legally binding instruments: the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia.
China's reliance on oil imports is increasing as domestic production reaches its limits, coinciding with a surge in car ownership.
The European integration process began with the formation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951, leading to the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Commission (EURATOM) through the Treaty of Rome in 1957 Political collaboration advanced with the Single European Act, which amended the Treaty of Rome and was implemented in 1986, marking a significant step in European unity following the fall of the Berlin Wall.
The Maastricht Treaty, established in 1992, marked a significant milestone in European unification, facilitating the expansion of the community and enhancing economic integration while laying the groundwork for a common currency.
Since its inception with the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia (TAC) in 1976 and the establishment of the Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone in 1995, the organization has primarily depended on informal diplomacy, goodwill, and patience to address conflicts among its members, viewing appeals to international law as a last resort.
The South China Sea territorial disputes have seen progress through an informal confidence-building initiative called the "Workshop Process on Managing Potential Conflicts in the South China Sea," which was initiated by Indonesia.
In 2002, the foreign ministers of ASEAN member countries and China signed the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea, also known as the Declaration on the Code of Conduct (D of CoC) This agreement emerged from a collaborative process that began in 1990, following the 2000 demarcation of the Tonkin Gulf border between Vietnam and China, which revised the boundaries established by the 1887 Franco-Chinese Treaty.
The parties involved in the Declaration are dedicated to developing a Code of Conduct that aligns with the 1976 TAC and the 1995 Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone, which includes China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Brunei To ensure regional peace and stability, they have agreed to maintain the current control of islands, islets, and atolls by the claimant states A fundamental principle of the Code of Conduct is the commitment to resolving conflicts through peaceful means, adhering to internationally recognized laws, including the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III).
In 2007, China's State Council approved the Hainan Provincial Government's proposal to establish Sansha City, aimed at governing the Paracel Islands, Macclesfield Bank, and Spratly Islands, all claimed as part of China's territory Subsequently, in 2009, China presented a map to the United Nations showcasing a U-shaped maritime boundary line, known as the "nine-dash line," which asserts China's claim over nearly 90% of the South China Sea.
Following Indonesia's unsuccessful mediation efforts under ASEAN to resolve the territorial dispute between Cambodia and Thailand near the historic Preah Vihear temple, both nations escalated the matter to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in 2011 In 2013, the ICJ ruled in favor of Cambodia, affirming its sovereignty over the temple area.
The lack of public discourse in Vietnam concerning negotiations highlights a significant political flaw, particularly in evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of bilateral talks aimed at resolving land and sea border disputes.
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III) aims to create a comprehensive framework for ocean governance, addressing the shortcomings of earlier conventions, UNCLOS I (1958) and UNCLOS II (1960) Notably, China was not a member of the United Nations during the establishment of these earlier conventions.
China has sought to project a successful national image through significant events such as the Beijing Olympics (2008), the National Parade (2009), and the Shanghai Expo (2010), all directed by President Xi Jinping However, these actions have heightened concerns among Southeast Asian nations regarding China's intentions, particularly related to its U-shaped line claim over disputed maritime areas and islands In response, claimant states have pursued diplomatic clarifications and engaged in protests while also asserting their presence on contested islands This situation has reignited nationalist sentiments and historical narratives of conquest, influenced by evolving interpretations of state responses, intertwining ethnicity, culture, and political systems in the media's portrayal of social identities.
China's nationalism transcends mere modern state identity, functioning as a social construct rooted in the concept of a 'civilizational state.' This notion emphasizes China's ancient civilization, which informs its contemporary identity, culture, and value system Despite historical changes in territorial boundaries, China's civilizational state distinguishes itself through its rich history and unique mode of thinking This perspective posits that China possesses an intrinsic logic of evolution, enabling it to establish its own standards and values, thus contributing uniquely to the global landscape (Wei-Wei 2011).
A Critical Realist Approach to Research on the South
Since 2007, the evolving dynamics in the South China Sea highlight the need for a fresh research approach to understand the social transformations that have allowed China to maintain a consistent strategy that conceals its true intentions By utilizing 'soft power' tactics, China has effectively diminished opposition and secured significant advancements in its maritime territory to the south.
20 In: The Diplomat; at: http://thediplomat.com/2015/04/beijings-fait-accompli-in-the-south-china- sea/ (15 April 2015).
21 South China Morning Post; at: http://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/ 1783156/china-says-us-welcome-use-bases-built-disputed-areas (1 May 2015).
22 In: The Diplomat; at: http://thediplomat.com/2015/06/no-china-is-not-reclaiming-land-in-the- south-china-sea/ (12 June 2015).
10 1 Introduction border In China’s contemporary parlance, the concepts of ‘sovereignty’ and
Interests should not be viewed as fixed or merely socially constructed; rather, they require thorough historical and sociological analysis to uncover their lasting significance and the evolving structures that shape them Recognizing the social foundations of knowledge, including its epistemological origins and the importance of self-reflection in human cultures, is crucial for identifying elements that can create, mitigate, or transform conflict.
Current research on the South China Sea increasingly utilizes the Westphalian framework of international relations to address key issues, including sovereignty, the Law of the Sea, and its administration; the regional political economy; security and transboundary concerns related to marine resources and safe navigation; and the codification of legitimacy and conflict Each of these approaches possesses distinct epistemologies and methods for establishing empirical regularities and causation, leading to internal discussions about validity while often neglecting transdisciplinary and trans-cultural challenges.
Critical Realism (CR) is a meta-approach that emphasizes the importance of clarifying social ontology before addressing methodology and explanation It posits that forms of knowledge exist within distinct ‘supra-discourses’ shaped by ontological and epistemological beliefs, necessitating analysis of how societies understand the world and knowledge This clarification is both scientifically significant and politically relevant Observable changes in ocean governance reveal a deeper, enduring reality of a spherical Earth intersected by water, including the South China Sea Human activities have shaped various frameworks for understanding the seas, highlighting that concepts like space, time, and governmental borders are not absolute but historically and sociologically constructed This invites a reevaluation of current notions of ‘maritime space,’ historical border demarcation practices, and the relations leading to modern disputes Research into how self-centered perceptions—rooted in individualism, ethnicity, class, nationality, or civilization—have influenced political agendas is crucial, particularly in understanding how these perceptions obscure the true nature of the Earth and its waters.
Chapter 2 explores Critical Realism (CR) as a philosophical framework, highlighting the importance of a unified meta-ontological perspective It incorporates insights from Archer’s (1995) morphogenetic approach, which enhances our understanding of social transformation, particularly in the maritime context Chapter 3 presents a Foucauldian genealogical analysis of the sea south of China's land border, framing it as an international issue influenced by varying perspectives and actions over time The evolving patterns of use and identification reveal the enduring continuities and changes in ideational frameworks and power dynamics that have shaped this maritime region throughout history.
Chapter 4 examines China's evolving strategy for asserting sovereignty in the South China Sea, highlighting its reliance on 'historical facts' and a unique interpretation of UNCLOS to support its claims amidst contemporary disputes This analysis raises critical questions about the understanding of 'borders' during China's transition from an empire to a republic (Hayton 2014) While China's current stance may reflect a revival of historical forms of suzerainty reminiscent of the tributary system, it is essential to recognize the significant shift in border definitions In contrast to imperial times when China viewed itself as the center of a land-based universe, Hainan Island is now designated as a province responsible for managing the country's efforts to assert control over the South China Sea This contemporary maritime policy can be interpreted as a 'structural elaboration/reproduction' of China's intrinsic need for self-protection by securing its physical, economic, cultural, and emotional borders.
The current initiative can be viewed as a technical project aimed at promoting a Chinese-led Asian identity to counter the traditional Westphalian system of international relations that underpins postcolonial societies Addressing China's challenge to established notions of sovereignty and the nation-state requires a nuanced understanding of 'interests' shaped by complex interactions among material, ideational, and emotional factors Furthermore, the moral principles of 'harmony' and 'inclusiveness,' integral to the concept of a 'civilizational state,' are deeply rooted in ancient cultural practices, necessitating careful evaluation to prevent misinterpretations or misconceptions.
In ancient times, Chinese scholars referred to the East China Sea as Donghai (東海), meaning 'Eastern Sea', and the South China Sea as Nan Hai (南海), meaning 'Southern Sea' The current names of these seas are used here solely for clarity and without any intention to favor any of the claimants involved.
Hainan, famously referred to as Tianya Haijiao (天涯海角), translates to ‘The Edge of the Sky’ and ‘The End of the Sea’ This picturesque location is prominently featured in tourism campaigns, highlighting its stunning beauty and remote charm.
Chapter 5 emphasizes the urgent need to confront ontological fallacies that can lead to violence Both the Westphalian international relations framework and China's 'civilizational state' possess unique timelines and assumptions about humanity These assumptions shape the norms that govern ruling and institutional dynamics in inter-state relations Civilization should be measured not only by material and cultural wealth but also by the motivation for sociability and the ability to learn from diverse traditions To shift from dominance to practices that benefit all humanity, it is essential to recognize the varying perspectives of 'humankind' within different state power ontologies.
The 'All-Affected Principle' of cosmopolitan democracy parallels the Confucian concept of Tian Xia, or 'All under the Same Heaven,' but differs significantly in its source of supreme authority—constitutional law versus 'Heaven' represented by a wise emperor Historically, Confucian wisdom has aligned with the absolute power of the emperor, fostering a centralized state, a meritocratic government, and a unified ideology These elements have been essential for sustaining a harmonious community, often at the cost of innovation.
Critical Realism and the Morphogenetic
This chapter posits that combining Critical Realism with the morphogenetic approach enhances the understanding of social transformation, particularly in the context of maritime disputes in the South China Sea It emphasizes that societal perceptions of maritime space, border demarcation practices, and dispute negotiations are not fixed but rather subject to historical and social analysis This approach is significant for both scientific inquiry and political relevance, highlighting the importance of self-reflexivity in social science research aimed at fostering peaceful transformation.
Keywords Critical Realism Morphogenetic approach Social transformation
Structure–agency relations Self-re fl exivity Maritime disputes
Clarifying the Meaning of Ontology
Critical Realism, founded by Bhaskar, distinguishes between ontology and epistemology, unlike Classical Realism Bhaskar argues that ontology pertains to the existence of entities in the world, while epistemology focuses on how we acquire knowledge about these entities This distinction allows for philosophical discussions regarding the existence of social objects without conflating the methods of study, emphasizing a clear separation between what exists and how we understand it.
Critical Realism sets itself apart from empiricism, a prevalent philosophy in modern social research that separates the observer from the observed and confines reality to what can be directly observed In this framework, observation-based models serve as the primary method for validating knowledge claims (Kanbur/Shaffer 2007: 185).
T.-D Truong and K Knio, The South China Sea and Asian Regionalism,
Peace and Security Studies, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13551-9_2
Making a distinction based solely on observable phenomena is an epistemic fallacy, as it limits our understanding of reality Observation-based models neglect the cognitive and social processes that contribute to knowledge creation, including prior knowledge Consequently, theories developed from these models lack social grounding and may reduce complex experiences to mere raw perceptions.
Acknowledging the social foundations of a knowledge theory necessitates the dismissal of the idea of a 'natural experiment' in social sciences It is crucial to recognize the scientists as 'causal agents' who, through their experiments, create patterns of events and share responsibility for the outcomes.
It is possible that they produce a multitude of events, of which the majority in effect have no conceivable significance Bhaskar (1998a: 10) writes,
The unique patterns created under carefully controlled laboratory conditions allow researchers to understand the operational modes of natural structures, mechanisms, or processes that they cannot replicate themselves.
Bhaskar’s epistemological argument suggests that social sciences can benefit from the principles of experimentation, which aims to uncover aspects of reality that are not easily observable This concept of experimentation assumes that the natural order exists independently of human activity, highlighting the objective nature of reality (Danermark et al 2002; Bhaskar 2008).
One of the implications of the findings by the pharmacologist Otto Loewi, a
The 1939 Nobel Prize winner argued that chemical mechanisms operate independently of observation and existing theories These mechanisms are classified as 'intransitive' objects of science, making their study a primary objective for scientists If these objects exist outside of scientific inquiry, an ontological gap arises between them and the methodologies employed to uncover them (Bhaskar 1998a) This gap is a critical consideration in scientific exploration.
The 'transitive dimension' in science is shaped by the theoretical tools that scientists use in their work, leading to provisional conclusions According to Danermark et al (2002: 23), scientific theories are inherently incomplete and can be incorrect at any time, suggesting that they represent the most accurate understanding of reality available at the moment.
When considering the intransitive domain as the essence of reality, it becomes clear that observation alone cannot fully capture this reality Therefore, it is essential to differentiate between the superficial appearance of objects and their true essence, as highlighted by Harre and Madden (1998) This perspective emphasizes the complexity of scientific knowledge.
The term 'trans-factual' refers to the concept that disclosing a specific natural law involves making assertions that extend beyond what can be derived from practical experience and experimentation (Bhaskar 1998b) This distinction between appearance and presence necessitates an explanatory framework that mirrors a genuine stratification in reality, encompassing distinct domains known as the real, the actual, and the empirical Bhaskar describes this framework as a "deep ontology" (Bhaskar 2008: 161).
The study of reality aims to identify the mechanisms behind empirical events, distinguishing between empirical observations, which are influenced by values and theories, and actual events that occur regardless of an observer's awareness For instance, according to Loewi, the general public may be oblivious to specific characteristics of the nervous system, such as muscular contractions, which are typically recognized only by those with an interest in human biology.
Many individuals recognize the concept of marine ecology, yet they often lack awareness of the unique characteristics of marine life found at greater depths Access to this knowledge is primarily limited to marine biologists equipped with specialized tools, and our understanding of deep-sea ecosystems remains incomplete.
The Concept of ‘ Emergence ’ and the Implications
of Living and Knowing in Open Systems
The general notion of an ontology that recognizes the stratified nature of the world of knowledge has important implications for conceptualizing categories such as
Causality is a critical concept in research, enabling scholars to analyze and understand the components of real events Recognizing the distinct characteristics of objects within both natural and social sciences highlights the necessity of differentiating their natures during scientific discovery.
A plausible way to understand this is by introducing the concept of‘emergence’.
The existence of electrons is validated through their observable effects on material entities, as noted by Bhaskar and Hartwig (2010) In Loewi’s experiment, the challenge of neurotransmission was addressed, highlighting that a single impulse can yield varying effects on different organs (Danermark et al 2002).
The action of a chemical mechanism may remain undisclosed without proper methodology, indicating that actual events can stem from mechanisms operating in different layers than those where the events are observed For example, Loewi's experiment revealed the roles of both electric and chemical mechanisms in causing muscular contractions and expansions.
The influence of underlying mechanisms on the formation of actual events is a complex issue that requires further exploration According to Sayer (2000), the concept of 'emergence' describes how the combination of two or more features can create new phenomena These emergent properties are irreducible to the individual components, even though those components are essential for the emergence to occur.
2.1 Clarifying the Meaning of Ontology 17 is, therefore, a relational process in which the interaction between the properties of two elements becomes a component of new elements.
Water serves as a prime example of emergence, resulting from the interaction of hydrogen and oxygen, which possess properties that differ significantly from those of the individual gases (Willmott 1999; Sayer 2000) While water is safe to drink, its constituents are flammable and non-potable, highlighting the stratification between their elemental forms and the combined entity This process of emergence transforms intrinsic elements into actual, empirical phenomena, illustrating a fundamental reality (Bhaskar 1998a: 111) Recognizing emergence aids in distinguishing between the natural and social worlds; scientific discovery aims to unravel these processes Natural scientists utilize methodological tools to isolate variables and examine interactions within the natural realm, as demonstrated by Loewi’s experiment on neurotransmission, where controlled conditions enabled precise analysis of electric and chemical mechanisms In contrast, replicating such control in social research is nearly impossible due to the complexity of social influences (Danermark et al 2002: 35).
Understanding the distinction between closed and open systems is crucial for research, particularly in the social sciences Closed systems, akin to natural sciences, allow for controlled experimentation where consistent conditions yield predictable outcomes, such as the formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen In contrast, the social world operates as an open system, making outcomes unpredictable due to the self-reflexive nature of social beings who adapt, learn, and influence their environment through interactions This necessitates a conceptual approach that recognizes the interplay of tendencies and contingencies, impacting the understanding of emergence and causality Methodologically, the presence of contingency complicates the execution of social experiments, prompting Critical Realism in social sciences to adopt alternative inferential reasoning methods, which present their own challenges.
Linking Critical Realism to the Morphogenetic Approach
The Morphogenetic Approach in Succinct Terms
The morphogenetic approach emphasizes the necessity of understanding time and space to elucidate the interactions between human agency and social structures It highlights the importance of a historical and context-specific perspective on social processes, acknowledging that social structures evolve episodically due to the actions and decisions of individuals within their specific environments.
In her analytical model, Archer distinguishes the concept of 'society' into two key components: Structural Emergent Properties (SEP), which pertain to the material aspects, and Cultural Emergent Properties (CEP), which focus on the ideational elements.
Archer promotes a nuanced perspective of human beings, arguing against the simplification of individuals, agents, and actors into a single entity She emphasizes the dynamic transformation of these categories through her concept of "People’s Emergent Properties" (PEP).
Agents, as defined by Archer, are collectivities that share similar life chances, while 'agency' refers to the relationships and processes that lead to their grouping and regrouping These dynamics influence their positioning regarding resource distribution and labor division, shaping everyday practices The term 'actors' describes individuals whose social identities, values, and interests are developed through their connections to these agential collectivities and the organizational roles available in society at any given time Importantly, both agents and actors are rooted in real individuals, highlighting their relevance to social existence, even though they only represent specific aspects of being in society rather than the entirety of human experience (Archer 1995: 280).
Archer argues that social structures and cultures precede social actions, existing in distinct temporal realms While these structures and cultures influence social behavior, individuals are not simply controlled by them; they possess consciousness and self-reflexivity, allowing them to strive for change in their environments The ability of agents to either transform or maintain the existing social order is contingent upon the complex interplay between structure, culture, and agency over time.
Archer outlines a cyclical feedback loop comprising three analytical moments: structural conditioning, social interaction, and structural elaboration or reproduction This cycle emphasizes the importance of temporality in understanding social dynamics, with the conditioning phase representing the 'real' domain in Critical Realism.
The article discusses the essential internal relations within a structure (SEP) that connect structures and cultures to individuals At this stage, these relations are primarily material, encompassing both physical and human elements, highlighting their significance in fostering connections.
‘practice’ as an activity linking people with particular objectives (Archer 1995:
2.3 Linking Critical Realism to the Morphogenetic Approach 21
Bureaucracy serves as a valuable subject for investigation, focusing on the essential internal relations that enable its existence rather than the typical components such as financial, organizational, technological, and human resource structures The key questions to explore include what enables a bureaucracy to generate specific funds and what influences its chosen hierarchy, shedding light on the underlying mechanisms that shape these structures.
Internal relations that shape Cultural Emergent Properties (CEP) encompass the realm of ideas, their attributes, and meanings For instance, the concept of 'bureaucracy' is viewed as an independent entity, separate from various interpretations—be it modernity, efficiency, or inclusivity This perspective highlights that the category of 'persons' within a bureaucracy is analytically linked to a diverse array of collectivities, influenced by both structural and cultural contexts.
Social interaction can be understood as the connection between two of the three emergent properties: Structural, Cultural, and People’s Archer identifies four situational logics that form the basis of interactions among these properties, particularly emphasizing the interplay between structural and cultural elements.
This figure shows four situational logics of structural–cultural interaction. Interactions can be complementary or incompatible, depending on‘necessity’and
The concept of 'contingency' highlights that protection logic is relevant when there is a necessity and complementarity between material and ideational elements, emphasizing continuity over change In contrast, the logic of compromise arises from incompatible structural-cultural interactions, where the desire to defect is insufficient to manifest Culturally, this results in syncretism among diverse theories, beliefs, and values, reflecting the containment of various vested interests within structural domains.
The logic of opportunism highlights how material diversification, such as production expansion, and cultural specialization, like the emergence of specific schools of thought, enable certain groups to leverage these contexts for their advantage while simultaneously challenging the status quo In contrast, the logic of elimination or competition reflects the willingness of some groups to eradicate opposition and fundamentally transform existing systems This dynamic is particularly evident in the material ascendance of industrial capital.
Complementary Logic of Protection Logic of Opportunism
Incompatible Logic of Compromise Logic of Elimination
Fig 2.1 Structural – cultural interactions Source Knio (2013) with the concomitant ideational challenge it posited towards the aristocracy is a clear example of the latter situational logic.
Both structural and cultural interactions are considered forms of mediated agency The relationship between People's Emergent Properties (PEP) and both Structural and Cultural Emergent Properties illustrates the concept of "double morphogenesis of agency." This concept reflects a reality in which agency evolves through complex interrelations.
Human collectives are continuously formed and reformed as they play a role in either preserving or altering societal structures and cultures This process is essential for maintaining or transforming their collective identities, which are intertwined with the socio-cultural frameworks inherited at birth.
The process of double morpho-genesis of agency plays a crucial role in shaping vested interests within society, which are influenced by prior conditioning and transformed through intricate interactions among structural, cultural, and agential factors Furthermore, Archer identifies two distinct types of emerging collectivities: primary agents, who lack clear expression and strategic organization of their interests, and corporate agents, which include well-defined interest groups, lobby groups, and defensive associations that actively articulate and pursue their objectives.
The Concept of ‘ Interests ’ in the Morphogenetic
In Critical Realism (CR) and the morphogenetic approach (MA), the concept of 'interests' significantly diverges from its interpretations in liberal, realist, and social constructivist theories Unlike these theories, 'interests' in CR/MA are not predetermined or purely subjective; they cannot be solely derived from material or structural positions nor can they be reduced to individual perceptions Instead, they are understood as dialectical and configurative, embodying both compositional and imaginative aspects, and existing in a complex relationship with the mind This perspective treats interests as having diachronic emergent properties that are intrinsically linked to historical context.
The analytical placement of individuals within various institutions acknowledges the complex interplay of structural and cultural contexts, which are interconnected through specific mechanisms Interests are shaped by the combination of these conditions, yet they also depend on the researcher’s subjective interpretations of their surroundings However, perceiving these structural and cultural contexts as inherently necessary and objective overlooks their contingent nature.
1 In Critical Realism, the word ‘ objective ’ refers to the intransitive dimension of knowledge It does not mean ‘ true ’ or ‘ independent of ’ (Sayer 1992).
Human beings exist within an open complex system, where the understanding of 'interest' requires consideration of various cycles In the second cycle of the morphogenetic approach, interest is seen as an interplay of diverse elements from multiple sources, including ideas, cultures, and structures, resulting in both contingent and necessary components that can be compatible or contradictory The third cycle highlights individuals as actors who navigate the transition from conditioned interests to interactions with different structures, cultures, roles, and positions, facilitated by mechanisms of reproduction or elaboration These processes underscore the diachronic and transient nature of interests.
The morphogenetic approach reveals that understanding the South China Sea requires a nuanced analysis of time and space, highlighting the interplay between human agency and social structures Historically, the maritime area has undergone significant transformation in its usage and regulation long before being labeled the 'South China Sea.' Additionally, the actions and decisions of its users are deeply influenced by their historical and contextual backgrounds, leading to shifts in self-identification with the sea Moreover, the current regulatory framework, particularly UNCLOS, reflects a Westphalian perspective that views the nation-state as the primary unit of governance.
The term 'international community' often oversimplifies complex historical interests that predate its emergence Contemporary conflicts can be understood as outcomes of evolving social relations and advancements in technology.
‘knowing’and‘claiming’a given geographical space as a nation’s geo-body Such geo-bodies reproduce themselves to subsume people under their regime by requiring allegiance (Winichakul 1994).
To analyze contemporary disputes using CR/MA’s concept of interest, it is essential to examine three key principles of UNCLOS—equity, proportionality, and historical use—within the context of the existing power structure, as this influences the understanding of cooperation China's notion of 'core interest' must be considered in a temporal context to identify which elements are stable or fleeting, as well as the conditions that foster a self-reflexive approach to changing norms and rules A critical evaluation of the interests driving current practices in the South China Sea, which contribute to maritime conflicts, is crucial not only for academic inquiry but also for contemplating various scenarios for conflict transformation and their potential effectiveness.
2.3 Linking Critical Realism to the Morphogenetic Approach 25
A Critical Genealogy of the Emergence of the South China Sea as a ‘ Complex ’ in International Relations
This chapter employs a simplified version of Foucault’s genealogical method to explore the South China Sea's evolution as a complex entity in international relations It illustrates the interconnectedness and transformation of various knowledge systems related to the use and claims of this maritime region over time The power mechanisms that have transformed a 'common' space into a contested 'territory' with multiple sovereignty claims highlight the importance of independent institutions in bilateral diplomacy.
Keywords Genealogical method Complex in international relations
Transmogrification Common Territory Multiple sovereignty claims
Reference to the semi-enclosed sea located south of China’s land border as the
The term "South China Sea" was established by European cartographers in the late eighteenth century, reflecting a Eurocentric view that overshadowed local cultural knowledge and maritime practices This naming, rooted in European cartography, facilitated the territorial mapping and imperial expansion of nation-states Currently, the primary contention in the South China Sea involves China's claim—by both the People's Republic of China and Taiwan—over approximately 90% of the area, which they assert as "indisputable" sovereign territory based on their historical rights.
This chapter employs a simplified version of Foucault’s genealogical method to explore the social construction of the maritime area south of China's land border, revealing how it has evolved from a common space into a territory with multiple sovereignty claims By moving away from the notion of timeless conditions, the analysis highlights the area's constitution through its diverse histories and thought forms, shedding light on the mechanisms of power that have influenced its transformation.
T.-D Truong and K Knio, The South China Sea and Asian Regionalism,
Peace and Security Studies, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-13551-9_3
The article explores 27 diverse knowledge systems and practices related to the sea, highlighting how their interactions have shaped contemporary maritime identity It emphasizes the need for a comprehensive genealogical analysis of identity construction in this context, focusing on cultural norms, knowledge, and practices developed over centuries The objective is to underscore the importance of examining concepts deemed 'indisputable' within this framework.
Historical rights are shaped by power relations and interactions rather than being fixed concepts Our understanding of the sea has evolved over time, influenced by the development of marine sciences, cartography, geology, and other interdisciplinary fields The identity of the South China Sea should be viewed as a complex of power, formed through long-term structural, cultural, and agency-driven interactions in international relations.