INTRODUCTION
B ACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The teaching and learning of English speaking are hindered by traditional methods that prioritize form-focused instruction, as observed in primary classes at Ho Van Hue Primary School Common practices include using Vietnamese for explanations, writing sample structures on the board, and requiring students to memorize model utterances This approach leads to passive learning, where students have limited opportunities to express their ideas and engage in pair or group work Consequently, students often resemble parrots, merely repeating what the teacher says Additionally, teachers dominate the conversation and frequently interrupt to correct grammatical errors, transforming speaking lessons into sessions focused more on reading and writing accuracy rather than genuine communication.
The author conducted observations of English speaking instruction in classes from grade three to grade five at Ho Van Hue Primary School The findings highlight the common teaching approaches utilized by teachers, which are summarized in the accompanying table.
Most teachers at this primary school rely on form-focused instruction for teaching English speaking, particularly in areas such as finding differences, picture storytelling, identifying the odd one out, and discussing personal information Rather than adopting a learner-centered approach and acting as facilitators, these educators continue to implement traditional methods in their speaking lessons For instance, instead of allowing students to collaborate in groups to brainstorm observations from pictures, teachers often provide sample sentence structures, such as “In picture A, there is …, but in picture B, there are…” or “Here, the boy is laughing, but there, the girl is crying…”.
Table 1.1: Summary of the schedule of real observations from the textbook Fun for
Teacher Session Methodology Date Time Place
3) Unit 33: On your feet and on your head
Form-focused instruction + Meaning-focused instruction
6) Unit 32: Why is Sally crying?
Things we eat and drink
Form-focused instruction + Meaning-focused instruction
In Class 5/4, teachers engage students by having them listen to explanations and repeat structures aloud Selected students take turns vocalizing these structures in front of the class Following this, teachers allocate five to seven minutes for students to copy the sample structures into their notebooks Finally, students practice speaking English individually for four to six minutes before presenting their work to the class.
The current approach to teaching English speaking in primary schools presents several challenges that hinder students' fluency With only 35-minute class periods, young learners struggle to quickly transcribe content from the board into their notebooks Additionally, large class sizes, often exceeding 40 students, limit opportunities for individual speaking practice As a result, English speaking lessons often devolve into grammar exercises dictated by the teacher, rather than fostering genuine communication skills.
Current guidelines from publishers like Cambridge, Oxford, and Macmillan advocate for innovative teaching methods, particularly communicative language teaching in speaking lessons However, many Vietnamese teachers struggle to implement these recommendations due to public school conditions, where class sizes often exceed 40 students with varying proficiency levels This large class size hinders the ability to form small groups, limiting opportunities for students to enhance their speaking skills Furthermore, the 35-minute lesson duration in primary schools restricts the time available for speaking practice compared to private international schools, which typically have smaller classes of 15-20 students.
The author of this study highlights several reasons why English teachers at Ho Van Hue Primary School favor conventional teaching methods and limit group work in speaking activities Teachers express concerns about classroom management, as grouping students often leads to increased noise and distractions from irrelevant chatter Additionally, in group settings, team leaders tend to dominate discussions while others remain passive Despite the push for communicative methods and innovative teaching practices encouraged by school principals and the national foreign language project 2020, many teachers hesitate to adopt new approaches due to fears of inadequate classroom control and the pressure to complete the syllabus on time Furthermore, the anxiety surrounding students' potential lower scores can negatively impact teachers' performance evaluations at the end of the school year.
The challenges faced by children, such as sacrificing meaning for form due to teacher instruction, school facilities, and the pressure of high exam scores, drive the need for alternative English teaching methods in primary schools This research aims to improve young learners' speaking abilities by implementing meaning-focused activities, grounded in Flavel’s (1963) interpretation of Piaget’s cognitive development theory, as a more effective approach to enhance speaking skills.
S TATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Based on observations at Ho Van Hue Primary School and over five years of teaching experience, the researcher identifies key issues in English speaking instruction Despite the national foreign language project 2020 promoting communicative language teaching to enhance students' speaking skills, many teachers still rely on traditional methods This reliance is attributed to challenges such as the complexity of implementing new approaches in primary education, large class sizes of 40 or more students, classroom management difficulties, and unequal support for students.
Additionally, the intensive program is considered to be overloaded for both teachers and students because they not only learn four periods of the textbook
In primary classes, teachers face the challenge of completing all required tasks within a short duration of just 35 minutes per period This time constraint, combined with the need for students to balance their studies with additional subjects like Math and Science, emphasizes the importance of effective time management in the classroom.
The primary challenges faced by teachers, including limited time and resources, hinder their ability to explore innovative methods for teaching English speaking to young learners Additionally, the author’s analysis of past exam results and practical experience with primary students of varying levels prompts an investigation into whether students' speaking performance meets the school’s expectations.
A IM AND R ESEARCH QUESTIONS
This study investigates the impact of meaning-focused activities on young learners' speaking skills and their attitudes towards this innovative approach It seeks to answer two key research questions related to these effects.
1 To what extent do meaning-focused activities affect young learners’ speaking ability?
2 What are young learners’ attitudes towards meaning-focused activities in learning speaking?
S IGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study highlights the effectiveness of meaning-focused activities in enhancing young learners' speaking performance at Ho Van Hue Primary School The positive outcomes suggest that teachers can implement this approach school-wide to improve communication skills and balance performance across listening, reading, and writing Additionally, meaning-focused instruction fosters student engagement and encourages positive attitudes towards learning Motivation is crucial in second language acquisition, as it enables learners to interact more fluently during speaking lessons Overall, the study underscores the importance of motivation, interaction, and positive attitudes in developing students' speaking abilities through meaning-focused activities.
O RGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
This study consists of five chapters which are introduction, literature review of meaning-focused activities, methodology, results and discussion of the findings, and conclusions of the study
The article is structured into five chapters, starting with an introduction that outlines the study's background, problem statement, objectives, significance, and organization The second chapter reviews literature on the meaning-focused approach, the Zone of Proximal Development, meta-cognition, and prior research on the impact of meaning-focused activities on young learners' speaking skills The methodology chapter details the research site, participant selection, data collection methods, analytical framework, and the reliability and validity of the instruments used In the fourth chapter, research results and discussions are presented, drawing from tests, questionnaires, and interviews Finally, the concluding chapter summarizes the main findings, discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the methodology, and offers recommendations for future research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
H ISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO THE MEANING - FOCUSED APPROACH
Understanding the historical context of the meaning-focused approach is essential for researchers aiming to explore its impact on young learners' speaking performance.
The Grammar Translation Method has been shown to negatively impact English speaking skills, prompting a researcher to explore a new approach to enhance students' speaking abilities While form-focused instruction aids in mastering reading and writing through memorization of grammar rules and vocabulary, it often hinders fluent English speaking (Asl, 2015) This indicates a disconnect between grammatical proficiency and effective communication Bishop (2000) highlights that there is no direct correlation between accuracy and fluency in speaking; a strong grasp of grammar does not guarantee the ability to construct accurate sentences Children struggle to focus on both fluency and accuracy simultaneously Studies by notable methodologists like Spada and Lightbown (1993) and Johnson and Swain (1997) reveal that although students may excel in grammar tests, they often face challenges in engaging in smooth conversations Ultimately, the primary objective of learning a foreign language should be achieving fluency over mere accuracy.
For decades, educators have employed form-focused instruction to teach English speaking, but this conventional method has proven ineffective in fostering communicative competence both in and out of the classroom Consequently, modern methodologists have introduced the meaning-focused approach, which aims to enhance learners' language proficiency (Asl, 2015) Unlike the Grammar Translation Method, which struggles to develop communication skills, meaning-focused instruction effectively promotes communicative competence in the target language (Richards & Rogers, 2014) This teaching approach emphasizes learner-centered tasks that encourage students to prioritize meaning over form in their English speaking practice The primary objective of learning a second language is to create meaning in speech rather than merely mastering grammatical structures (Hymes, 1972) With this new instructional method, students are encouraged to use the target language over 90% of the time, significantly enhancing their communication skills through increased speaking practice Overall, meaning-focused instruction provides numerous benefits for learners aiming to achieve fluency in English.
The modern approach to foreign language teaching has significantly transformed the learning experience, offering numerous benefits It fosters classroom interaction through communicative tasks that enhance second language acquisition by promoting negotiation of meaning among students According to Pica, Kanagy, and Fadolun (1993), social interaction is crucial for language learning, particularly when learners work towards mutual understanding Children, as active learners, acquire a second language differently than adults, primarily through hands-on experiences Therefore, collaborative activities such as pair or group work are more effective for children than individual tasks, as they facilitate communication and information exchange Additionally, meaning-focused activities boost self-confidence and motivation in primary school learners, enabling them to negotiate word meanings to express their needs both inside and outside the classroom This approach allows young learners to engage in “friendly communication,” improving their speaking skills Furthermore, the meaning-focused method aligns well with children aged 7-11, who are in the third stage of Piaget’s cognitive development (Kowal & Swain, 1997).
Research indicates that form-focused instruction has little positive impact on learners' speaking abilities, as it hinders fluency in second language conversations In response to the limitations of traditional methods like the Grammar Translation Method, prominent methodologists have developed a meaning-focused approach aimed at fostering fluency in students both inside and outside the classroom This modern teaching method encourages students to engage actively and confidently in pair or small group activities The meaning-focused approach enhances communicative competence, particularly among young learners aged seven to eleven, who are in the third stage of Piaget’s cognitive development and are better suited to grasp concrete meanings rather than abstract forms Unlike adults, children acquire a second language differently and struggle to balance form and meaning in oral communication due to their cognitive limitations and life experiences Thus, the meaning-focused approach has been recognized as a superior method for teaching speaking to young learners, highlighting its significant advantages (Scheffler, 2011).
A DESCRIPTION OF MEANING - FOCUSED AND FORM - FOCUSED APPROACH TEACHING 9 2.3 T HEORY OF Z ONE OF P ROXIMAL D EVELOPMENT
Fluency and accuracy are essential for effective speaking, but they should be prioritized in a specific order (Kowal & Swain, 1997) While learners engage in communicative tasks focused on meaning, they also absorb form-focused instruction implicitly Ellis (1994) emphasizes that teaching form and meaning simultaneously is crucial Although learners may understand grammatical rules, they often struggle with fluent oral production Furthermore, without adequate focus on form, learners can make numerous morphological, syntactical, and phonological errors in meaning-focused classes This method is more suitable for adults in the fourth stage of Piaget’s cognitive development, as they can grasp complex formal operations Conversely, young learners aged seven to eleven cannot effectively learn these approaches separately Therefore, meaning-focused instruction is the most effective way for children to learn speaking explicitly, while form-focused instruction should follow oral tasks to enhance accuracy.
Research by Doughty (1991), Spa and Lightbown (1993), Ellis (1994), and Kowal and Swain (1997) indicates that meaning-focused instruction is more effective for young learners aged seven to eleven than form-focused instruction, which emphasizes grammatical accuracy Observations at Ho Van Hue Primary School and other public schools in Ho Chi Minh City reveal that children enhance their speaking skills when prioritizing meaning in their oral communication This approach aligns with Piaget’s cognitive development theory and caters to children's developmental stages In contrast, form-focused lessons can hinder fluency and induce anxiety over grammatical mistakes, leading to interruptions in communication, particularly among less proficient students Spada & Lightbown (1993) found that while students may perform well on grammar tests, they struggle with effective conversational skills Therefore, while grammar is important, it should take a secondary role to meaning in fostering fluent English speaking.
This article explores the methodologies of meaning-focused and form-focused instruction, highlighting their impact on young learners' speaking performance By examining prior studies, the researcher aims to establish a comprehensive approach to teaching and learning English speaking skills through these two instructional strategies.
Research indicates that second language learners, particularly adults, prioritize both accuracy and meaning in their oral speech production While adolescents are capable of constructing accurate sentences due to their cognitive maturity, they often struggle with fluency as they concentrate heavily on sentence structure In contrast, young learners aged seven to eleven benefit from meaning-focused instruction, which aligns with their cognitive development stage as outlined in Piaget’s theory At this age, children are better equipped to grasp concrete meanings rather than grammatical forms, allowing them to engage more freely in conversation This approach encourages fluency and interaction through collaborative activities, as children feel comfortable making grammatical errors Ultimately, meaning-focused teaching is more effective for developing English speaking skills in young learners, emphasizing the importance of communication over strict adherence to grammatical accuracy.
2.3 Theory of Zone of Proximal Development
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), introduced by Vygotsky in the 1930s, is a significant theoretical framework in education that has influenced teaching methodologies across Russia, America, and Canada This theory emphasizes the importance of adult guidance and collaboration with more capable peers in the learning process, particularly for young learners aged seven to eleven who often require support to acquire new language skills By working together in collaborative environments, children can enhance their knowledge and experiences, thereby bridging the gap between their current abilities and their potential development The ZPD underscores the value of interactive learning, making it a vital component in effective foreign language instruction for young students worldwide.
The diagram in Figure 2.2 illustrates a circle divided into three colored sections, where the yellow circle represents "what I can do," reflecting an individual's existing knowledge and experience The purple circle, known as the Zone of Proximal Development, signifies "what I can do with help," emphasizing that cognitive development is significantly influenced by assistance from others, such as more knowledgeable peers or adults Vygotsky argues that children's mental development should be evaluated not solely on their independent capabilities but also on their potential with guidance, referred to as scaffolding This collaborative learning process, as described by Hammond and Gibbons (2001), allows children to reach their developmental potential with adult support Scaffolding is essential for cognitive growth, enabling children to tackle challenges and achieve goals that exceed their independent abilities (Wood, 1996).
Scaffolding enhances learners' engagement in speaking lessons through collaborative activities such as pair and group work Support from peers is crucial, as it fosters creativity and assists in clarifying difficult vocabulary or confusing events within a story Children often struggle to narrate a picture story due to the complexity of logically connecting various elements from start to finish The collaboration among four children generates an engaging narrative filled with exciting events depicted in the sequence of four pictures This cooperative approach significantly benefits the development of speaking skills, as it encourages consistent practice across different components of speaking assessments.
Research indicates that scaffolding significantly enhances young learners' speaking performance and communicative competence Support from teachers and peers fosters positive attitudes toward collaborative speaking tasks, as evidenced by increased participation and creativity during activities To maximize the benefits of scaffolding in developing English speaking skills in children, educators can implement various types, including modeling, contingency management, feedback, instructing, questioning, and cognitive structuring (Gallimore & Tharp, 1990).
Modeling is a crucial scaffolding technique where teachers demonstrate activities or situations, allowing learners to study examples before tackling real-life scenarios In addition to modeling, teachers must possess the foresight to anticipate unexpected classroom events and prepare solutions, a skill known as contingency management, which is essential for navigating surprises during foreign language instruction Effective feedback is another vital aspect of scaffolding; teachers should provide constructive comments on learners' oral presentations in a way that maintains motivation and confidence, focusing on common grammatical errors after speeches to avoid interrupting fluency Furthermore, young learners benefit from clear and simple instructions, as they are active participants who prefer concise guidance over lengthy explanations, making effective instruction delivery key to engaging students in speaking activities.
Questioning is essential for children's cognitive and linguistic development, enhancing their learning potential within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (Gallimore & Tharp, 1990) It is crucial that lesson content is not overly complex, ensuring it aligns with the cognitive abilities of young learners aged seven to eleven Effective scaffolding techniques, such as modeling, managing contingencies, providing feedback, instructing, and questioning, should be prioritized by teachers when designing lesson plans This approach acknowledges the limited knowledge and experience of children in the second language acquisition process, ultimately fostering a more supportive learning environment.
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) theory significantly enhances knowledge and experience through support from others, making it a leading approach in teaching foreign languages to children globally It distinguishes between what a learner can achieve independently and what they can accomplish with assistance, highlighting the importance of collaborative work in developing young learners' communicative competence Engaging in pair and group activities, such as identifying differences in pictures, storytelling, and discussing personal information, fosters children's confidence and active participation Ultimately, children learn foreign languages more effectively with the guidance of teachers and capable peers in the classroom.
P OSITIONING MEANING - FOCUSED ACTIVITIES IN META - COGNITION
Meaning-focused instruction addresses the limitations of form-focused instruction by prioritizing fluency over accuracy, thus enhancing learners' communicative competence through various speaking activities This approach encourages collaborative work, which significantly boosts students' motivation, interaction, and confidence in speech production Support from teachers and capable peers is crucial for developing speaking skills The historical context of the meaning-focused approach, combined with the benefits of scaffolding, empowers students to improve their speaking abilities through social interaction Additionally, meaning-focused activities align well with the developmental stages of young learners, as outlined in Piaget's theory (Scheffle, 2011).
Piaget’s theory serves as a foundational framework for understanding cognitive development and language acquisition in children, encompassing four distinct stages from birth to adolescence (Heo et al., 2011) The first stage, known as the sensorimotor stage, occurs from birth to two years old, where infants utilize their senses and motor skills—such as sucking, grasping, and crying—to explore their environment During this period, they lack the ability to verbally communicate their needs, resorting instead to crying when hungry, as they cannot articulate phrases like “I’m hungry, mom.” At six months, they do not comprehend parental phrases like “just a moment” and only cease crying when presented with food As they grow, children begin to express their feelings through gestures, such as shaking their heads when full By around 18 months, they start to form simple words to request desired items Overall, children in this initial stage rely heavily on their five senses to interact with the world, as their language skills are still in the early stages of cognitive development (Flavel, 1963).
Children aged two to seven, in Piaget's preoperational stage, begin to use symbols and language, including pictures and spoken words, to explore their surroundings During this period, they develop language skills and an understanding of concepts like mass, weight, and volume through sensory experiences For instance, children can differentiate between 200ml and 500ml containers after observing water being poured, yet may struggle to articulate why differently shaped containers can hold the same weight Their intuitive reasoning allows them to make predictions, such as anticipating that flattening a ball will balance two balls on a scale However, their limited knowledge and experience mean that their intuition can lead to both correct and incorrect conclusions, as they often rely on feelings over facts Despite their restricted vocabulary, these young learners can describe shapes, weights, and masses in simple terms Overall, children in this age group interact with their world through intuition and basic language skills, reflecting their cognitive development stage.
According to Flavel (1963), young children engage with their environment through their five senses and learn a foreign language by using simple language to communicate At this developmental stage, they lack the cognitive ability to grasp abstract concepts like subject, verb, and object, focusing instead on the meaning of words to express their ideas To foster effective communication, teachers should create a supportive and comfortable classroom environment, as interruptions for grammatical corrections can hinder children's fluency and make them anxious about speaking.
Fluency and accuracy are essential for effective speaking; however, they cannot be practiced simultaneously due to the competition for attentional resources, as noted by Skehan (1998) Additionally, Schmidt and Watanabe (2001) highlight that humans, particularly children, have a limited capacity for attention Willis and Willis (2008) further emphasize the challenge of focusing on both the content and the delivery of speech, making it difficult to concentrate on what to say while also considering the appropriate words and forms to use.
Accuracy and fluency play distinct roles in enhancing learners’ speaking performance, with accuracy focusing on form and fluency emphasizing meaning For students aged seven to eleven, limited capacity and experience hinder their ability to balance meaning and form during speech production According to Piaget’s theory, children can only fully engage with formal operations in the final stage of cognitive development, where they can effectively integrate both form and meaning for accurate and fluent speech However, grammar instruction should be implicit and follow communicative tasks, as excessive focus on form can turn communicative activities into mere grammar exercises Therefore, teachers should prioritize helping students brainstorm and communicate in English as fluently as possible.
In exploring factors influencing second language acquisition among young learners aged seven to eleven, particularly ten-year-olds, it is essential to consider unique characteristics highlighted by Cameron (2001) Young learners are active participants who thrive on engaging activities, such as games, as they learn through action and interaction with their environment Unlike adults, children benefit from a dynamic learning approach, such as total physical response, which encourages movement and engagement rather than prolonged sitting Observations at Ho Van Hue Primary School reveal that incorporating music and movement into lessons enhances retention of content, demonstrating that children acquire foreign languages differently than adults Additionally, young learners favor collaborative work in pairs or groups, fostering socialization skills and mutual cooperation essential for their development.
Cameroon (2001) describes children as "sense makers" who actively explore their environment by asking questions to understand the actions and language of others They exhibit confidence in seeking clarification from teachers and peers when faced with uncertainties However, without clear instructions, they are prone to making mistakes due to ambiguous tasks Additionally, children aged seven to eleven navigate their world by combining words or phrases to express their desires, often prioritizing meaning over grammatical accuracy (Willis & Willis).
Early communication in children primarily relies on vocabulary rather than grammar, as noted by Willis and Willis (2007) This suggests that a strong vocabulary base is essential for effective communication Hammond (1988) emphasizes the link between cumulative vocabulary and the variety of meaning-focused input, indicating that repeated practice of vocabulary enhances speaking skills According to Joe, Nation, and Newton (1996), engaging in meaning-focused speaking activities significantly boosts vocabulary growth Consequently, the more vocabulary is utilized in communicative tasks, the better the speaking performance, leading to impressive results.
Children and adults exhibit distinct differences in acquiring a second language, primarily in their approach to speaking While children focus on meaning during their lessons and are unencumbered by embarrassment, adults utilize a “dual-mode system,” enabling them to combine implicit grammatical knowledge with extensive vocabulary (Skehan, 1998) Piaget (1972) suggests that adults, having reached full physical and psychological development, can achieve fluent and accurate communication through syntactic analysis In contrast, children lack the capacity for this dual processing but excel in speaking due to their emphasis on meaning and lack of self-consciousness This indicates that meaning-focused activities significantly enhance children's speaking performance Although adults can integrate meaning and form, their fear of making mistakes often hinders their fluency Therefore, both children and adults should prioritize meaning over form in speaking lessons to foster fluency (Goh & Burns, 2012).
Meaning-focused activities are closely linked to communicative competence, highlighting the effectiveness of innovative teaching methods in enhancing English speaking skills Renowned methodologists have dedicated considerable time to exploring the definition and significance of communicative tasks in various English learning contexts, as exemplified by Nunan's research.
A communicative task, as defined by 1991, involves learners engaging with the target language while focusing on meaning rather than form According to Joe, Nation, and Newton (1996), fluency is achieved through meaning-focused tasks, highlighting the connection between content and communication, which enables young learners to speak English more easily when prioritizing content over grammar Savignon and Wang (2003) further describe meaning-focused instruction as activities centered on message exchange, such as information gap tasks that directly relate to language content Key activities include finding differences between pictures, ordering sentences, and restoring incomplete maps, which encourage interaction among students and teachers, ultimately enhancing speaking skills beyond the classroom.
During the final stage of Piaget’s cognitive development, children aged eleven to fifteen exhibit advanced cognitive abilities, including logical, rational, and abstract thinking (Piaget, 1952) This developmental stage enables secondary school students to learn and apply grammatical concepts such as tenses and word forms effectively Upper primary school students possess the intelligence to construct grammatically correct sentences that integrate meaning and form For instance, teachers can effectively explain grammatical rules, such as the relationship between subjects and verbs, to students over eleven years old, who not only grasp these concepts but also apply them in grammar exercises.
According to Piaget's theoretical framework on cognitive development, there is a significant link between meaning-focused activities and speaking performance Douglas (2004) describes speaking as an interactive process of constructing meaning, influenced by various factors such as context, participants, and the physical environment For English learners, speaking is essential for effective communication and is often seen as the primary measure of success in second language acquisition (Sheppard, 1992) Although mastering speaking skills can be challenging, it is crucial for personal success and is practiced daily, supporting other language skills like listening, reading, and writing Additionally, fostering a dynamic and enjoyable classroom environment encourages young learners to engage in speaking English (Celce-Murcia, 2001).
To be an effective speaker, it is essential to prioritize the meaning of communication with the listener, as meaningful interactions lead to successful conversations Traditional form-focused instruction often hinders learners from developing communicative competence in a second language, as teachers typically rely on rules, explanations, and structured exercises that emphasize accuracy over effective oral communication Therefore, educators should implement diverse techniques to enhance students' speaking abilities, with meaning-focused activities proving to be particularly effective in fostering better communication skills in English.
P REVIOUS STUDIES ON THE EFFECTS OF MEANING - FOCUSED ACTIVITIES ON YOUNG
One of the most popular studies by Tsiplakides and Keramida (2009) showed the influence of the form-focused instruction on learners’ speaking performance
A qualitative research study conducted by two researchers explored the impact of meaning-focused activities on improving speaking performance among 15 third-grade students (ages 13-14) in a lower secondary school in Greece The study revealed that these activities significantly boosted students' confidence in communication and encouraged them to present in class Additionally, learners experienced a notable reduction in speaking anxieties related to personal, interpersonal, and testing pressures The researchers identified several effective meaning-focused activities, such as project work, fostering a supportive classroom atmosphere, nurturing teacher-student relationships, providing indirect correction, and emphasizing appreciation This shift from form-focused to meaning-focused instruction highlights the importance of engaging activities in enhancing the speaking abilities of learners in Greece.
By the same token, one year later another descriptive study by Baleghizadeh
A study conducted in 2010 examined the effects of meaning-focused activities on the speaking abilities of university students in Tehran, utilizing observation as the primary assessment tool for eleven 22-year-old participants from various fields The intervention included activities such as reading comprehension, picture storytelling, and story-telling tasks, which significantly enhanced students' oral production and communicative competence, particularly in pronunciation (58.9%) However, the researcher noted limitations in form-focused instruction that hindered fluent and confident speaking In a subsequent study by Alibakhshi and Padiz (2011), the impact of communication strategies combined with meaning-focused activities on the speaking performance of 60 Iranian language learners aged 18-22 was investigated over ten weeks Data collected through oral production tests indicated a significant improvement in the experimental group's speaking skills compared to the control group The positive effects of meaning-focused activities were found to be stable over time, although biases in data collection methods were acknowledged The researchers recognized that students may have had negative attitudes towards the new treatment, prompting further research involving pretests, posttests, questionnaires, and interviews to better assess learners' speaking abilities and their perceptions of the instructional approach.
The studies by Alibakhshi and Padiz (2011) and Szpotowicz (2012) investigated the impact of meaning-focused activities on the foreign language communication skills of European young learners Szpotowicz utilized pretest and posttest assessments based on an A1 level information gap, aligned with the Common European Framework of Reference, to evaluate speaking performance In the Early Language Learning in Europe (ELLiE) study, researchers measured students' fluency in oral tasks by analyzing the total number of words, the variety of word types, and the number of nouns used (Lindgren & Munoz, 2012) Additionally, a triangulation approach involving observations, questionnaires, and interviews was employed to assess learners' attitudes towards meaning-focused activities The study involved approximately 180 ten-year-old children from various countries participating in the ELLiE Project.
A longitudinal research project conducted in seven European countries from 2007 to 2010, known as ELLiE, revealed significant improvements in young learners' interactive skills through meaning-focused activities The study found that nearly all participants responded to questions more quickly, and half were able to formulate relevant questions about the lessons Positive feedback was gathered through Smiley questionnaires and interviews, indicating that children displayed greater engagement, enthusiasm, and participation during lessons Utilizing quantitative data from pretests and posttests, alongside observations and interviews, the research demonstrated that the new instructional methodology positively impacted learners' speaking performance and fostered favorable attitudes towards learning English speaking.
Copland, Garton, and Burns (2014) employed a mixed-method approach to gather quantitative data from a survey of 4,459 teachers globally, complemented by interviews with key educators from five countries Their research revealed that the introduction of meaning-focused activities significantly reduced speaking anxieties among learners and enhanced their oral competency Students showed increased motivation to improve their speaking skills and enjoyed collaborative tasks, leading to positive attitudes towards these activities Overall, the study concluded that meaning-focused instruction greatly impacts learners' speaking performance.
A direct link exists between speaking skills and effective teaching methods, as highlighted by Konomi (2014), who emphasizes that speaking is crucial for young learners both in the classroom and daily life It serves as the primary means for children to express their ideas and connect with their surroundings Through speaking, learners improve their pronunciation, stress, and intonation, which are essential for successful communication Conversely, activities that prioritize form over meaning can hinder cognitive development and negatively impact communicative competence This study involved 24 English teachers from grades three to six in Albanian public elementary schools, who provided insights through questionnaires and in-depth interviews about speaking activities in their classrooms Common activities included choral reading, role play, storytelling, songs, questionnaires, and interactive discussions The findings revealed that meaning-focused activities foster a fun and engaging learning environment, allowing young learners to practice language naturally and enhance their fluency Most importantly, these activities instilled a love for speaking and encouraged students to seek meaningful communication opportunities while learning English.
Wang (2014) identified cognitive, linguistic, and affective factors that hindered Chinese EFL learners from speaking fluently and accurately To improve oral proficiency, he proposed a four-step pedagogical method involving pre-speaking, while-speaking, and post-speaking activities, emphasizing meaning-focused activities to encourage student participation A study conducted at China West Normal University with 100 junior English majors revealed that students from rural backgrounds struggled with speaking skills The analysis indicated that due to limited attentional capacity, students prioritized meaning over fluency and accuracy The research introduced three types of speaking tasks—information-gap, problem-solving, and social monologues—to enhance fluency Findings showed that meaning-focused activities significantly reduced anxiety, allowing learners to express themselves more freely Derakhshan, Khalili, and Beheshti (2016) further explored the impact of meaning-focused instruction on speaking ability through a pre and posttest with 30 Iranian intermediate students, highlighting that focusing on meaning was crucial for improving speaking skills.
To enhance speaking skills, incorporating methods like role play, videos, flashcards, and graphs can significantly boost learners' communicative competence Creating an engaging classroom environment is essential for encouraging students to speak confidently and comfortably, while also providing opportunities for practice beyond the classroom.
Becker and Roos (2016) investigated creative speaking activities in young learners' classrooms to improve their speaking performance through meaning-focused tasks By concentrating on the content of various topics, children felt more comfortable expressing their ideas without the fear of making mistakes These communicative tasks provided valuable opportunities for enhancing oral production both inside and outside the classroom The researchers employed observations and interviews to assess the impact of meaning-focused activities on speaking performance over a defined experiment duration A variety of engaging activities, including role-play, gap activities, storytelling, and dialogues, significantly contributed to the improvement of the children's speech.
Research indicates that meaning-focused activities are well-suited for the developmental stage of ten-year-old learners The implementation of this innovative methodology significantly enhances students' speaking skills A summary of these findings is presented in Table 2.4 on the following page.
Table 2.4 illustrates that previous research on the impact of meaning-focused activities on young learners' speaking abilities can be categorized into five groups, all aimed at assessing how these activities influence speaking performance and learners' attitudes This analysis revealed a research gap, prompting the current study Notably, the limitations of form-focused instruction identified by Tsiplakides and Keramida (2009) and the benefits of meaning-focused activities on adults' speaking skills noted by Baleghizadeh (2010) inspired the researcher to investigate the effects of such activities on young learners in a public primary school in Vietnam To enhance the reliability and validity of the study, which involved 40 fourth-grade students aged ten over eight weeks, the researcher utilized a combination of tests, questionnaires, and interviews instead of relying solely on observational methods.
Table 2.4: Previous studies on meaning-focused activities on young learners’ speaking ability
1 The effects of meaning-focused activities on enhancing learners’ speaking performance in different countries all over the world
2 The importance of meaning-focused instruction on teaching English speaking to children and adults in some countries in the world
3 Reasons for using meaning-focused instruction in teaching English speaking to children aged 7-11
4 The direct link between meaning-focused activities and the ability of speaking
5 Suggestion of various meaning-focused activities in teaching English speaking to young learners
C HAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter establishes a theoretical framework for examining the impact of meaning-focused activities on the speaking performance of young learners It explores key themes including the historical context of the meaning-focused approach, the theory of the Zone of Proximal Development, the role of meaning-focused activities in metacognition, and previous research findings on their effects on young learners' speaking abilities.
METHODOLOGY
R ESEARCH SITE
Ho Van Hue Primary School in Ho Chi Minh City is renowned for its beautiful location, modern facilities, and high sanitary standards, along with a team of dedicated teachers Recognized as a national and standardized school in Vietnam due to its numerous educational accolades from the Government, the institution employs 30 teachers across various subjects, including Math, Literature, Science, Geography, Music, Art, and Physical Education, as well as 10 English teachers for its Selective and Intensive English Program The school serves five grades, from grade one to grade five, with each grade divided into five classes, namely class 5 1, class 5 2, class 5 3, class 5 4, and class 5 5 As a public school, each class accommodates over 40 students, contributing to a vibrant learning environment.
The school offers two distinct English programs: selective and intensive Each program includes a maximum of four periods per week, featuring two sessions with foreign teachers and utilizing a primary textbook for instruction.
The Intensive English Program for grade four students includes eight weekly periods of English instruction, featuring two sessions with foreign teachers and six periods using the same textbook as the selective program This program also incorporates project-based activities, utilizing resources like Robinson and Saxby's (2010) series, including Fun for Starters, Fun for Movers, and Fun for Flyers The primary goal is to provide early English learning opportunities in primary school, enabling students in the Intensive English Program to enhance their language skills through extended learning time and preparation for Cambridge tests such as Movers, Starters, and Flyers, aligned with the Common European Framework.
The school stands out with its European Framework Register for young learners, offering over 80% of intensive English classes aligned with Cambridge certificates like Starters, Movers, and Flyers Additionally, it features two function rooms equipped with smart, interactive boards and advanced software to enhance English learning These advantages prompted a researcher to conduct an experimental study aimed at improving students' speaking skills through meaning-focused activities.
P ARTICIPANTS
The researcher was assigned three different classes in grade four, namely class
In grade four, there were five classes, including classes 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3, which were intensive To enroll in these intensive classes, students were required to have Movers certificates demonstrating proficiency with over 10 shields in Listening, Reading, Writing, and Speaking skills upon completing their English studies in grade three.
In grade four, there were over 200 students distributed across classes 41, 40, 42, 43, and 44 Students enrolled in the Intensive English Program attended English lessons four days a week, featuring two periods with foreign teachers and six periods with local English teachers The curriculum utilized two primary textbooks: the special edition of "Family and Friends" for grade four (Simmons & Thompson, 2010) and "Fun for Movers."
According to Robinson & Saxby (2010), students in the Intensive English Program benefited from ample opportunities to develop the four essential English skills: Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing, through diverse books The researcher chose to focus on these students for two key reasons: the Intensive Program offered eight periods per week compared to only four in the Selective English Program, which utilized a single textbook, Family and Friends 4 Additionally, students in the Intensive Program were required to pass Cambridge exams mandated by the Ministry of Education and Training before advancing to grade four These factors indicate that Intensive English Program students received more instructional time, superior training, and a curriculum aligned with the international standards of the European framework for young learners, ultimately enhancing their English proficiency.
The researcher utilized convenience sampling to randomly select class 4.1 as the control group and class 4.2 as the experimental group for the Intensive English Program study Due to the inability to choose teaching classes annually, she selected two out of three classes from the 2015-2016 school year Both classes were determined to be at the same proficiency level based on pretest results, ensuring a fair comparison between the groups.
Before initiating the research, the researcher sought permission from the school principal to conduct an eight-week study She clearly articulated the study's purpose, which focused on implementing an innovative method for teaching English speaking skills, and assured the principal that the study would not adversely affect the learning process for students in either the control or experimental group.
In conducting experiments, ethical considerations regarding participant sampling are crucial, as researchers must ensure that participants are unaware of their group assignments—experimental or control—to maintain confidentiality and fairness (Homan, 1991) This approach is known as a "double-blind experiment," where neither the subjects nor the experimenters know which group is which, thereby minimizing bias and enhancing the integrity of the results (Cook, Thomas, & Campbell, 1979).
Children aged 10 often struggle to grasp research concepts, leading to anxiety if pressured to participate in experiments They may compare themselves to peers, feeling excluded or believing their teacher favors certain students, which can negatively impact their learning To avoid these issues, the teacher refrained from disclosing the study at the semester's start and conducted lessons as usual Both the experimental and control groups received standard instruction, with the experimental group utilizing a new methodology to assess speaking performance To ensure comparability, all students underwent a test at the semester's beginning, evaluated by two examiners for inter-rater reliability Due to convenience sampling and the teacher's limited class selection, 40 students from class 4/2 were non-randomly assigned to participate in pre and posttests, complete questionnaires, and engage in face-to-face interviews as part of a focus group.
In the context of experimentation, Campbell and Stanley (1963) define an experimental group as "a group of subjects to whom an experimental stimulus was administered" (p 63) In this particular study, class 4/2 served as the experimental group.
A study involving 40 male and female students, all of the same age and having achieved a score of 10 or higher on the Cambridge Starters Test in listening, reading, writing, and speaking, was conducted to assess the impact of meaning-focused activities on young learners' speaking performance These students utilized identical textbooks and intensive materials as the control group The experiment commenced in early March and concluded at the end of April, highlighting the effectiveness of incorporating engaging, meaning-driven tasks in language learning.
2016, with a total number of eight weeks Students learnt speaking lessons once a week with two periods of 70 minutes
In the experimental group, participants engage in meaning-focused instruction to enhance their English speaking skills, structured in three stages: pre-speaking, while-speaking, and post-speaking During the initial phase, students are organized into ten groups of four to discuss two pictures, utilizing suggested wh-questions from the teacher, such as "how many people are in the picture?" and "what are they doing?" This approach emphasizes communication and meaning over grammatical accuracy, fostering a collaborative learning environment.
The wh-question system encourages students to share their thoughts and ideas within their groups, fostering collaboration While students engage in discussions, the teacher circulates to observe and provide support as needed Acting as a facilitator, the teacher motivates students to express themselves by offering cues based on suggested questions Importantly, during group brainstorming, there are no right or wrong answers, which creates a supportive environment This approach allows students to freely express a wide range of ideas as they work together to identify differences between the two pictures.
Students can freely express creative ideas about topics without the fear of making grammatical mistakes Instead of focusing on grammar, they seek assistance with unfamiliar words or phrases During group brainstorming sessions, students are given three to five minutes to quickly identify key elements in two pictures, such as people, animals, objects, and their activities The teacher further encourages the use of wh-questions to help students explore the differences between the two images.
The pre-speaking stage involves group brainstorming and rapid free speaking, while the while-speaking stage includes four key activities: drafting, revising, editing, and presenting the final version Teachers guide students to discuss differences between two pictures using a system of wh-questions, encouraging group collaboration to form words and phrases Each group of four, led by a proficient English speaker, receives support and corrective feedback from their team leader to enhance fluency Evaluation criteria are established to help students assess their own and their peers’ speaking abilities Students identify differences based on meaning-focused instruction, describing them in short sentences, which fosters a relaxed environment where they feel comfortable expressing ideas without the fear of grammar mistakes This approach emphasizes fluency over accuracy, promoting effective English speaking skills through informal peer interactions.
In the post-speaking stage, students take turns presenting speeches about the differences between two pictures, focusing on clear pronunciation and effective communication After the presentations, the teacher provides overall feedback, highlighting strengths and common mistakes, which helps reduce language anxiety and encourages fluency in English speaking This approach emphasizes meaning-focused activities, allowing students to prioritize fluency over traditional accuracy, fostering a creative environment where they feel empowered to express their ideas and engage more actively in speaking lessons, ultimately enhancing their communicative competence.
A control group is defined as a group of subjects that do not receive the experimental stimulus but should closely resemble the experimental group in all other aspects Comparing the control group with the experimental group at the conclusion of the experiment highlights the effects of the experimental stimulus (Campbell & Stanley, 1963).
M ETHODOLOGY OF DATA COLLECTION
The current study employs a quasi-experimental design to assess the causal relationship between a control group and an experimental group, notably lacking random participant assignment (Campbell & Stanley, 1963) This design offers significant advantages, including reduced challenges in group randomization and lower time and resource requirements for experimentation (Mayer & Davis, 1999) For instance, researchers often face substantial time constraints when attempting to randomly select participants from a large pool of students Furthermore, Bryman (1992) highlights that quasi-experiments effectively examine the impact of stimuli on the experimental group over an extended period.
This thesis, titled “The Effects of Meaning-Focused Activities on Young Learners’ Speaking Skill at Ho Van Hue Primary School,” employs a conventional experimental design featuring three key components The independent variable is meaning-focused activities, while the dependent variable is the speaking skill of young learners The study utilizes a pretest and posttest to assess the impact of these activities, with class 4 2 serving as the experimental group and class 4 1 as the control group This research aligns with classical experimental methods as outlined by Campbell & Stanley (1963), incorporating two distinct tests aimed at different objectives.
The primary objective of pretesting is to evaluate the impact of meaning-focused activities on the speaking performance of young learners across two groups In contrast, the posttest seeks to identify any differences in mean scores between the initial and subsequent assessments of these activities after their implementation in children's speaking lessons Both tests are derived from the Cambridge Movers Speaking Tests, which are detailed further below.
Cambridge English Young Learners offers engaging English language tests tailored for children in primary and lower secondary education, helping them build confidence and enhance their English skills According to the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) regulations, the program includes three levels: Starters for eight-year-olds in grade two, Movers for nine to ten-year-olds in grade four, and Flyers for eleven-year-olds in grade five The focus on grade-four students for the Movers level is due to the researcher’s assignment to three different classes within that grade Participants had been studying Fun for Movers as part of the Cambridge exam's second level These tests align with the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) and have demonstrated reliability and validity globally, facilitating a study on the similarities and differences in speaking abilities between the two groups.
The pretest and posttest were designed to evaluate the impact of meaning-focused activities on the speaking performance of young learners, based on the test results Prior to discussing the speaking test, the researcher outlines the speaking procedure The comprehensive test spans approximately one hour and includes all four components: listening, reading, writing, and speaking.
Table 3.3.1a: Components of a Cambridge Test for Young Learners (YLs)
Skills Length Number of parts
(Adapted from Handbooks for Young Learners’ Cambridge Tests)
The Cambridge test, encompassing Starters, Movers, and Flyers levels, evaluates students' four fundamental English skills through three papers: listening, reading and writing, and speaking The listening component includes five parts with 25 questions and has a duration of about 25 minutes The reading and writing section consists of six main parts with 40 questions, allowing 30 minutes for completion Lastly, the speaking test features four parts, with a time frame ranging from three to five minutes.
The Cambridge test aims to enhance students' English skills in listening, speaking, reading, and writing through three exam papers However, due to time and budget constraints, this study focused solely on the impact of meaning-focused activities on young learners' speaking abilities A model speaking test was designed with four key components aligned with the objectives of meaning-focused activities Students were evaluated based on fluency rather than accuracy, emphasizing a meaning-focused approach over form-focused instruction Consequently, learners are not penalized for grammatical inaccuracies, allowing them the freedom to express themselves, as exemplified by a student describing a scene without correction from the examiner.
This research focuses on analyzing the various components of a speaking test, which was chosen from the four fundamental English skills The speaking test comprises four distinct parts, with samples provided in the pretest and posttest (refer to Appendix 1 and Appendix 2).
The particulars of the speaking test is as follows The first part aims at asking the child to describe several differences between the two pictures For example,
The activity encourages children to engage with a series of four pictures, prompting them to narrate a story based on the sequence Additionally, it invites them to identify one picture that stands out and articulate their reasoning for the choice This interactive approach fosters creativity and critical thinking in young learners.
The article highlights a contrast between animals and a sweater, emphasizing the uniqueness of each subject Additionally, it discusses how personal information, such as family dynamics, is explored through questions like, “Who’s the youngest in your family?” This approach provides insight into daily lives and relationships.
The speaking test consists of four key components: finding differences, picture storytelling, identifying the odd one out, and sharing personal information, all of which are categorized as meaning-focused activities In the first part, responses are minimal, often requiring just one word to convey the meaning of a picture, with simple sentences allowed to describe what children observe Accuracy in sentence structure is not heavily emphasized by the examiner; for instance, children might say, "There is two cats."
Children often struggle with fluent speech when teachers interrupt with corrective feedback, leading to a fear of making mistakes and forgetting their thoughts In primary classrooms, this can hinder speaking development The second part of the speaking activity, "Picture Story," encourages children to narrate a story based on four images, aligning with the meaning-focused approach from the literature review At Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, children can integrate previous knowledge to continue their narratives To promote fluency, teachers should create a supportive environment, using guided questions when necessary, and encourage students to share diverse ideas related to the story For example, some students may focus on the actions of girls, while others highlight the boys' activities Overall, "Picture Story" aims to combine sequential facts with meaning-focused activities to enhance children's speaking skills.
Part three of the Cambridge Movers speaking test, titled "odd-one-out," challenges students to identify a picture or item that differs from a group, aligning with their developmental skills in categorization For instance, when presented with images of a lemon, pineapple, orange, and a book, students learn to articulate why one item is distinct, enhancing their speaking abilities through meaning-focused activities Additionally, the test includes a segment on personal information, where students engage with familiar topics like family and leisure activities through simple questions Responses can be brief, such as listing activities or using short sentences, allowing for flexibility in communication Teachers can further support students with Yes-No questions to facilitate responses Overall, the four components of the Cambridge Movers speaking test—finding differences, picture stories, odd-one-out, and personal information—are designed to improve students' speaking skills by emphasizing meaning over grammatical precision.
The current study is a quasi-experimental research design due to the non-randomization of participants The researcher, an English teacher, was assigned two fourth-grade classes for the study, which were divided into a control group and an experimental group The researcher implemented meaning-focused activities to assess their impact on the students Additionally, the study addressed a second research question regarding the influence of this new method on children's feelings towards the meaning-focused activities, incorporating descriptive data collected through questionnaires and interviews.
The questionnaire is a highly effective tool for conducting surveys aimed at descriptive, explanatory, and exploratory research (Reed & Babbie, 1973) Researchers utilize questionnaires to gather data from respondents, who express their views by agreeing or disagreeing with various statements (Sheatsley, 1983) Key guidelines for crafting effective questions include ensuring clarity, focusing on a single topic per item, and maintaining relevance to the respondents, while also keeping items concise (Miller & Salkind, 2002) To enhance the quality of the questionnaire, the researcher employs a five-point Likert scale based on the study of EFL secondary school students' attitudes towards learning English, as adapted from Abidin, Pour-Mohammadi, and Alzwari (2012).
A NALYTICAL FRAMEWORK
The researcher analyzed quantitative data from pretest and posttest results using SPSS version 22.0, focusing on students' speaking performances and the variances in scores between the control group (CG) and experimental group (EG) To ensure the reliability and validity of the tests, key components such as Cronbach’s alpha and inter-rater reliability were assessed Both the pretest and posttest needed a Cronbach’s alpha greater than 7.00 to confirm their reliability for evaluating speaking abilities Additionally, inter-rater reliability analysis was conducted to reduce subjectivity in scoring, with Pearson correlations indicating no significant differences in ratings between the two raters during the speaking assessments.
The researcher ensured the reliability and validity of the tests using Cronbach’s alpha and Pearson correlations, applying an independent-samples test to confirm that the control group (CG) and experimental group (EG) had similar pretest levels, indicated by a significance (sig 2-tailed) greater than 0.05 Additionally, group statistics were utilized to compare the mean and standard deviation of both groups in the pretest For the posttest, the same independent-samples test was employed, with a sig (2-tailed) value less than 0.05, indicating that equal variances were not assumed The main objective of the posttest was to evaluate the impact of meaning-focused activities on young learners’ speaking performances, necessitating an analysis of the differences between CG and EG levels Students were classified into three levels based on their scores: level one for excellent students (9-10 points), level two for good students (7-8 points), and level three for fair students (5-6 points) The analysis was conducted using SPSS version 22.0 to assess the quantitative data, focusing on Cronbach’s alpha, inter-rater reliability, independent-samples tests, and group statistics.
CG and EG in the posttest
The researcher conducted a study utilizing a questionnaire distributed on March 25, 2016, and April 1, 2016, analyzing the data with SPSS version 22.0 to assess young learners' attitudes towards meaning-focused activities in English speaking The questionnaire consisted of 15 items organized into three themes: general attitudes towards learning English speaking, perceptions of the benefits of meaning-focused activities, and students' desire to engage with these activities Descriptive statistics, including frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation, were employed instead of independent-samples tests, and the five-point Likert scale was condensed into a three-point scale for easier analysis The scales indicated varying levels of agreement, with scale one (1.00 to 2.60) reflecting disagreement, scale two (2.61 to 3.40) indicating uncertainty, and scale three (3.41 to 5.00) showing agreement Overall, the analysis aimed to provide insights into young learners' attitudes towards English speaking through meaning-focused activities.
After collecting the data from the interview in week seven dated April 15 th
In 2016, the researcher transcribed qualitative data and translated it from Vietnamese to English To ensure the reliability and validity of the interviews, a pilot study was conducted on April 8, 2016, during the sixth week, with assistance from teachers overseeing Tesol8 classes and knowledgeable peers who reviewed both the Vietnamese and English versions for accuracy.
The researcher transcribed interviews with students to explore their attitudes towards learning English speaking through meaning-focused activities Open-ended questions allowed students to freely express their thoughts on the benefits of these activities for enhancing their speaking skills The first theme highlighted students' general love for learning English speaking, while the second theme identified key advantages of the new methodology, such as increased confidence and engagement in speaking lessons The third theme emphasized students' enjoyment of collaborative work in a supportive environment when learning speaking English Overall, the study aimed to measure young learners' attitudes towards meaning-focused activities in English speaking.
R ELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF THE INSTRUMENTS
To ensure the reliability and validity of the research instruments, the researcher employs three methods for triangulation, which enriches the understanding of human behavior by incorporating both quantitative and qualitative data Triangulation serves as a robust indicator of concurrent reliability and validity, especially in qualitative research (Campbell & Fiske, 1959) Therefore, establishing reliability and validity is crucial for conducting effective experiments in educational research The assessment of these instruments is demonstrated through the use of pretests and posttests, questionnaires, and interviews.
3.5.1 Reliability and validity of tests
The study utilizes pretest and posttest instruments, focusing on key factors that influence their reliability and validity, such as content, rubrics, and inter-rater reliability The pretest is based on Cambridge Movers three and the posttest on Cambridge Movers seven, both from 2007, with rubrics designed to be short, simple, and consistent for young learners aged 10 To enhance validity and reliability, the researcher adapts rubrics from the Answer Booklet for Cambridge Movers Additionally, two examiners evaluate the speaking test scores, with final student scores determined by the average of the two raters' scores The researcher employs SPSS version 22.0 to analyze the scores, ensuring inter-rater reliability.
3.5.2 Reliability and validity of questionnaires
The reliability and validity of the questionnaire, adapted from Abidin, Pour-Mohammadi, and Alzwari (2012), are ensured through several key factors Firstly, the researcher must be present while children complete the questionnaire to address any questions, without influencing their responses Secondly, learners should understand the purpose of the questionnaire and may receive small incentives, like candies or stickers, to encourage participation Additionally, all items must be clearly translated into Vietnamese to facilitate comprehension among young learners, avoiding sensitive topics and ambiguous language Finally, the collected responses will be analyzed using descriptive statistics in SPSS version 22.0, focusing on frequency and mean across three themes.
A pilot study, also known as a trial run or pre-testing, is essential for researchers to ensure the effectiveness of research instruments like questionnaires and interviews (Van Teijlingen & Hundley, 2002) It serves as a crucial tool to identify potential issues in the main research project, such as inappropriate methods or overly complex instruments (De Vaus, 2013) By conducting a pilot study, researchers can minimize the risk of using irrelevant tools, ensuring that the wording and grammar of items are suitable for the target audience, particularly children who may interpret language differently than adults As highlighted by Van Teijlingen & Hundley (2002) and De Vaus (2013), pilot studies are vital for testing the reliability and validity of research instruments, ultimately contributing to the success of the study.
In March 2016, the researcher distributed questionnaires to students in week four to identify any unclear items The questionnaire included Likert-scale, closed-ended, and open-ended questions; however, students struggled with the variety, particularly the open-ended questions, leading to confusion and taking over 45 minutes to complete Following a pilot study, the researcher simplified the questionnaire by removing closed-ended and open-ended questions, resulting in quicker and easier responses Additionally, several students sought clarification on items five and ten After collecting 40 completed questionnaires, the researcher revised ambiguous items with simpler language for better comprehension This pilot study proved beneficial in gathering necessary data while minimizing irrelevant information, encouraging student participation, and preserving classroom time for English speaking practice without disrupting teaching and learning periods.
3.5.3 Reliability and validity of interviews
The study employs a self-administered questionnaire to investigate learners' attitudes towards English speaking through meaning-focused writing activities Additionally, interviews are conducted to address the second research question, demonstrating validity through face validity as identified by Kahn.
Recording face-to-face interviews is essential for maintaining quality, as it allows the interviewer to capture the nuances of the conversation This method also enables the interviewer to observe non-verbal cues, such as facial expressions, gestures, and pauses, which can provide deeper insights into the interviewees' attitudes and responses to unclear questions.
To ensure the reliability of interviews, researchers should implement a highly structured format with consistent wording and question sequence for each participant (Silverman, 2010) This is particularly crucial for attitudinal questions, especially when interviewing young learners aged 7-11, as simple and clear language is essential to avoid misunderstandings Therefore, using short and straightforward questions is the most effective approach Additionally, incorporating more closed questions can enhance reliability by allowing students to respond quickly and easily.
To enhance the reliability and validity of interviews with children, it is crucial to establish trust and maintain an informal atmosphere, avoiding assumptions about their knowledge Key strategies include using age-appropriate language, being mindful of non-verbal cues, and ensuring the interviewer does not come across as an authority figure Focus group interviews are particularly effective, as children feel more at ease sharing their thoughts in a friendly setting with peers Additionally, factors such as the interviewee's ethnicity, the environment's friendliness, and the adult's demeanor—whether standing or sitting—can significantly influence the children's willingness to communicate.
To ensure the reliability and validity of the interviews, the researcher conducted a pilot study, revealing that over 80% of students misunderstood the first question due to unclear wording and the limited use of wh-questions This pilot study, conducted on April 8, 2016, with two groups, allowed the researcher to identify and correct unsuitable items, ultimately enhancing data quality for later analysis Additionally, the researcher sought assistance from supervisors, colleagues, and TESOL classmates to review both the English and Vietnamese versions of the questionnaires and interviews, further improving their validity for collecting qualitative data.
C HAPTER SUMMARY
Chapter three outlines key components of the research, including the research site, participants, data collection methodology, analytical framework, and the reliability and validity of the instruments used It begins by detailing the research design and location for the study Next, it describes the population and sample involved in the research The methodology section explains how quantitative data is gathered through tests and qualitative data through questionnaires and interviews The analytical framework includes pretests, posttests, questionnaires, and interviews Finally, the chapter addresses the reliability and validity of the instruments employed, encompassing tests, questionnaires, and interviews.