INTRODUCTION
Background to the study
In this section, I briefly summarize the history and reviews of research on teacher cognition to provide the background to the study
The relationship between teaching and learning is deeply interconnected, significantly impacting student achievements through teachers' instruction Research over the past few decades has explored this dynamic, beginning with the process-product model by Dunkin and Biddle in the 1970s, which focused on the correlation between teachers' behaviors and student learning outcomes However, this model overlooked the role of teachers' cognition in shaping classroom practices A pivotal shift occurred following a 1975 conference by the National Institute of Education, emphasizing the importance of understanding the relationship between thought and action in teaching, given that instruction is fundamentally delivered by human teachers.
In 1975, research highlighted the importance of examining teachers' cognitive processes to gain a deeper understanding of their classroom behaviors This perspective shifted the view of teachers from mere transmitters of prescribed knowledge to active decision-makers who reflect on their thoughts, knowledge, and beliefs to enhance their instructional effectiveness.
In the late 1970s, the primary foci of studies on teacher cognition were
Research on teacher cognition has evolved significantly since the 1980s, with a focus on knowledge types such as practical knowledge (Elbaz, 1981) and pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman, 1987) (Borg, 2006) In the 1990s, investigations expanded to include craft knowledge (Grimmett & Mackinnon, 1992), teacher knowledge (Fenstermacher, 1994), and subject-matter knowledge (Shulman & Quinlan, 1996), alongside a growing interest in teacher beliefs Borg (2006) notes that Pajares (1992) conducted the most comprehensive review of teacher beliefs, breaking down "educational beliefs" into specific areas for further research.
Since the mid-1990s, research on L2 teacher cognition has gained traction, with Borg (2003) reviewing 64 studies that primarily focused on grammar and literacy instruction, particularly in the U.S., which had the highest concentration of studies on ESL teaching In a subsequent review by Borg (2006), over 180 studies across L1, ESL, and EFL contexts were examined, revealing a fragmented landscape of language teacher cognition research Most studies were concentrated in the U.S., with additional contributions from countries like Hong Kong, the U.K., and Australia The research was categorized into three main groups: pre-service teachers, in-service teachers, and specific curricular domains, focusing on teachers’ experiences, beliefs, decisions, and knowledge, with grammar and literacy being the primary curricular areas of interest.
Borg's (2006) framework emphasizes the influence of teachers' schooling and professional coursework on teacher cognition, highlighting a dialectical relationship between cognition and classroom practice, mediated by contextual factors He identified three key themes for language teacher cognition studies: prior language learning experiences, teacher education, and classroom practice Most research has concentrated on grammar teaching, with limited focus on speaking instruction; between 2010 and 2015, only three studies addressed this area (Dinỗer & Yeşilyurt, 2013; Baleghizadeh & Nasrollahi Shahri, 2014; Chen & Goh, 2014) In Vietnam, research on teacher cognition remains sparse, with notable studies conducted by Le (2011), Nguyen (2014), and Tran (2015).
Borg (2003) identifies three key themes regarding language teacher cognition, highlighting the limited focus on speaking instruction and the lack of related studies in Vietnam These insights form the foundation for the rationale of the upcoming research.
Rationale for the study
This study addresses critical gaps in research on language teacher cognition, particularly in the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching in Vietnam It highlights the challenges faced in English speaking instruction at the Europe Vietnam America English Language Center (EVA) and articulates my personal motivation for undertaking this research.
This study addresses two significant research gaps: the limited examination of language teacher cognition in relation to speaking instruction and the lack of teacher cognition research in Vietnam By focusing on English speaking instruction, this research aims to contribute valuable insights into teacher cognition within the Vietnamese context.
As Vietnam integrates into the ASEAN community and global organizations, effective English education is essential English is a mandatory subject in high schools and is one of the three compulsory tests in the National High School Graduation Examination.
The teaching of English is a mandatory component of nearly all undergraduate programs, guided by the National Foreign Language 2020 Project, which aims to empower graduates to communicate confidently in a multilingual environment This initiative utilizes the six-level Vietnam foreign language proficiency framework to shape curricula, instructional plans, and assessment criteria across listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills Despite the emphasis on communicative English, high school educators often prioritize vocabulary, grammar, and reading for testing, neglecting essential communication skills, particularly speaking Notably, speaking is excluded from the English test in the National High School Graduation Examination, and it is similarly overlooked in some undergraduate English courses.
The current EFL teaching situation in Vietnam faces significant challenges, particularly regarding the lack of emphasis on speaking skills Key issues include teacher-related factors such as inadequate qualifications, infrequent use of English, low salaries, and excessive workloads Students also struggle with low motivation, varying English proficiency levels, and limited time for self-study Additionally, poor facilities, including inadequate libraries, noisy classrooms, and insufficient teaching resources, further hinder effective teaching practices These combined factors create barriers for teachers in implementing their EFL teaching strategies in the classroom.
At EVA, English communication courses focus on enhancing students' speaking skills through interactive activities such as discussions, role-plays, and debates, utilizing World Link textbooks Each class, consisting of 10 to 20 students, benefits from well-equipped classrooms featuring air-conditioning and CD players However, challenges persist, including a shortage of overhead projectors, leading to reliance on whiteboards for lessons Additionally, the varying English proficiency levels among students complicate the organization of speaking activities, while some students exhibit a lack of commitment to their studies, frequently missing classes These factors may significantly impact teachers' approaches to English speaking instruction.
Currently, I am teaching English for communication at EVA Developing students’ speaking skills is one of the primary goals of communication classes there
In my English speaking instruction, I have noticed a disconnect between my teaching beliefs and classroom practices, particularly regarding the use of technology to enhance student engagement Despite my conviction that the Internet should be leveraged to motivate students, I rarely incorporate it into my lessons due to logistical challenges, such as limited access to projectors and the time required for setup This inconsistency has prompted me to explore how the beliefs and knowledge of other educators influence their teaching methods, with the aim of becoming more aware of and improving my own instructional effectiveness in English speaking.
“teacher cognition” on my own classroom practices
This study addresses the limited research on language teacher cognition in Vietnam, the lack of focus on speaking instruction, and the challenges within the current EFL teaching landscape, particularly regarding English speaking instruction at EVA These factors, combined with my personal motivation, underscore the necessity of this research, which is guided by two primary aims.
Research aims
This study explores the cognitive processes and classroom practices of an EFL teacher at EVA in English speaking instruction, while also analyzing the relationship between these two aspects These objectives give rise to two key research questions that will be addressed in the following section.
Research questions
This study will attempt to answer the two questions below
1 What are the cognition and classroom practices in English speaking instruction of one EFL teacher at EVA?
2 What is the relationship between her cognition and classroom practices in English speaking instruction?
Theoretical framework
This study utilizes Borg’s (2006) framework on language teacher cognition, which highlights the interconnectedness between teacher cognition and classroom practices, influenced by various contextual factors.
Research significance
This research enables participants to reflect on their cognitive processes and classroom practices, enhancing their awareness of the pedagogical decisions they make It offers valuable insights for teacher educators, helping them understand how teachers apply learned concepts in their classrooms, which can lead to more practical course designs Additionally, the study addresses the scarcity of research on teacher cognition in English speaking instruction, contributing to the existing literature in this area Finally, it highlights the gap between theory and practice in English speaking instruction, shedding light on the underlying causes of this disconnect.
Structure of the thesis
This study includes five chapters as follows:
Chapter one serves as the introduction to the study, outlining the background and rationale for the research It includes two key research aims and questions, establishes a theoretical framework, and highlights the significance of the study.
Chapter two reviews the literature on teacher cognition and classroom practices, exploring their definitions and examining previous studies that highlight the relationship between the two It also identifies four key themes of English speaking instruction, which serve as foundational categories for investigation in this study.
Chapter three outlines the methodology utilized in this study, detailing the research setting, participant selection, research design, and data collection strategies It also highlights my role in the research process, the procedures for data collection, and the methods employed for data analysis, while addressing the validity and reliability of the findings.
Chapter four outlines the study's findings and discusses the results, focusing on the participant's cognition and classroom practices It highlights the connection between her cognitive processes and teaching methods in relation to four key themes of English speaking instruction examined in the study.
Chapter five concludes this study It provides the conclusion, contributions, and limitations of the study as well as some recommendations and suggestions for further studies.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definitions of teacher cognition
In this part, I present (1) some terms related to studies on teacher cognition,
(2) definitions and characteristics of “teacher cognition”, (3) two types of teacher cognition, and (4) what “teacher cognition” refers to in this study
Research on teacher cognition has been characterized by a variety of concepts and terminology, with knowledge and beliefs being two critical components (Clark & Peterson, 1986; Borg, 2006) Elbaz (1981) highlighted the significance of practical knowledge, which is derived from experience and applied to address real-world issues In the mid-1980s, the term teacher knowledge emerged as a focal point in cognition studies, with Shulman (1986) identifying seven types of teacher knowledge, notably emphasizing pedagogical content knowledge as the most influential in teacher cognition research (Borg, 2006) Shulman defined pedagogical content knowledge as the ability to transform teachers’ understanding of pedagogy and subject matter into accessible forms for effective teaching and learning Furthermore, Parares (1992) sought to clarify the concept of "beliefs," defining it as an individual's assessment of the truth or falsity of a proposition, inferred from a collective understanding of human communication and actions.
Meijer, Verloop, and Beijaard (2001) argue that knowledge and beliefs in teachers are inseparable due to their close connection in educators' minds Additionally, Borg (2006) highlights that the use of excessive specialized terminology complicates the understanding of teacher cognition Consequently, Borg (2003) emphasizes the need for clarity in discussing these concepts.
81) used the term “teacher cognition” to “refer to the unobservable cognitive dimension of teaching – what teachers know, believe, and think” In Borg’s (2006, p 283) framework, “teacher cognition” was used as an inclusive term for a multitude of psychological constructs including “beliefs, knowledge, theories, attitudes, assumptions, conceptions, principles, thinking, and decision making” Borg (2006, p 35) defined teacher cognition more thoroughly as “an often tacit, personally-held, practical system of mental constructs held by teachers and which are dynamic – i.e defined and refined on the basis of educational and professional experiences throughout teachers’ lives” This definition depicts some distinct characteristics of teacher cognition First, teacher cognition is tacit because it is held inside teachers’ minds; therefore, it can be accessed only by virtue of reflection Second, each teacher has his/her own cognition Third, teacher cognition is practical because it shapes and is shaped by classroom practices Last, teacher cognition is continually developed by teachers’ educational and experiential knowledge
Borg (2006) identifies two types of teacher cognition: "ideal-oriented cognitions," which relate to optimal instructional practices, and "reality-oriented cognitions," which pertain to actual teaching situations This study aims to explore teacher cognition comprehensively by examining both the ideal-oriented and reality-oriented cognitions of the participants involved.
In this study, the term "teacher cognition" will be utilized as an all-encompassing concept to refer to the interchangeable aspects of teachers' thinking, knowledge, and beliefs, in order to prevent confusion caused by the variety of concepts and terminology in the field, as suggested by Borg (2003, 2006).
Definitions of classroom practices
Classroom practices encompass the actions of teachers in language teaching environments, as defined by Borg (2003) Nishino (2009) expanded on this definition, highlighting that classroom practices also include the interactions between students and teachers She identified key elements of these practices, such as the teaching methodologies employed, the roles assigned to both teachers and students, the types of activities and materials utilized, and the management of interpersonal interactions, communication, assessment, and various pedagogical situations.
In Borg’s (2006) framework, there exists a reciprocal relationship between classroom practices and teacher cognition, influenced by various contextual factors This study defines "classroom practices" as the actions of language teachers in their classrooms, which are shaped by their cognitive processes and contextual elements, while also impacting their cognition in return.
Teacher cognition and classroom practices are intricately linked, prompting numerous studies to explore their relationship However, research has revealed that teacher cognition does not consistently align with classroom practices (Farrell & Lim, 2005; Phipps & Borg, 2009; Yue’e & Yunzhang, 2011; Melketo, 2012; Gerami & Noordin, 2013) The upcoming section will examine various perspectives from previous studies on this relationship.
Previous studies on the relationship between teacher cognition
This section reviews previous research on the connection between teacher cognition and classroom practices, categorizing findings into three main areas: language components (grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation), language skills (reading, writing, and speaking), and relevant studies conducted in Vietnam Notably, studies focusing on listening instruction are excluded due to a lack of available resources.
2.3.1 Language areas (grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation)
Recent studies on grammar instruction have focused on the relationship between teachers' beliefs and their classroom practices For instance, Farrell and Lim (2005) conducted a case study with two experienced primary teachers in Singapore, revealing that while one teacher's beliefs aligned with her practices, the other faced inconsistencies due to time constraints and a preference for deductive grammar teaching Similarly, Phipps and Borg (2009) explored this relationship with three teachers in Turkey, categorizing beliefs into core and peripheral types Their findings indicated that while core beliefs were consistent with practices, peripheral beliefs often were not, influenced by factors such as student expectations and classroom management Ezzi (2012) further examined this dynamic with 80 teachers in Yemen, finding a lack of congruence between beliefs and practices, suggesting that contextual factors need to be identified to clarify this relationship Overall, these studies highlight the complexities of aligning teachers' beliefs with their instructional methods in grammar teaching.
A study by Gerami and Noordin (2013) explored the link between teacher cognition and classroom practices in vocabulary instruction, involving four skilled male teachers from Tehran's state high schools Data was gathered through a combination of pre-observation interviews, classroom observations, post-observation interviews, and stimulated recall interviews The findings indicated that the teachers’ classroom practices aligned more closely with their modified beliefs, shaped by challenges, rather than their true beliefs about vocabulary teaching This aligns with the findings of Phipps and Borg (2009), highlighting that both studies demonstrated teachers' practices were consistent with their reality-oriented cognitions, which relate directly to instructional realities.
The relationship between teacher cognition and classroom practices in pronunciation instruction has been examined by several studies including Baker
In a 2014 study involving five experienced teachers and 63 students in an intensive English program in the United States, researchers conducted three semi-structured interviews, four classroom observations, and two 45-minute stimulated recall interviews to investigate the connection between teachers' cognition and their classroom practices in vocabulary instruction The results indicated that the teachers' beliefs regarding pronunciation instruction aligned closely with their actual classroom practices.
Research indicates that teacher cognition does not consistently align with classroom practices While Phipps and Borg (2009) and Gerami and Noordin (2013) found that some teachers' practices reflected their reality-oriented beliefs, studies by Farrell and Lim (2005), Phipps and Borg (2009), and Gerami and Noordin (2013) identified several contextual factors—such as time constraints, student characteristics, and classroom management issues—that contribute to these discrepancies.
2.3.2 Language skills (reading, writing, and speaking)
In a study by Kuzborska (2011), the relationship between teachers' beliefs and their classroom practices in reading instruction was explored, involving eight university teachers in Lithuania Utilizing various methods such as lesson observations, stimulated recalls, semi-structured interviews, and document analysis, the research found a strong alignment between the teachers' beliefs and their actual teaching practices.
Melketo (2012) conducted a study exploring the connection between teachers' beliefs and their writing instruction practices among three EFL university teachers in Ethiopia Utilizing pre-study interviews, non-participatory lesson observations, and student work samples, the research revealed both alignment and misalignment between the teachers' beliefs and their actual classroom practices Key contextual factors contributing to these inconsistencies included time constraints, teachers' perceptions of student expectations, classroom management challenges, and a perceived lack of student motivation.
Limited research has explored the connection between teacher cognition and classroom practices in English speaking instruction One notable study by Cohen and Fass (2001) involved 51 teachers and 63 students at a Colombian university, utilizing questionnaires, teacher rankings of speaking activities, and six classroom observations for data collection Findings indicated a mismatch between teachers' beliefs and their actual classroom practices regarding oral activities and collaborative work However, this study did not identify contextual factors that hindered teachers from aligning their beliefs with their practices Another relevant study was conducted by Yue’e and Yunzhang.
In a 2011 study examining the relationship between teacher cognition and classroom practices in speaking instruction, two university teachers in China were observed using various methods, including questionnaires and interviews The findings revealed a mix of consistency and inconsistency in the teachers' beliefs and their actual classroom practices While there was alignment in their understanding of student-centeredness, grammar, and vocabulary, inconsistencies arose regarding student participation These discrepancies were attributed to the nature of oral English teaching and the broader social and political context in which the teaching occurred.
In summary, the studies above also showed that teacher cognition was not always consistent with classroom practices In the study of Yue’e and Yunzhang
Research by Yue’e and Yunzhang (2011) and Melketo (2012) highlights that teacher cognition can align with, yet also diverge from, actual classroom practices They identified several contextual factors, including time constraints, classroom management, student expectations, and student participation, that significantly influence this relationship.
2.3.3 Studies on the relationship between teacher cognition and classroom practices in Vietnam
One of the few studies on teacher cognition in Vietnam was conducted by Le
A study conducted in 2011 involving eight high school EFL teachers investigated their beliefs about form-focused instruction and the connection between these beliefs and their classroom practices Utilizing semi-structured interviews, video-recorded classroom observations, and stimulated recall interviews, the research revealed that the teachers' beliefs generally aligned with their teaching methods Influential factors included professional training, prior language learning experiences, institutional factors, learner variables, instructional materials, and both personal experiences and insights from the professional community.
A study conducted by Nguyen (2014) explored the beliefs and classroom practices of 11 high school EFL teachers in task-based language teaching Data was gathered through audio-recorded group lesson planning, video-recorded classroom observations, and stimulated recall interviews The results indicated a discrepancy between the teachers' beliefs and their actual classroom practices.
Tran (2015) explored the connection between teachers' beliefs and their classroom practices in task-based language teaching, involving six high school EFL teachers Utilizing semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, lesson plans, and documents for data collection, the study found that the teachers' beliefs aligned closely with their actual classroom practices.
In summary, while the studies of Le (2011) and Tran (2015) revealed that teacher cognition was consistent with classroom practices, inconsistencies were found in Nguyen’s (2014) study
The table on the next page will provide a summary of the studies reviewed in 2.3
Table 2.1 A summary of previous studies on the relationship between teacher cognition and classroom practices
Was teacher cognition consistent with classroom practices?
Farrell and Lim grammar instruction √
Phipps and Borg grammar instruction √
Gerami and Noordin vocabulary instruction √ the U.S 2014 Baker pronunciation instruction √
Cohen and Fass speaking instruction √
Yue’e and Yunzhang speaking instruction √
2014 Nguyen task-based language teaching
2015 Tran task-based language teaching
The studies by Phipps and Borg (2009) and Gerami and Noordin (2013) revealed that teacher cognition often aligns inconsistently with classroom practices, highlighting a distinction between teachers' stated beliefs and those modified by contextual influences This supports Borg's (2006) classification of teacher cognition into ideal-oriented and reality-oriented categories, emphasizing the necessity to identify both types in this research Most of the reviewed studies utilized various data collection methods, including questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, and stimulated recall interviews.
This study investigates the connection between teacher cognition and classroom practices in English speaking instruction, focusing on key themes related to teaching speaking The primary theme selected for analysis is the balance between accuracy and fluency, which are recognized as two essential goals for speakers Understanding the distinction between these two elements is crucial for effective language instruction.
Four themes of English speaking instruction
This article examines four key themes in English speaking instruction: accuracy and fluency, speaking elements, teacher roles, and teacher feedback The first theme, accuracy and fluency, highlights their significance as primary focuses in speaking activities Scrivener (2011) emphasizes the importance of differentiating between accuracy and fluency in effective language teaching.
Understanding the distinction between accuracy-focused and fluency-focused work is crucial, as each has different objectives and requires unique classroom procedures.
The study by Yue’e and Yunzhang (2011) identifies key components of English speaking instruction, including vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, and error correction However, effective English speaking instruction encompasses more than these basics McCarthy and Carter (1997, as cited in Richards, 2007) highlight that discourse analysis, conversational analysis, and corpus analysis reveal unique characteristics of spoken language Harmer (2007) emphasizes that understanding these speaking elements can enhance students' fluency in English, making them a focal point of this study.
Teachers assume various roles during speaking activities, as highlighted by Harmer (2007), and these roles are integral to classroom dynamics (Nishino, 2009) Consequently, this study's third theme focuses on the significance of teacher roles in enhancing the learning experience.
According to Harmer (2007, p 142), feedback, including both assessment and correction, is crucial in enhancing oral work One of the key responsibilities of teachers is to provide feedback that supports students in developing their oral fluency, making teacher feedback an essential component of effective language instruction.
These four themes provide the study with initial categories to investigate the relationship between the participant’s cognition and classroom practices in English speaking instruction
Brown (2000) emphasized the importance of distinguishing between accuracy and fluency in language performance He defined accuracy as language that is clear, articulate, and grammatically and phonologically correct, while fluency is characterized by flowing and natural language This distinction is influenced by whether teaching techniques focus on message-oriented language use or language-oriented usage.
Scrivener (2011) noted that the balance between accuracy and fluency in language learning varies based on classroom activities and lesson stages Both accuracy and fluency are essential goals of Communicative Language Teaching, as highlighted by Brown (2000) To enhance students' language skills effectively, educators should incorporate both non-communicative and communicative activities, as suggested by Harmer (2007).
Non-communicative activities, as defined by Harmer (2007), focus on enhancing students' language accuracy without the intention of communication These activities are characterized by a lack of communicative desire and purpose, emphasis on form rather than content, use of a single language item, teacher intervention, and controlled materials Typical examples include audio-lingual drills, which encompass various types such as repetition, backward build-up, chain, substitution, transformation, and question-and-answer formats (Littlewood, 1981; Freeman, 2000) A summary of student engagement in these drills is provided in the accompanying table.
Drills are essential for students to practice and improve their language skills through various techniques In repetition drills, students accurately and quickly repeat what their teacher says Backward build-up involves starting with the end of a long sentence and working backward to construct the entire statement Chain drills encourage students to take turns greeting each other or asking and answering questions Substitution drills require students to correctly place the teacher's cues within specific sentences Transformation drills focus on changing sentence patterns, such as converting a positive sentence into a negative one Finally, question-and-answer drills help students respond quickly to their teacher's questions or formulate their own questions using provided cues.
Table 2.2 Non-communicative activities (audio-lingual drills)
Richards (2007) emphasized that the primary objective of oral English instruction is to cultivate students' communicative competence, enabling them to use English effectively across various contexts, including social, educational, and professional settings To achieve this, teachers must incorporate communicative activities, which Scrivener (2011) defines as classroom tasks that encourage learners to engage in speaking and listening with one another Littlewood (1981) categorized these activities into functional communication tasks, where students address information gaps or solve problems, and social interactional activities, which are shaped by social and functional factors Additionally, Thornbury (2005) identified five key characteristics that define a communicative activity.
• the motivation of the activity is to achieve some outcome, using language;
• the activity takes place in real time;
• achieving the outcome requires the participants to interact; i.e to listen as well as speak;
• because of the spontaneous and jointly constructed nature of the interaction, the outcome is not 100% predictable;
• there is no restriction on the language used (pp 79-80)
Harmer (2007, p 70) listed six features of communicative activities including “a desire to communicate, a communicative purpose, content not form, variety of language, no teacher intervention, (and) no materials control” Scrivener
Communicative activities are essential for student engagement, as they promote a genuine exchange of information and encourage learners to bridge information gaps These activities enable students to utilize language resources effectively in real-life interactions to achieve specific outcomes Prominent educators such as Thornbury (2005), Kayi (2006), Harmer (2007), and Scrivener (2011) have recommended various communicative activities that teachers can incorporate into their speaking instruction A summary of these suggested activities is provided in the table below.
Activities What students do acting from a script perform play scenes or their own dialogs information-gap games talk to their partners to complete tasks
TV and radio games engage participants in various interactive formats, including buzz groups that discuss diverse topics and instant comments that express immediate reactions to visuals Formal debates encourage structured arguments for or against statements, while unplanned discussions allow for spontaneous topic exploration Consensus-building activities focus on reaching agreements, and prepared talks give individuals the opportunity to present their favorite subjects Questionnaires and surveys facilitate question-and-answer interactions, while simulations and role-plays enable participants to act out real-life scenarios Picture difference tasks involve partners describing images to identify discrepancies, and group planning tasks require collaborative organization of events like holidays, followed by presentations of opinions Pyramid discussions promote problem-solving through incremental group sizes, and jigsaw activities encourage agreement within original and then redistributed groups Ranking tasks involve ordering items by preference, while board games and puzzles foster teamwork in task completion Blocking games introduce unexpected dialogue responses, and guessing games utilize yes/no questions for interaction Storytelling allows for personal narratives to be shared, while interviews are conducted based on teacher-provided rubrics Finally, story completion tasks and reporting sessions encourage creativity and sharing of interesting news with peers.
In conclusion, educators play a crucial role in fostering students' oral accuracy and fluency through a combination of non-communicative and communicative activities To enhance oral accuracy, it is essential for teachers to emphasize grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary Conversely, developing oral fluency requires the incorporation of specific speech characteristics, which will be discussed in the following section.
Various authors have explored the characteristics of speaking, highlighting key elements essential for effective communication Dornyei and Thurrell (1994) identified four crucial components: conversational rules and structures, strategies, functions and meanings, and social and cultural contexts Thornbury (2005) expanded on this with eight features, including sociocultural knowledge, genre knowledge, speech acts, and spoken English grammar Richards (2007) emphasized conversational routines, speaking styles, and functions, while Harmer (2007) outlined five facets, such as speaking events and fixed phrases For this discussion, I focus on two vital groups: spoken English features and the comprehensive aspects of conversational rules, strategies, functions, and cultural contexts These elements are crucial for understanding effective communication in spoken language.
Spoken English exhibits distinct characteristics that set it apart from written English According to McCarthy and O’Keeffe (2004, p 28), understanding these differences can offer valuable linguistic insights that enhance teaching methods for speaking skills.
Chapter summary
This chapter defines teacher cognition and classroom practices relevant to the study, while also reviewing previous research on the connection between teacher cognition and classroom practices Additionally, it explores four key themes in English speaking instruction, contributing to a comprehensive literature review that aligns with Borg's framework.
(2006) framework for research on language teacher cognition have helped me establish the theoretical framework for this study below
Classroom Practices in English Speaking Instruction
• conversational rules and structures, conversational strategies, functions and meaning in conversation, and social and cultural contexts
• focusing on accuracy with non- communicative activities
• focusing on fluency with communicative activities
• feedback in accuracy- focused activities: showing correctness and getting it right
• feedback in fluency- focused activities: gentle correction, recording mistakes, and after the event
Figure 2.2 Theoretical framework for this study
This theoretical framework illustrates the interdependent relationship between teacher cognition and classroom practices, influenced by contextual factors Focusing on English speaking instruction, the study identifies four key themes: accuracy and fluency, speaking elements, teacher roles, and teacher feedback, which serve as initial categories to explore this relationship The subsequent chapter will detail the research setting, participants, research design, data collection methods, my roles, data collection procedures, data analysis, and the validity and reliability of the findings.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research setting
The study was conducted at the Europe Vietnam America English Language Center, located at 304 Pham Hung Street, District 8, Ho Chi Minh City Established in 2008, the center has expanded to include multiple branches, with the headquarters moving to its current location in 2016 Catering to a diverse range of learners, including children, teenagers, university students, and adults, the center primarily serves individuals studying or working in Ho Chi Minh City The majority of students are children and teenagers, taught by qualified teachers from Southern Vietnam, most of whom hold Bachelor’s degrees in English language pedagogy and teach full-time at local educational institutions The center offers various English courses, such as English for Children, Teenagers, International Communication, TOEIC, and IELTS, with classes typically held from Monday to Saturday evenings and on weekends for younger learners Each class accommodates 10 to 20 students and is equipped with essential teaching tools The study was conducted at the center's headquarters on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays from 6 p.m to 7:30 p.m.
The study participant taught an English for International Communication course using the World Link series by Stempleski, Morgan, and Douglas (2011), designed to enhance learners' confidence and fluency in English This series comprises four levels—World Link Intro, 1, 2, and 3—catering to beginners through intermediate learners, with each book containing twelve chapters that include two lessons focused on vocabulary, listening, speaking, and communication Speaking is emphasized throughout the series Courses spanned six months, primarily taught by a Vietnamese instructor, with foreign teacher interaction every two weeks Assessments included a midterm after unit six and a final exam at the course's conclusion, while teachers had the flexibility to set their own instructional goals and teaching methods.
Participant
In a study conducted at EVA, six teachers were approached to participate in English communication courses, with three consenting to take part Initially uncertain about the richness of the data, the researcher considered including multiple participants However, upon data collection, it became clear that focusing on a single case would better fulfill the study's objectives, especially given the constraints of the school's page limit A random sampling method was employed to select one teacher from the three participants, ultimately choosing Teacher One This teacher, 36 years old, graduated from university in 2002 and earned her master's degree in TESOL in 2008 She taught World Link 1 on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays from 6 p.m to 7:30 p.m., with approximately 10 students in her class.
Research design
This study utilized a qualitative case-study approach to explore the connection between participants' cognition and their classroom practices in English speaking instruction According to Creswell (2009), qualitative research aims to understand the meanings individuals or groups attribute to social or human issues Key features of qualitative research include the development of emerging questions, data collection in the participants' natural settings, and inductive data analysis that builds from specific observations to broader themes Additionally, the researcher interprets the data's significance while representing participants' perspectives and explaining human behavior through established or emerging concepts, often utilizing multiple sources of evidence (Yin).
Creswell (2009) identified five qualitative research strategies: ethnography, grounded theory, case studies, phenomenological research, and narrative research Among these, case studies are defined as in-depth explorations of a program, event, activity, process, or individual(s), highlighting their significance in qualitative inquiry (Creswell, 2009, p 13).
“persons, social communities (e.g families), organizations, and institutions (e.g a nursing home)” (Flick, 2009, p 134) However, according to Yin (2009), defining
“case studies” by naming case topics was insufficient He provided another definition of case studies as follows:
1 A case study is an empirical inquiry that o investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real-life context, especially when o the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident
2 The case study inquiry o copes with the technically distinctive situation in which there will be many more variables of interest than data points, and as one result o relies on multiple sources of evidence, with data needing to converge in a triangulating fashion, and as another result o benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions to guide data collection and analysis (Yin, 2009, p 18)
This definition emphasized the importance of contextual conditions, multiple strategies of inquiry, data triangulation, and theoretical propositions in investigating a case topic
This study employed a qualitative case study approach for three key reasons Firstly, teacher cognition is defined as a "personally-held, practical system of mental constructs" (Borg, 2006, p 35), making the case study method ideal for exploring the participant's cognitive processes in teaching Secondly, this approach facilitated an in-depth examination of her cognition within the authentic context of her classroom practices in English speaking instruction at EVA Lastly, the use of multiple qualitative strategies, such as semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, and stimulated recall interviews, enabled the collection and triangulation of data to analyze the connection between teacher cognition and classroom practices in English speaking instruction These methodologies will be elaborated on in the subsequent section.
Data collection strategies
Borg (2006) identified data collection strategies as a significant challenge in researching language teacher cognition, as this aspect of teaching is not directly observable He noted that the most commonly used methods in this field include self-report instruments, semi-structured and stimulated recall interviews, and unstructured observations These strategies were also prevalent in the studies reviewed in this thesis, highlighting their importance in understanding teacher cognition.
Studying teacher cognition presents inherent challenges, as evidenced by the diverse range of studies employing multi-method strategies These approaches often integrate self-report instruments, interviews, and observations When executed with the necessary technical expertise, these combined methods can effectively mitigate the limitations associated with any single strategy.
Qualitative interviews offer valuable opportunities for reflection, particularly in understanding teacher cognition, which is often tacit (Tracy, 2013) In this study, a semi-structured interview was conducted to explore the participant's insights on English speaking instruction, focusing on four key themes while remaining open to additional topics To further investigate the participant's classroom practices, classroom observations were employed as a secondary strategy Additionally, a stimulated recall interview was utilized to uncover the reasoning behind the participant's instructional choices, enhancing the clarity of her classroom practices By integrating these three strategies, the study aimed to mitigate the limitations of any single method (Borg, 2006) and provide a comprehensive understanding of the interplay between teacher cognition and classroom practices.
In summary, this study adopted three data collection strategies including:
According to Borg (2006), semi-structured interviews are characterized by a flexible approach centered around a set of topics or loosely defined questions, offering advantages such as conversational freedom and open-ended responses from interviewees This method also allows interviewers to prepare with pre-designed questions, yielding reliable and comparable qualitative data (Cohen & Crabtree, 2006) In this study, semi-structured interviews were selected for three key reasons: they aligned with the four initial themes of English speaking instruction, they effectively captured the personal and tacit nature of teacher cognition through open-ended dialogue, and they facilitated the opportunity for follow-up questions, enriching the data and potentially uncovering new themes for investigation.
In this study, a semi-structured interview was conducted in Vietnamese to ensure the participant felt comfortable discussing her thoughts, and it was later transcribed into English for analysis.
I provided the participant with a checklist (see appendix 2) to assess her understanding of English speaking instruction This checklist was developed based on four key themes: accuracy and fluency, speaking elements, teacher roles, and teacher feedback, with each theme containing specific items For instance, under accuracy and fluency, I included activities focused on accuracy, such as repetition, substitution, and transformation, alongside fluency-oriented activities like interviews, role-play, and information-gap tasks The participant was instructed to complete the checklist accordingly.
The checklist included responses of "Yes" for actions she believed she should take, "No" for those she felt she should avoid, and "Undecided" for areas of uncertainty After reviewing it, my supervisor recommended adding an additional option.
“Undecided”, be added to the two initial ones, i.e “Yes” and “No” The checklist helped me and the participant be more prepared for the semi-structured interview
In conducting a successful semi-structured interview, I adhered to Yin’s (2011) six essential guidelines for interviewers I limited my speaking time by refraining from unnecessary questions or comments, allowing the participant to select the discussion theme from the checklist, which she preferred to follow in order To maintain neutrality, I was mindful of my tone and body language to avoid any bias Building rapport was crucial, so I engaged her in conversation about her job and family for half an hour before the interview I followed a structured interview protocol and focused on active listening to identify opportunities for further probing during our conversation.
When writing the interview questions, I followed Tracy’s (2013, pp 144-
145) suggestions that good interview questions should (1) be “simple and clear”, (2)
In conducting interviews, it's essential to focus on one topic at a time and to formulate questions that encourage open-ended and complex responses Questions should be clear, neutral, and non-leading, ensuring that the interviewee's preferred identity is respected rather than threatened For instance, I structured my questions around specific themes, asking participants to elaborate on their checklist responses, such as, "Could you explain why you should adopt these teacher roles?" To foster open dialogue, I often prompted with "Why?" while consciously avoiding judgmental phrasing like "Why don’t you …?" to create a comfortable environment for sharing.
The interview guide, detailed in the following table, was crafted to explore participants' thoughts on four key themes: accuracy and fluency, speaking elements, teacher roles, and teacher feedback Additionally, questions 8, 9, and 10 were included to gather deeper insights into the participant's cognition regarding English speaking instruction, potentially revealing new themes for the study My supervisor reviewed the questions, assisting in correcting grammatical errors and enhancing clarity For instance, the original question, "Are you teaching English speaking anywhere else besides EVA?" was revised for better understanding.
In addition to your role at EVA, are you instructing English speaking skills in other locations? If so, please specify where, the courses offered, and the English proficiency levels you are teaching Additionally, regarding question five, do you believe there are other speaking components that you should incorporate into your lessons for your students?
1 Besides teaching English speaking at EVA, are you teaching English speaking anywhere else? If yes, where, what courses, and what English levels are you teaching?
2 Do you like teaching English speaking? Why or why not?
3 Do you encounter any issues in teaching English speaking? If yes, what are they?
4 In the checklist, you stated that you should use … activities Could you explain why you should use these speaking activities? Are there any other speaking activities you think you should use in your classes? If yes, what are they and why? In which order of frequency do you think you should use these speaking activities in your classes?
5 In the checklist, you stated that you should teach … Could you explain why you should teach these speaking elements? Are there any other speaking elements you think you should teach your students? If yes, what are they and why? In which order of frequency do you think you should teach these speaking elements in your classes?
6 In the checklist, you stated that you should … Could you explain why you should adopt these teacher roles? Are there any other teacher roles you think you should adopt in teaching speaking? If yes, what are they and why? In which order of frequency do you think you should adopt these teacher roles?
7 In the checklist, you stated that you should give feedback to your students by … Could you explain why you should use these ways of giving feedback? Are there any other techniques you think you should use to give feedback? If yes, what are they and why? In which order of frequency do you think you should use these ways of giving feedback?
8 In general, what do you believe makes effective English speaking instruction? Why?
Thinking about her successes in
9 What do you think you have done successfully in teaching speaking?
10 Is there anything else you would like to say about the teaching of speaking? If yes, what are they?
Table 3.1 The interview guide for the semi-structured interview
To examine how the participant’s cognition is reflected on her classroom practices, I will also conduct some classroom observations, which will be presented in the next section
My roles
In qualitative research, “inquirers explicitly identify reflexively their biases, values, and personal background, such as gender, history, culture, and socioeconomic status, that may shape their interpretations” (Creswell, 2009, p 177)
As an EFL teacher, I recognized a gap between my beliefs about effective teaching and my actual classroom practices, leading me to conclude that evaluating teachers solely based on theoretical criteria is inadequate I argue that a teacher's thoughts, knowledge, and beliefs are just as crucial as their actions in the classroom During my research, I made it clear to the participant that I was not there to evaluate her but rather to explore the connection between her cognition and classroom practices for my thesis I understood that my presence might cause her discomfort, potentially affecting her responses and behaviors However, our close relationship at the center could help mitigate any alterations in her reactions.
As a colleague of the participant, I recognized that the accuracy of the findings could be compromised by biased, incomplete, or flawed data reporting (Creswell, 2009, p 177) This challenge can be mitigated through the implementation of three validity strategies outlined in section 3.8.
As the identity protector for the participant, I ensured anonymity by referring to the teacher as "T" in interview and observation transcripts, securing her data in a password-protected folder on my desktop, and eliminating all identifying information from the data.
As an EFL teacher and graduate student researching the connection between cognition and classroom practices, I also viewed myself as a colleague and identity protector, recognizing that these roles shaped my data interpretations.
Data collection procedure
This study, conducted between November 2016 and March 2017, utilized semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, and stimulated recall interviews for data collection Prior to the semi-structured interviews in January 2017, participants were invited to sign a consent form.
The semi-structured interview was conducted in Vietnamese to ensure the participant's comfort, audio-recorded for later transcription into English Following the interview, five classroom observations took place, with the first two serving as pilot observations to acclimate the teacher and students to my presence The observational data for this study was collected from the last three observations, focusing solely on the teacher's speaking instruction, with varying lengths based on the day's lesson I recorded the sessions on my cell phone while seated at the back of the classroom, which limited my note-taking Subsequently, a stimulated recall interview was conducted; however, only one interview was possible due to the participant's busy teaching schedule.
Saturday afternoon in the observation week The detailed analysis will be described in the following section.
Data analysis
This study utilized qualitative data analysis, employing methods such as semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, and stimulated recall interviews Creswell (2009) defines qualitative data analysis as the process of interpreting text and image data He outlines a six-step approach for conducting qualitative data analysis, which guides researchers in making sense of their findings.
1 organize and prepare the data for analysis
2 read through all the data
3 begin detailed analysis with a coding process
4 use the coding process to generate a description of the setting or people as well as categories or themes for analysis
5 advance how the description and themes will be represented in the qualitative narrative
6 make an interpretation or meaning of the data (Creswell, 2009, p 183)
This approach was employed to answer the two research questions of the study
Research question 1: What are the cognition and classroom practices in English speaking instruction of one EFL teacher at EVA?
I began by transcribing the semi-structured interview into English and reviewing it to understand the participant’s cognition Utilizing four initial themes for my investigation, I organized her responses accordingly I then coded the transcript to identify any new themes, following Creswell's (2009) method of segmenting text data and labeling categories with in vivo terms However, I did not discover any new themes related to the teaching of speaking, resulting in the retention of the original four themes: accuracy and fluency, speaking elements, teacher roles, and teacher feedback After gathering insights into her cognition regarding these themes, I proceeded to transcribe, code, and categorize data from classroom observations and the stimulated recall interview.
Research question 2: What is the relationship between her cognition and classroom practices in English speaking instruction?
First, I gathered information about her cognition and classroom practices related to each theme together Then I described the relationship between them
The transcription, coding, categorization, and description of the data facilitated insights into participants' cognition and classroom practices in English speaking instruction, highlighting their interrelationship The subsequent section will outline the measures implemented to ensure the validity and reliability of the study's findings.
Validity and reliability
Creswell (2009) emphasizes that validity and reliability in qualitative research differ from their definitions in quantitative research He explains that qualitative validity involves the researcher verifying the accuracy of findings through specific procedures, while qualitative reliability refers to the consistency of the researcher's approach across various researchers and projects.
Gibbs (2007) recommended several reliability procedures, including checking transcripts for errors, ensuring consistent code meanings, and cross-checking codes To enhance the reliability of this study's findings, I meticulously reviewed the transcripts multiple times to eliminate mistakes I maintained detailed memos outlining the definitions of the codes and consistently compared the data against these definitions to verify the consistency of the code meanings However, cross-checking the codes was not feasible due to the labor-intensive nature of the coding process for additional reviewers.
To validate the findings, I employed three validity strategies from Creswell (2009): triangulation, member checking, and rich descriptions I utilized methodological triangulation by conducting semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, and stimulated recall interviews to explore the connection between the participant’s cognition and classroom practices Additionally, I provided the participant with a final report summarizing her cognition and practices, which she reviewed and confirmed as accurate after one week Finally, I enriched the findings by including detailed quotes from the participant’s interviews and recounting her classroom actions.
Chapter summary
This chapter outlines the study's setting and participants while justifying the use of a qualitative case study approach It details the three data collection methods employed: semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, and stimulated recall interviews Additionally, it describes the researcher's roles, the data collection procedures, data analysis, and the validity and reliability of the findings The subsequent chapter will present the study's findings.
