INTRODUCTION
Numerous studies highlight the critical importance of vocabulary in the teaching and learning of the English language Wilkins (1972) emphasized that while grammar is necessary for conveying meaning, vocabulary is indispensable, stating, “While without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed” (pp 110-111) In the 1990s, Lewis further explored this concept, reinforcing the idea that a robust vocabulary is fundamental to effective communication in English.
(1993) went further to argue that “lexis is the core or heart of language” (p.89) The issue can be simply understood that vocabulary functions as a key to language proficiency (Richard &
In learning a second language, vocabulary is essential, serving as the foundation for developing other language skills According to Nation (2001), effective vocabulary acquisition is crucial for mastering reading, writing, listening, and speaking Without a robust vocabulary, learners struggle to understand meanings and communicate effectively, which is the primary goal of language learning Therefore, teachers play a vital role in equipping students with effective strategies to enhance their vocabulary.
Hedge (2008) and Richards & Renandya (2002) noted that vocabulary teaching in language curricula frequently lacks emphasis, often being neglected or receiving only minimal incidental focus.
The acquisition of vocabulary is a topic of significant debate among language experts, who propose various methods to enhance a learner's word bank, a crucial element in mastering a language Proven learning techniques exist that effectively support vocabulary development.
Effective vocabulary learning strategies include extensive reading, contextualized word study, and the use of games and visual aids, each with its own advantages and disadvantages One notable technique is the use of flashcards, which has gained significant attention from researchers like Nation and Meara (2002), who advocate for their essential role in language learning With advancements in flashcard technology, these tools have become more powerful, enabling teachers to enhance their students' success in learning foreign languages.
Vocabulary knowledge is crucial for the development of English as a second language (L2) across all age groups, as insufficient vocabulary can hinder effective communication (Allen, 1983 & Bowen, 1985) Both young children and adults must expand their vocabulary to express their ideas clearly For beginners, building a strong vocabulary foundation is essential for their long-term language development, as a lack of vocabulary can lead to persistent challenges According to Laufer (1997), vocabulary acquisition plays a pivotal role in both language learning and usage.
In English language teaching for young learners, a significant number of vocabulary words are introduced through children's textbooks These resources typically present new words followed by various activities, including sentence samples, dialogues, and drills, to reinforce learning While the concept of a word can be defined in multiple ways, it is essential for both teachers and learners to focus on the meaning and usage of words to ensure effective language acquisition.
According to Nation (2001), a word's form encompasses its pronunciation, spelling, and components like prefixes, roots, and suffixes Children tend to grasp vocabulary more effectively than grammar, as grammar rules can be challenging to remember (Demircioglu, 2010) While young learners typically start with simple words, teachers often find it difficult to engage them in vocabulary learning while also aiding in the retention of newly acquired words.
Children are naturally active and struggle to concentrate for long periods, making traditional methods of vocabulary learning less effective Research by Paivio (1971) indicates that memory for images surpasses that of words, suggesting that incorporating pictures and visual aids can enhance word retention Cameron (2001) highlights that overly active students can easily lose focus, emphasizing the need for engaging and varied learning methods To foster interest in vocabulary acquisition, teachers must create a stress-free environment that motivates young learners, as children typically have shorter attention spans Ultimately, when students engage in learning with passion, they are more likely to achieve success.
Helping young learners retain new vocabulary can be challenging for teachers, as children’s limited memory capacity often leads to quick forgetfulness without sufficient practice Additionally, the need to balance multiple subjects limits the time students have to review and reinforce their vocabulary learning, making it difficult for teachers to assign extensive vocabulary homework.
In the Vietnamese curriculum, students face a heavy workload with 12 subjects, making it crucial to help young learners absorb language in a natural and engaging manner Utilizing learner-friendly activities and ample consolidation exercises is essential for effective vocabulary acquisition According to Nation (2003), teachers play a vital role in designing lessons that incorporate effective teaching strategies to enhance vocabulary learning By selecting interesting activities tailored to younger learners, teachers can maintain student focus and promote progress Flashcards, recognized as one of the most effective teaching aids, can significantly support vocabulary instruction for young learners, leading to successful outcomes in language acquisition.
Economic exchanges in Vietnam have led to a growing demand for English as a global communication tool, significantly boosting English learning over the past three decades Job seekers across various sectors often encounter English proficiency requirements in job descriptions This trend spans all age groups, with adults in the workforce, university and college students, and high school learners all seeking to improve their English skills Moreover, there is an increasing trend of younger children starting English lessons, with even nursery schools incorporating English into their curricula to prepare the next generation for a globalized future.
In comparison with adults, young learners around their puberty have many advantages to learn a second language As a result, learning English to them is easier them adults However, Ur
According to Ur (2012), students exhibit varying levels of linguistic knowledge and proficiency in English, leading to differences in how they acquire the language Adults, with their advanced language skills, can identify essential vocabulary, while young children rely heavily on their teachers for guidance This suggests that adults benefit from explicit instruction, whereas children thrive with implicit teaching methods Ur also highlights the importance of elicitation in vocabulary instruction for young learners However, many teachers acknowledge that their vocabulary lessons may lack engagement, making it challenging for students to retain new words To enhance vocabulary retention and motivation among young learners, classrooms must be equipped with improved teaching materials, techniques, and approaches.
Visual teaching aids, particularly flashcards, have long been promoted for their effectiveness in ESL education While they are commonly utilized in primary schools, their application is often limited to sample lessons due to various constraints.
Teachers encounter significant challenges in preparing flashcards due to a lack of accessible resources, which adds to their time and financial burdens This pressure is exacerbated by large class sizes, often ranging from 38 to 48 students, requiring teachers to focus heavily on classroom management, homework assessments, and providing feedback Additionally, many educators are unfamiliar with activities that effectively integrate flashcard-based instruction, making it even more difficult to incorporate these tools into their teaching strategies.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Young learners
Discussions about age and language acquisition often center on the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH), which suggests that language learning is most effective during early childhood due to a biological timetable Research by Patkowski (1980) emphasizes that age of acquisition significantly influences the development of native-like proficiency However, Scovel (1999) challenges the idea that "the younger, the better," while Snow and Hoefnagel-Hoehle (1982) found results that do not support the CPH, indicating that the fastest second language acquisition can occur outside this critical period.
Research indicates that language acquisition rates vary by age, with individuals aged 12 to 15 years demonstrating the fastest progress, while those aged 3 to 5 years show the slowest Adolescents often excel as language learners, yet factors such as learning goals, language content, prior experience, and social environment play crucial roles in their success It is widely believed that a critical period for second language acquisition (SLA) occurs around puberty, suggesting that age significantly influences language mastery.
Learners of different ages exhibit distinct characteristics in language acquisition, as highlighted by Harmer (2007), who categorizes English learners into young children, adolescents, and adults, each with unique needs In Vietnam, students often take English as a compulsory subject for exams, prompting the need for tailored language lessons Additionally, many students recognize the importance of English for future career opportunities in a competitive job market Adult learners typically have clearer objectives, such as improving communication, reading comprehension, or writing skills, leveraging their life experiences despite potential age-related disadvantages Conversely, young learners possess various motivations and more time to achieve their goals Understanding learners' aspirations is crucial for teachers to enhance teaching effectiveness, especially amid the transformative changes of the 4.0 industrial revolution.
It’s most difficult to teach young children languages although it doesn’t require that the teacher has much rather knowledge but experience (Harmer, 2007a) When working with
To effectively teach young learners, teachers must identify their students' needs, language learning characteristics, and motivations for language lessons By gaining a clear understanding of these factors, educators can tailor their teaching approaches to enhance the effectiveness of both teaching and learning (Moon, 2000).
“who can be regarded as young learners?”
Young children, defined by Harmer (2007a) as those up to the ages of nine or ten, are often referred to as "young learners" by Thornbury (2006), encompassing pre-primary and primary school students, and sometimes adolescents In various countries, including Vietnam, young learners begin English education as early as kindergarten, with the aim of preparing for secondary school This early exposure is believed to enhance language acquisition, allowing children more years to develop their skills Despite the growing trend of teaching English to young learners, some researchers express concerns about potential disadvantages associated with this approach (Thornbury, 2006) While many studies highlight the benefits of early language learning, definitive results on its effectiveness remain elusive.
According to Thornbury (2006), young learners possess three distinct characteristics that set them apart from adult learners, encompassing cognitive, affective, and social dimensions Firstly, children exhibit limitations in their real-life knowledge, developing memory, and the ability to grasp abstract concepts, alongside a shorter attention span.
12 includes the need of encouragement and support while the rest is their lack of social skills and dependency on their teacher
Brown (1994) suggested five characteristics of young learners, namely, intellectual development, attention span, sensory input, affective factors, and authentic meaningful language
In SLA, both students and teachers will benefit from successful application of these five aspects
The critical period hypothesis (CPH) suggests that young children acquire language quickly and naturally within a specific age range, with this ability diminishing over time However, recent evidence challenges this notion, indicating that older learners can sometimes achieve better language acquisition than younger ones, depending on learning contexts and individual abilities (Harmer, 2007a) Additionally, adult learners often demonstrate superior word retention compared to children, attributed to their advanced cognitive skills While children may excel in language learning among peers of the same age, they generally do not match the performance of adult learners.
Vocabulary retention, defined as the ability to recall the meaning of newly learned words over time, is crucial in language acquisition According to Nation (2001), vocabulary learning involves three key processes: noticing, retrieval, and generative use, along with the concepts of receptive and productive abilities Alemi (2010) highlighted that vocabulary retention poses significant challenges, especially for young learners in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context, who may quickly forget new words despite initially remembering them easily As learners encounter an increasing number of new words, they often struggle to retain them, and younger learners may exhibit a lack of concern regarding this issue.
13 much about the purposes of their language learning because they are “effortless learners”
To enhance vocabulary retention, teachers must implement effective techniques that assist learners in memorizing and recalling new words This approach is essential for achieving educational goals and improving language acquisition.
Adults who are conscious of their language learning tend to exhibit effective learning behaviors, enabling them to set achievable language goals In contrast, young learners often lack this awareness and focus primarily on activities that excite them, but only for brief periods (Moon, 2006) Harmer (2007a) notes that despite their enthusiasm, young learners have a limited attention span, leading to quick boredom, which varies by age As Benjamin (2002) observed, students typically maintain their attention for around 10 minutes at the start of a lecture before it wanes.
Research indicates that students' attention spans are notably limited, with McKeachie’s Teaching Tips (1986) highlighting an average attention span of about 10 minutes, which diminishes thereafter Scott & Lisbeth (1990) noted that young learners, in particular, exhibit even shorter attention spans, leading to increased boredom during lengthy lessons and poorer retention of information Trenaman's study, as discussed by McLeish (1968), revealed that students retained approximately 41% of lecture material after 15 minutes, but retention dropped to 25% after 30 minutes and further declined to just 20% after 40 minutes Consequently, longer lessons significantly hinder children's ability to retain content effectively.
Research by Wilson and Korn (2007) emphasizes the importance of teachers enhancing students' attention and understanding during language classes, aligning with Trenaman's findings.
Children often engage deeply in activities they enjoy, such as watching their favorite cartoons for hours without showing signs of fatigue To maintain their interest during lessons, it's essential to incorporate a variety of captivating activities, as young learners typically have a short attention span.
In "Teaching by Principles," Brown (1994) highlights five senses of interest that engage young learners in language acquisition Incorporating physical activities allows children to play with language, while projects and hands-on experiences facilitate the practice of vocabulary and structures Additionally, sensory aids like visual materials—such as pictures and videos—enhance concept retention, and non-verbal language encourages students to imitate actions, improving their memory of words.
Visual aids are essential in teaching language to young learners, as they engage students through sight, sound, touch, and interaction, unlike adult learners who primarily benefit from instruction and explanation (Harmer, 2007b) Young learners often struggle with abstract concepts, making it challenging for them to grasp grammar and certain vocabulary To address this, Ur (2012) recommends that teachers provide tasks that promote implicit vocabulary learning and steer clear of vague explanations.
Vocabulary
Vocabulary is often defined as a collection of words along with their meanings, as noted by Hornby (1995), a prominent figure in English Language Teaching It encompasses the essential words necessary for effective communication, as highlighted by Neuman and Dwyer.
Vocabulary encompasses not only individual words and phrases in a foreign language but also multi-word chunks that convey meaning effectively According to Ur (1998), the vocabulary we teach includes these various forms, highlighting the importance of teaching both single items and meaningful expressions.
It is clear that learning vocabulary is important to language learners because they surely need enough words in their target language to communicate efficiently
Vocabulary is commonly categorized into two types: active and passive vocabulary Active vocabulary consists of words that students have learned and are expected to use effectively, while passive vocabulary includes words that students can recognize but do not use fluently in their speech or writing.
According to Webb (2009), receptive vocabulary refers to words that learners can recognize and understand in reading texts but do not actively use in speaking or writing This type of vocabulary is context-specific and involves comprehension without production In contrast, productive vocabulary consists of words that learners not only understand but can also pronounce and effectively use in their spoken and written communication.
16 and writing It can be addressed as an active process, because the learners can use the words to convey their ideas to others
2.2.3 Fundamental hypotheses related to vocabulary teaching and learning
In second language acquisition (SLA), learners invest significant time and effort to enhance their language skills, influenced by various factors, including language input.
According to Krashen (1985), language input encompasses all materials accessible to learners in their target language, playing a crucial role in language acquisition He introduced the input hypothesis, which includes various forms of language such as written, oral, and sign language, allowing teachers to select the most suitable input for their students Krashen categorizes language input into two types: compulsory input, which consists of carefully curated materials for learners, and comprehensible input, designed to enhance learners' development.
Norbert Schmitt (2000) emphasized the importance of combining explicit teaching with incidental learning in vocabulary acquisition Beginners require a solid vocabulary foundation to comprehend lessons, while incidental learning should be gradually integrated at appropriate stages Both explicit and incidental methods are essential for effective vocabulary learning Seal (1991) categorized vocabulary teaching strategies into planned and unplanned activities Unplanned strategies involve incidental learning opportunities that arise in the classroom, such as when students inquire about specific word meanings or when teachers highlight relevant vocabulary These unplanned strategies can vary significantly among different teachers, lessons, and classes.
17 and unplanned vocabulary activities should occupy less time than planned vocabulary teaching strategies (Hatch and Brown, 1995)
Oxford and Crookall (1990) categorized vocabulary teaching methods into four main types: (1) de-contextualizing techniques, which include word lists, flashcards, and dictionary use; (2) semi-contextualizing methods, such as word grouping, association, visual imagery, aural imagery, keywords, physical responses, physical sensations, and semantic mapping; (3) fully contextualizing approaches that involve reading, listening, speaking, and writing; and (4) adaptable strategies like structured reviewing.
Students acquire vocabulary through multiple methods, including exposure during lessons and through texts and materials Much of this vocabulary is absorbed naturally (Harmer, 1993) To enhance vocabulary learning, various techniques and activities are employed, often organizing words into related sets based on topics or meanings.
The first stage of teaching vocabulary is presentation Pre-teaching activities often activate students' attention and desire to explore a particular topics or subjects in detail within the lessons
The second stage of vocabulary teaching is comprehension, where the form of a word is introduced before illustrating its meaning According to McCarthy (1992) and Thornbury (2004), it is essential to present vocabulary within context, allowing students to explore meanings independently Effective teaching at this stage involves various strategies to clarify word meanings, highlighting the importance of teacher skills in facilitating understanding.
18 work It is necessary to mention that there are various techniques, but the teacher plays a significant role to make their lessons successful
The third stage of language learning is practice, which is essential for effective retention of newly acquired content Providing learners with ample opportunities for practice through various activities is crucial Mechanical practice, often involving oral repetition, helps reinforce this learning (Thornbury, 2004) Additionally, it's important to connect new vocabulary to students' existing knowledge through engaging activities like matching, comparing, and fill-in-the-blank exercises.
The final stage of the learning process is revision, where teachers encourage students to revisit previously learned language content This activity aims to assess students' understanding of the material they have studied, ensuring they grasp the essential language concepts effectively.
Implementing effective strategies for teaching L2 vocabulary is essential for both adults and young learners While these procedures are not rigid, educators have the flexibility to adapt these stages to create more engaging and effective learning experiences tailored to their specific contexts.
Effective vocabulary teaching techniques are essential for English teachers aiming to introduce new words and lexical items successfully Key aspects to consider include engaging students through interactive methods, contextualizing vocabulary within meaningful sentences, and reinforcing learning through repetition and practice.
In these techniques, Gairns and Redman(1986) mentioned some visual forms such as relia (real objects), picture, and mime or gesture Relia means using a variety of real objects so
Students can enhance their retention of lesson materials by connecting objects to specific words within the lessons The use of mime and gestures is crucial, as it underscores the significance of non-verbal communication, including facial expressions (Klippel, 1994) Visual aids can significantly aid learners in remembering their study materials (Zebrowska, 1975), although applying this technique can be challenging when dealing with abstract concepts, such as happiness.
This technique can be divided into four categories, namely, definitions and illustrative sentences, synonyms and antonyms, explanation, translation (Mendez and Rodriguez,1999)
- Definition and illustration sentences: with this technique the English teachers are expected to introduce a word in English through the use of other simple words in the same language
Flashcards
Flashcards are small, typically 3x5 inch cards made from sturdy paper, designed to aid language learning by presenting content related to lessons One side features a target language word, while the reverse may include translations, examples, drawings, synonyms, or other helpful materials to enhance memory retention Incorporating different colors and shapes can make flashcards more engaging and visually appealing, encouraging both teachers and students to create attractive learning aids that promote active vocabulary acquisition.
Teachers and learners should collaboratively create flashcards to enhance vocabulary acquisition In the classroom, teachers can utilize large flashcards to introduce new words and engage students in various activities, ensuring visibility for all students, even in larger classes Meanwhile, students can create their own sets of smaller flashcards for convenient learning and revision, following the teacher's guidance on size, quantity, and effective study techniques such as spaced repetition.
Flashcards are a valuable learning tool that come in two forms: traditional paper flashcards and digital flashcards created through software and applications Traditional flashcards have a long history and are proven to enhance learning, while digital options offer increased efficiency and accessibility for vocabulary teaching This versatile technique caters to students of all levels, allowing both learners and educators to customize their vocabulary lessons for a more engaging experience Each type of flashcard has its unique benefits and drawbacks, making them suitable for different learning preferences.
The evolution of technology continually transforms the landscape of learning and teaching Today, creating flashcards is quick and easy with the aid of various software, tools, and applications available online Numerous computer-based platforms, such as Study Blue, Quizlet, and Flashcards+, enable users to produce effective flashcards This trend of utilizing digital tools for learning has become increasingly popular.
Students globally utilize various electronic devices for academic purposes, making the use of traditional and computerized flashcards increasingly prevalent, especially in language learning Golding et al (2012) suggest that the widespread availability of mobile technology may contribute to a rise in the popularity of computerized flashcards, highlighting their potential benefits and drawbacks in educational settings.
In the initial phase of introducing new vocabulary, flashcards are presented gradually However, during the memory-checking stage, it's essential to display the flashcards at a rapid pace of one card per second to enhance retention and recall.
Students can enhance their vocabulary by using flashcards in both classroom settings and informal study groups Creative learning methods engage both hemispheres of the brain, so teachers should encourage students to create their own flashcards Providing blank flashcards allows learners to add new words as they encounter them, facilitating continuous vocabulary improvement With these tools readily available, students can effectively expand their word stock.
To effectively enhance vocabulary retention using flashcards, students should first examine the new word on one side and quickly associate it with its definition, first language equivalents, examples, and synonyms This meaningful engagement is crucial for learning After this initial review, students should flip the card to check their recall; correctly identified words are set aside, while those not memorized are returned to the original stack for further practice until all words are mastered Once all words are correctly identified, they can be compiled into a set for future review It is recommended to limit the number of new words per lesson to around seven, as suggested by Miller (1955), to ensure effective long-term learning Regularly revisiting these flashcards is essential for reinforcing memory, and teachers should emphasize the importance of consistent review to aid retention.
Flashcard-based learning has been shown to effectively aid in mastering new vocabulary sets and should be integrated with meaning-focused activities Researchers, including Nation & Webb (2011) and Schmitt (2007, 2008), emphasize its importance in second language vocabulary instruction Given its proven effectiveness and popularity, incorporating flashcard-based methods into teaching practices is essential.
28 to examine the reasons flashcard-integrated activities can optimize effects of vocabulary retention
Learning with flashcards is an effective paired-associate learning technique, particularly in teaching English as a second language (Hart, 1982) Research indicates that vocabulary should be taught in meaningful contexts, and studies have shown that paired-associate learning can be as effective, if not more so, than contextual vocabulary learning (Griffin, 1992; Laufer & Shmueli, 1997; Pickering, 1982; Prince, 1996; Rodriguez & Sadoski, 2000; Webb, 2007a) This method allows learners to acquire a large number of words in a relatively short period (Fitzpatrick et al., 2008; Nation, 1980; Thorndike, 1998; Webb).
1962) There is the second reason that wordlists are quite popular in language curricula
Research indicates that using flashcards can enhance vocabulary acquisition more effectively than traditional word lists (Mondria & Mondria-de Vries, 1994; Schmitt & Schmitt, 1995) While deliberate learning of word lists is preferable to incidental learning, learners often struggle to memorize lengthy lists written in notebooks In Vietnam's SLA context, word lists are commonly used as L2 teachers and learners believe they facilitate rapid vocabulary growth (Nation, 1982) However, Oxford and Crookall (1990) argue that word lists, particularly those with mother-tongue equivalents, are limited in practical application without additional support To address this issue, educators should be encouraged to utilize flashcards in their lessons, as recent studies suggest that flashcard-based learning promotes effective language use and serves as a beneficial learning strategy (Elgort, 2011; Webb, 2002, 2009a).
The rising popularity of flashcard-based learning highlights its effectiveness; however, both students and teachers often struggle with key factors such as block size, retrieval format, spaced repetition, and feedback timing To enhance the benefits of this learning method, it is essential for educators and learners to focus on these critical aspects of flashcard usage.
2.3.4.1 Flash card as a language teaching and learning tool
Effective language instruction relies on diverse teaching materials, necessitating teacher flexibility to accommodate various learner needs According to Brown (1994), the richness of language education is significantly enhanced by supportive resources While adult learners benefit from a variety of text-based materials, these resources may not be as effective for younger students due to developmental differences (Moon, 2006).
Student motivation is crucial for effective learning, prompting teachers to employ diverse teaching techniques According to Shaaban (2001), creating a non-anxiety learning environment is essential for young children Research by Scott and Lisbeth indicates that children learn best when they are engaged in enjoyable activities, highlighting the importance of incorporating play into the educational process.
1990) From this point of view, flashcards should be used in young learners’ English classrooms because they can be suitable to learning characteristics of young learners
Flashcards are a highly effective and enjoyable tool in Second Language Acquisition (SLA), particularly for learning English Their simplicity and engaging format make them an excellent method for memorization, enhancing the learning experience.
Large classes
The definition of large classes varies significantly between Vietnam and other countries, influenced by specific contexts and cultures In Vietnam, class sizes differ widely: international schools typically have around 20 students, private schools average about 35, while state schools in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City often exceed 45 to 50 students In universities, some classes can have over 100 students As noted by Ur (1996), whether a class is deemed large is often subjective, depending on the teacher's perception of the situation rather than a fixed student count The impact of class size is not solely about numbers; it is also about the negative effects on student learning environments Research by Cooper & Robinson (2000), McKeachie (1980), and Mulryan-Kyne (2010) emphasizes that class size significantly influences educational outcomes.
Large class sizes can significantly diminish the quality of student learning, particularly in developing countries such as Vietnam and various nations in Asia and Africa According to UNESCO (2005), this issue not only undermines educational quality but also hampers the overall development of these regions.
2.4.2 Difficulty in teaching large classes
Research indicates that class size significantly impacts the quality of the learning environment (Ehrenberg et al., 2001) In Vietnam, many language teachers express concerns over overcrowded classrooms, which hinder effective communication and lead to a negative perception of teaching English This issue is echoed globally, with researchers like Kennedy and Kennedy (1996) noting challenges in managing large groups Hayes (1997) suggests that an ideal language class size should not exceed 30 students to facilitate meaningful interactions Overpopulated classrooms can result in various physical and psychological issues, complicating the teaching process for both educators and learners (Harmer, 2000) Hayes (n.d.) identifies five key challenges in large classes: limited space, low discipline, distractions, inaccurate evaluations, and reduced effectiveness, which newly-graduated teachers often struggle to navigate despite their training.
2.4.3 Flashcard as a teaching tool in large classes
Experienced teachers must prioritize creating a conflict-free learning environment rooted in mutual respect, as emphasized by Ali and Gracey (2013) By recognizing the importance of this aspect, educators can effectively implement various teaching techniques Utilizing flashcards allows for the development of diverse activities that engage students and help them concentrate on their learning objectives.
To enhance language learning, students should actively engage with their peers and utilize collaborative tools like flashcards, rather than attending classes reluctantly Given the challenges of teaching large groups (Hess, 2001), innovative teaching methods are essential for improving outcomes in language education.
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
In this chapter, the researcher outlines a research design, which serves as a strategic plan for conducting the study (Wiersma, 1969) The development process involves several key steps, including determining the research approach, selecting the site, identifying participants, collecting data, and administering instruments Throughout these steps, important research characteristics such as practicality, reliability, and validity are meticulously considered.
Research approach
This study employs a mixed-method approach, integrating qualitative and quasi-experimental research, a strategy increasingly favored in educational research (Creswell, 2003; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007; Dunning et al., 2008) By collecting and analyzing both qualitative and quantitative data, the researcher aimed to identify the most reliable method for providing detailed insights into the research topic, ultimately leading to significant findings.
Research site
The study was conducted at Nguyen Trai Secondary School, Binh Tan District, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam During the 2017-2018 academic school, the school had 62 classes of grades
In grades 6 through 9, classes consist of approximately 38 to 48 students, with English being a compulsory subject to emphasize its importance in education and life For thirteen years, the course books utilized have been officially published and managed by the Ministry, ensuring a standardized approach to English language learning.
Education and Training (MOET) of Vietnam
Participants
In the 2017-2018 school year, students participated in a study where, during the first term, they worked with the researcher using a common course book In the second term, the same book was utilized, but flashcard-based instruction was introduced to enhance English vocabulary learning Class 8/1, consisting of 39 students, served as the experimental group (EG), while another class, 8/14 with an equal number of students, acted as the control group (CG) The grouping details were kept confidential The researcher provided the EG with guidance on flashcard creation and usage for vocabulary learning, while the CG followed traditional lesson plans In contrast, the EG benefited from a revised lesson plan that incorporated flashcard-based instruction.
The study was scheduled to start on the first week of the second term (early January,
In 2018, the researcher effectively conducted experimental teaching at the start of the second term, allowing ample time for guidance Throughout this period, all students from both classes adhered to school regulations regarding learning and behavior practices.
Table 3.1 Description of the Participants
Research approach
Using a quasi-experimental study design, the researcher gathered data to address two specific research questions This type of experimental research aims to assess the impact of controlled treatments administered to subjects, typically organized into groups The researcher applied a treatment to one group and evaluated the resulting effects on the experimental group (EG).
In experimental design, as outlined by Hatch and Farhady (1982), two groups are utilized: an experimental group (EG) and a control group (CG), with data collected at two time points—before and after the treatment The EG receives an experimental treatment before the second measurement, while the CG remains untreated Both groups are assessed regarding the key dependent variable at these two time intervals, as represented in Table 3.2 by the labels EG1, EG2 for the experimental group and CG1, CG2 for the control group.
Table 3.2 Structure of Experimental Design
EG EG1 Treatment EG2 EG change = EG2 – EG1
CG CG1 No treatment CG2 CG change = CG2 – CG1
The differences observed in the experimental group (EG) between Time 1 and Time 2 may be attributed to the experimental treatment To accurately assess the treatment effect, it is essential to measure the difference between EG1 and EG2 while controlling for potential errors However, changes in the EG could also stem from factors unrelated to the treatment, such as the passage of time or measurement variability Therefore, a control group (CG) is necessary for comparison; this group should be identical to the EG at Time 1 but not exposed to the experimental treatment By measuring the CG on the dependent variable at both time points, we can determine if any changes are due to the treatment The key focus is to evaluate whether the EG exhibits greater changes than the CG, indicating a true treatment effect.
If the change in experimental group (EG) is statistically significant, it suggests that the experimental treatment is the likely cause However, this conclusion is valid only if both groups were initially similar and had comparable experiences between Time 1 and Time 2.
Specifically, this research was designed to test whether a treatment (the application of flashcard-based instruction) helped young learners retain their vocabulary effectively or not The
The experimental design involved two groups: an experimental group (EG 1A) that received a special treatment and a control group (CG 1B) that did not Key characteristics of this design included the presence of a control group and the selection and assignment of students to each group.
A pre-test was conducted to assess the initial differences between the groups, followed by a post-test at the conclusion of the treatment period to evaluate improvements in the experimental group (EG).
Figure3.1 Design of CG and EG
In the above figure, T1 is used to symbolize the pre-test, T2 for the post-test, and X for the treatment.
Research design
The pre-test was a 100-item test including 50 multiple choice questions and 50 gap filling questions The language content for this test was taken from units 1 to 8 of the textbook English
The assessment, published by the Ministry of Education and Training, consisted of two main sections The first part focused on students' understanding of word meanings and definitions, while the second required them to correctly form words based on provided prompts, necessitating knowledge of prefixes, suffixes, synonyms, and antonyms Students were tasked with accurately changing the parts of speech using various morphemes to achieve correct answers The researcher prepared all testing materials, and students were allotted 90 minutes to complete the test.
In the testing room, students were reminded to adhere strictly to the school's testing regulations, ensuring a responsible approach to both their knowledge and behavior They were well aware of the dos and don’ts, receiving their test papers in a separate manner to maintain integrity during the examination process.
To enhance management and scoring, 40 answer sheets were designed for students to record their responses on two distinct test papers featuring different codes and question layouts, yet containing the same language content This approach aimed to deter cheating and increase students' awareness of their learning Each correct answer was awarded one point, with no penalties for incorrect responses, and scores were converted to a 0-10 scale to assess vocabulary competence improvement across two groups Following the test session, results were processed and prepared for analysis using SPSS version 18.
After twelve weeks of flashcard-based instruction, students in classes 8/1 and 8/14 took a ninety-minute test This test mirrored the pre-test format, focusing on language content from units 9 to 14 of the second term.
Prior to taking the test, students in the experimental group (EG) reviewed vocabulary using six flashcard packs, each containing six units Each unit had between 17 to 32 word items, and students were advised by their teacher to limit their block size to between 7 and 11 words While students could choose the number of flashcards for each block size, they were expected to memorize all the vocabulary from each lesson taught through flashcard-based instructions.
Flashcards have been shown to be effective in second language acquisition (SLA) However, it is essential to gather evidence to determine if students truly benefit from vocabulary learning through the flashcard-integrated teaching technique To assess this, students in the experimental group (EG) participated in a survey.
By doing this, the researcher wants to investigate the participants’ perceptions on using
The study utilized 41 flashcards in the classroom, prompting the creation of a questionnaire for further data collection This questionnaire featured a variety of question types, including multiple-choice, Likert-scale questions ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree," dichotomous questions, and open-ended formats To enhance clarity and boost response rates, five-point scale questions were predominantly used (Babakus and Mangold, 1992; Devlin et al., 1993; Hayes, 1992) Additionally, the design process prioritized understandability for readers unfamiliar with the experimental context, while ensuring the tool's reliability and validity were rigorously considered.
To enhance the clarity of the questionnaire for participants, a colleague reviewed the wording of the questions Following this thorough revision, 39 copies of the updated questionnaire were prepared for students to complete during a class meeting.
The questionnaire is divided into three sections: the first section contains seven questions focused on gathering respondents' personal information to explore the relationship between students' performance and their language education background The second section, comprising eight questions, aims to collect students' opinions regarding their vocabulary learning experiences Lastly, the third part investigates students' perceptions of flashcards as a learning tool The data collected from these sections was analyzed to determine whether the use of flashcards enhances students' vocabulary competence.
Table 3.3 Taxonomy of the Questionnaire
Theme Subtheme Number of items Item
Learners’ self-evaluation Vocabulary competence 1 4
Learners’ experience in learning vocabulary
Experiences in learning with videos 1 6
Reason for using flashcards to learn vocabulary in the future 1 7
Learners’ perceptions on learning with flashcards
Ideas on working with flashcards 7 C.1 – C.7 Advantages learning with flashcards 8 C.8 – C.15
To ensure the accuracy and depth of the data collected from the questionnaire, students are encouraged to articulate their thoughts in Vietnamese regarding their experience with experimental teaching This initiative aims to capture insights on flashcard-based instruction As noted by Hoover (1994), writing serves as an effective method to preserve experiential knowledge Additionally, providing feedback on the teacher's methods is crucial (Lave and Wenger, 1991; Zeichner, 1993) This writing activity not only allows the writer to assess participants' comprehension (Moon, 2003) but also helps students evaluate the gap between their prior experiences and their engagement with the new learning technique.
In a structured class meeting, a researcher provided 39 students with detailed instructions for completing their papers Prior to the session, students were notified about the writing task, allowing them to prepare their ideas in advance Each student received a handout from the researcher to guide their writing process.
43 listened attentively to instruction and expressed ideas in 45 minutes Some directions and hints about using flashcards in learning and teaching for students to get started more easily
Interviews serve as a valuable tool in mixed-method social studies, allowing researchers to capture the feelings and thoughts of participants, thus providing qualitative data essential for understanding complex topics (Weiss, 1994) In this study, five experienced grade eight English teachers participated in semi-structured interviews focused on the use of flashcards as an innovative teaching method Conducted at the end of the school year when teachers had more availability, these interviews aimed to gather in-depth insights into the effectiveness of flashcard-based instruction for enhancing lexical knowledge The careful collection of their responses offers a unique perspective on teaching strategies in the classroom.
Study procedure
A pre-test session was conducted for participants in both the Control Group (CG) and the Experimental Group (EG) This test was carefully designed, piloted, and revised by the researcher During the testing process, students utilized answer sheets to record their responses, which were subsequently collected for evaluation.
In this study, the experimental group (EG) received specialized treatment using flashcards, while the control group (CG) continued with standard teaching methods without flashcards Both groups were encouraged to engage seriously in language lessons and complete their homework diligently However, students in the EG focused significantly on creating and utilizing flashcards both at home and in the classroom, with the teacher consistently available to support their learning efforts.
For 12 weeks, teachers and students engaged in flashcard-based instruction, focusing on language lessons that covered six units from the English 8 course book published by MOET They received ongoing support whenever they faced challenges with the flashcards, enhancing their learning experience.
A post-test, mirroring the pre-test format, was meticulously prepared and administered to participants under the supervision of the researcher, allowing 90 minutes for completion while adhering to school testing regulations Answer sheets were provided for responses and subsequently collected for grading Additionally, a questionnaire was designed and piloted in Go Vap District to gather data for the second research question, with revisions made based on feedback from colleagues In mid-May, the experimental group completed the questionnaire within 15 minutes during class, further contributing to the study's findings.
45 minutes writing a reflection paper This was a suitable time because students had plenty of time to think about the learning before the end of school year
Prior to the school's closing ceremony, researchers conducted interviews with five colleagues, allowing them ample time to reflect on a challenging teaching year Utilizing ten semi-structured questions, the researchers documented the responses directly on prepared interview forms.
Analytical framework
The experimental data collected from the pre-tests and post-tests were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS version 18) The results were systematically drawn and discussed, with the Mean (M) serving as a key metric in the analysis.
The performance of the two groups was assessed following the tests, revealing clear results Standard deviation (SD) provided insights into the distribution of scores within each group Additionally, an Independent Sample t-test was conducted to evaluate the differences in mean scores between the two tests by comparing the significance (2-tailed) value with an alpha level of 05.
A t-test, as described by Evelyn & Hossein (1982), is a statistical method used to compare the means of two groups, helping researchers assess the confidence in the observed differences resulting from a treatment This test produces a t-value, which indicates the statistical significance of the results based on the study's sample size.
This study utilized the t-test procedure to analyze the differences in test scores between the experimental group (EG) and the control group (CG) The aim was to assess the effectiveness of flashcard-based instruction in teaching vocabulary to the EG.
Reliability and validity
Reliability and validity are crucial for ensuring high-quality data collection Reliability indicates how accurately the data collection process captures information, while validity assesses whether the procedure effectively measures the intended variables (Evelyn & Hossein, 1982).
Prior to conducting the pre-tests and post-tests, meticulous attention was given to ensuring the reliability and validity of the assessments The subsequent sections provide detailed insights into these two essential paradigms.
This research employed an independent samples t-test to analyze the mean scores of both groups, while Levene’s test was utilized to assess the equality of variances.
To ensure the similarity of score variability across groups, 46 variances were analyzed The significance value from the t-tests was compared to an alpha level of 0.05; if the significance value exceeded alpha, it indicated that the assumption of homogeneity of variances was upheld.
3.9.2 Checking internal consistency of the questionnaires
Internal consistency refers to how well the items on a scale measure the same underlying attribute, as defined by Hatch & Farhady (1982) In this study, the researcher employed Cronbach’s coefficient alpha to assess the correlation between individual items and the overall questionnaire A Cronbach’s alpha value exceeding 0.7 for both questionnaires indicates an acceptable level of reliability for the research instrument.
Chapter summary
This chapter outlines the key aspects of the research methodology, detailing the research site, participants, and design Following this, the next chapter will focus on analyzing and discussing the data gathered from two tests, a questionnaire, a reflection paper, and a teacher interview.
In the next chapter, the results, findings and discussion of the study will be described in details