Background to the Study
Learning a foreign language involves mastering four key skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing, in that specific order Among these, writing is often considered the most challenging skill to develop (Mekki, 2012), necessitating significant practice and effort.
Writing is a complex skill that requires mastery of various linguistic, cognitive, and sociocultural competencies (Barkaoui, 2007) According to Mekki (2012), it is a challenging social activity essential for both language learners and native speakers Linguistically, writing demands careful organization and precise connection of sentences Cognitively, the pressure of writing can lead to a loss of ideas, while psychologically, the lack of interaction and feedback between the writer and reader adds to the difficulty of the task.
According to Mekki (2012), a major reason students struggle with writing is the misconception that strong writing skills stem solely from knowledge of language and text forms, while neglecting the importance of specific strategies and collaboration To effectively master writing, language learners require not only linguistic knowledge but also an understanding of the social contexts of writing (Khanalizadeh & Allami, 2012) and awareness of the cognitive processes involved in writing (Hyland, 2003) Uddin (2014) emphasizes that even with linguistic proficiency, students often face challenges in creating cohesive written pieces.
Teachers play a crucial role in enhancing students' writing skills, which are essential for literacy development Research indicates that effective instruction from educators significantly influences students' literacy achievements (Kraayenoord et al., 2009) In essence, the guidance and support provided by teachers are vital for fostering competent literacy learners.
2 teach may have explicit effects on writing performance of their students (Nguyen Ho Hoang Thuy, 2009)
Teachers play a crucial role in shaping students' writing abilities, making their instructional beliefs a significant focus in education These beliefs strongly influence classroom behaviors, as they reflect teachers' views as active decision-makers who rely on a complex mix of practical knowledge and personal experiences According to Borg (2003), teachers make instructional choices based on a context-sensitive understanding of their beliefs and thoughts Kuzborska (2011) further elaborates on this dynamic, highlighting its impact on teaching practices.
Teachers' beliefs significantly shape their goals, methods, resources, classroom dynamics, roles, and interactions with students and schools According to Richards et al (2001), comprehending how teachers engage in their profession requires an understanding of the beliefs and principles that guide their practices.
Indeed, teachers‟ beliefs in language education have been receiving an increased concern from educational researchers and extensively discussed in literature (e.g., Farrell
Since the 1970s, numerous studies have significantly contributed to understanding teachers' beliefs and their relationship with teaching practices (Zheng, 2009; Erkmen, 2014; Phipps & Borg, 2009; Khonamri & Salimi, 2010; Kuzborska, 2011; Li, 2012; Regassa & Teshome, 2015).
Exploring teachers' pedagogical beliefs is essential for understanding their planning, instructional decisions, and classroom practices According to Li (2012), a teacher's educational beliefs significantly impact the language teaching-learning process, subtly influencing the development of active teaching methods and ultimately enhancing students' language skills.
Specific to the field of writing instruction, in recent years, researchers have shown an increased interest in exploring how teachers think, feel and perceive about nature of
This article explores the various roles of teachers in writing instruction within the classroom, emphasizing the alignment between their beliefs and actual practices Key studies by Farrell (2006), Khanalizadeh & Allami (2012), Abadi & Marzban (2012), Melketo (2012), Corpuz (2011), Uddin (2014), Nigam (2015), and Gaitas & Martins (2015) provide insights into this congruence, highlighting the importance of effective teaching strategies in fostering student writing skills.
Teachers must reflect on their values and beliefs about teaching and learning to take greater responsibility for their classroom practices (Farrell, 2006) Research indicates that teachers' beliefs directly influence their teaching methods, as seen in a study where a participant viewed writing as an intellectual activity requiring time for thought and analysis, leading to a process-oriented approach to writing instruction Additionally, Khanalizadeh & Allami (2012) identified teachers' beliefs regarding writing, categorizing it as a formal system, a cognitive process, and a social activity Abadi & Marzban (2012) further explored English teachers' beliefs about writing instruction for primary and high school students, focusing on four key areas: the meaning of writing, its importance, teaching practices, and feedback Furthermore, it is essential to consider age differences when teaching writing skills to various student groups.
Research has shown a consistent exploration of teachers' beliefs regarding writing and writing instruction, along with the relationship between these beliefs and actual classroom practices (Melketo, 2012; Uddin, 2014; Nigam, 2015) For instance, Uddin (2014) found that while participants recognized writing as a process requiring stages such as idea gathering, planning, revising, and drafting, they struggled to implement these practices in their classrooms This gap was attributed to challenges such as large class sizes, an exam-oriented culture, strict syllabus deadlines, low student proficiency levels, and time constraints Similarly, Nigam (2015) investigated the influence of teachers' beliefs on their instructional methods.
At Auburn Elementary School in the United States, a teacher emphasized the importance of understanding the writing process, including brainstorming, planning, drafting, and finalizing work This process-oriented approach was a key focus in her writing instruction However, she acknowledged that her beliefs did not always align with practical writing instruction due to various challenges, such as assessment demands, limited professional development opportunities, classroom context issues, and her own preparation for teaching writing.
In 2015, primary teachers held strong beliefs regarding both the form and content of writing, which significantly influenced their classroom organization These beliefs led to the implementation of diverse writing activities, including solo, pair, and small group configurations The ongoing debate surrounding the connection between teachers' beliefs and their practices highlights the complexity of this relationship, often shaped by various influencing factors.
Language teachers‟ beliefs and the interplay between teachers‟ beliefs and their actual practices have been extensively studied for different purposes Khanalizadeh & Allami
In 2012, Melketo emphasized the importance of understanding teachers' beliefs regarding teaching, learning, and students, highlighting their significant impact on teaching practices and learning outcomes This exploration is essential for identifying effective teaching behaviors and supporting teachers in becoming proficient professionals, ultimately enhancing student achievement in core subjects Additionally, investigating the connections between personal theories and teaching practices is crucial for improving educational effectiveness.
Teachers evolve their teaching methods and learning strategies over time, significantly influencing curriculum reformers, policymakers, and educational leaders (Richards et al., 2001; Msendekwa, 2015).
Rationale for the Study
Since the 2013–2014 academic year, free writing in response to a given topic has been included in the English paper of the National GCSE examination in Vietnam However, results have been disappointing, with most scores ranging from 2.0 to 3.5 points This issue stems from many high school candidates either lacking the skills to construct their texts or opting to skip the writing section, which accounts for twenty percent of the total English paper score (TuoitreOnline, 2015).
The 2015-2016 academic year saw a recurring issue, as reported by Vietnamnet (2016), where numerous candidates of the 2016 National GCSE examination in Ho Chi Minh City either failed to complete the writing section on time or chose to skip it altogether Many students expressed that they found the writing section particularly challenging.
Many high school students struggle with free writing and lack the ability to independently compose texts, often relying on rote memorization of sample texts provided by their teachers As a result, even minor changes in writing prompts can hinder their performance This observation aligns with the findings of Khanalizadeh & Allami (2012) regarding the teaching and learning of writing in Iran.
“writing skill is often limited to making sentences, and the grammatical points of those sentences are the most important parts of learning how to write” To add more, Tran
In 2007, it was highlighted that writing skills in Vietnamese classrooms are often perceived as an individual activity, where the teacher serves as the only audience, resulting in limited interaction among students during writing exercises.
Recent years have shown consistently low results in the writing section of the National GCSE examination, highlighting writing as a complex and essential skill for language learners This challenging task demands proficiency in various linguistic, cognitive, and sociocultural competencies, as noted by Mekki (2012) and Barkaoui.
Effective writing goes beyond just having linguistic knowledge and memorizing sample texts; it requires students to independently construct their own texts and engage actively with other writers during the learning process Relying solely on high school students to imitate and memorize examples may yield only short-term benefits for examinations.
The alarming situation surrounding writing skills in high schools raises critical questions about their perceived importance compared to other language skills and the effectiveness of teaching methods used in writing classrooms It is essential to investigate how high school teachers facilitate the development of students' writing abilities, as understanding their classroom practices may help explain the consistently low scores in the writing section of the National GCSE examination in recent years This investigation is vital, as teachers play a key role in delivering instruction that fosters competent literacy learners (Kraayenoord et al., 2009).
According to Khanalizadeh & Allami (2012), students' low writing performance may stem from teachers' beliefs about writing and its instruction, highlighting the significance of understanding these beliefs in shaping instructional practices (Zheng, 2009) In Vietnam, however, there is limited research on language teachers' beliefs and their impact on teaching practices in language education (Le Van Canh, 2011) Therefore, it is crucial for researchers to investigate high school teachers' beliefs regarding the importance of writing skills, their perceptions of writing's nature, and their understanding of their roles and teaching orientations in writing instruction within the high school context.
Research indicates that teachers' classroom practices are influenced by their beliefs (Regassa & Teshome, 2015) While some studies show alignment between teachers' beliefs and their teaching methods, others reveal discrepancies As Khader (2012) notes, "teachers have a set of belief systems that are sometimes not reflected in their classroom practices for various complicated reasons." This prompts an investigation into whether high school teachers' actions are guided by their beliefs If a disconnect exists between beliefs and practices, it is essential to explore the factors that may influence the relationship between teachers' pedagogical beliefs and their writing instruction in high school settings.
This study aimed to investigate the beliefs of selected high school teachers in Ho Chi Minh City regarding the significance and nature of writing, along with their roles and approaches to teaching writing at the high school level Additionally, it explored the actual classroom activities these teachers implement during writing instruction The research also sought to identify any discrepancies between the teachers' expressed beliefs and their real classroom practices in teaching writing to high school students, while examining the factors influencing this relationship.
Research Questions
In order to fulfill the purpose stated above, three research questions were addressed as follows:
R–Q 1: What beliefs do the teachers at selected high schools hold in terms of (1) importance and nature of writing; (2) teacher roles and teaching process?
R–Q 2: What teaching practices in writing classrooms do the teachers at selected high schools report?
The study investigates the discrepancies between teachers' expressed beliefs and their actual classroom practices in writing instruction It explores whether such differences exist and identifies the factors that influence teachers' ability to translate their beliefs into effective writing teaching practices Understanding these dynamics is crucial for improving writing education and aligning pedagogical approaches with educators' theoretical convictions.
Significance of the Study
As mentioned earlier, students in many Vietnamese high schools in common and in
High school students in Ho Chi Minh City often struggle with English as a Foreign Language (EFL) writing skills, relying heavily on imitation and memorization of sample texts This approach may yield temporary success in examinations but fails to equip them with the ability to create independent and meaningful writing To address this gap, the researcher aimed to empower students to manage their writing performance through a process-based and social-based orientation, moving beyond mere linguistic knowledge The study revealed significant insights into improving EFL writing instruction for these students.
The significance of this research lies in the scarcity of studies examining high school teachers' beliefs about writing and its instruction within the Vietnamese context Specifically, there is a notable lack of systematic research addressing teachers' perceptions of the nature of writing and their teaching orientations, particularly from various perspectives such as form-based, social-based, and cognitive process-based approaches.
Exploring high school teachers' beliefs and their classroom practices is crucial for enabling them to adjust their teaching behaviors This modification can lead to improved and consistent student achievement in EFL writing skills, which are as essential as other language skills.
Effective language acquisition at any level requires the development of writing skills in high school through a learner-centered environment This approach involves providing students with essential language input, allowing for independent writing opportunities, helping them understand the context and purpose of their writing, and encouraging participation in collaborative activities.
Key Words
While a variety of definitions of the two terms “teachers‟ beliefs” and “classroom practices”, this paper will use the definitions suggested by Richards (1998) and Khader
Teacher beliefs encompass the information, attitudes, values, expectations, theories, and assumptions that educators develop throughout their careers and apply in the classroom These beliefs significantly influence their teaching practices and approaches to learning, shaping the educational experience for their students.
Classroom practices: A set of teaching strategies and methods of instruction employed in the classroom (Khader, 2012).
Overview of the Thesis Chapters
The current chapter, Introduction, presents the general interest of the study, the research purpose, research questions and significance of the study
Chapter Two, the Literature Review, establishes the theoretical foundation for this research by examining key areas relevant to writing and its instruction It begins with an overview of the general context surrounding writing and teaching methodologies The discussion then shifts to teacher belief systems, exploring definitions, categories, significance, and the factors influencing the relationship between educators' beliefs and their classroom practices Additionally, this chapter highlights pertinent empirical studies that further inform the understanding of these dynamics.
This study explores the connection between teachers' belief systems and their classroom practices in teaching writing It identifies existing research gaps to contextualize the significance of the current investigation.
Chapter three, Methodology, outlines the study's design and approach, detailing the context and population involved It discusses the data collection methods, their development, and addresses key methodological concerns such as reliability, validity, and ethical considerations Additionally, this chapter explains the tools utilized for data analysis and presentation.
Chapter 4, Findings and Discussion, provides a comprehensive presentation and discussion of the results of the study obtained from the analyses of questionnaires and interviews
Chapter 5 provides a concise summary of the study's key findings, highlights the contributions of this research, discusses its limitations, and offers recommendations for future research.
This chapter aims to provide a theoretical foundation for the study by exploring the nature of writing, teaching approaches, and the belief systems of teachers that influence their instructional practices in writing It is structured into five sections: the first section (2.1) discusses the background of writing and its teaching, covering aspects such as nature, levels, theoretical orientations, and the roles of writing teachers The second section (2.2) examines teacher belief systems related to writing and its instruction, defining key concepts and highlighting the impact of these beliefs on classroom actions The third section (2.3) outlines the English writing curriculum in Vietnamese high schools The fourth section (2.4) reviews empirical studies on the relationship between teachers' beliefs and their classroom practices in writing instruction Finally, the fifth section (2.5) identifies research gaps in the existing literature that the study seeks to address.
Teaching Writing
Writing: Natures, Levels, and Aspects
The natures of writing are variously described by some experts
According to Harmer (2004), writing enhances students' attention to linguistic accuracy, emphasizing the importance of correct vocabulary, grammar, and linkers in the writing process.
In Grami's (2010) review of various researchers, writing is characterized as a complex cognitive activity that requires careful thought, discipline, and concentration, rather than a mere reflection of immediate knowledge Graham (1997, in Nguyen Thanh Huy, 2015) identifies essential components of the writing process, including knowledge of writing and topics, text production skills, and strategies to motivate participants to write enthusiastically.
(4) directing thought and actions through strategies to achieve specific writing goals
In another point, Hyland (2003) emphasizes writing as a social activity which
Writing serves a culturally recognized purpose and fosters specific relationships within a community by utilizing various genres of language It is a purposeful and communicative social activity that engages with others and responds to existing texts In this context, feedback from teachers and peers plays a crucial role in enhancing students' writing development.
Based upon the natures of writing undergone by different perspectives in the existing body of literature, the researcher can draw out some potential writing natures such as
Writing is a form–focused or linguistic accuracy–based activity;
Writing is a cognitive activity adhered to steps of a writing process;
Writing is a social activity within specific writing goals;
Writing is a social activity in term of interaction among writer and readers
Learners engage in "the art of putting words together" (Harmer, 2004) at two distinct levels: the sentential level, which encompasses one to two sentences, and the textual level, involving paragraphs or various text genres.
Harmer (2004) states that the kind of writing at sentential level is often used for
“grammar reinforcement”; later, he exemplifies that “students are given one or two model sentences and then have to write similar sentences based on information they are given”
In more academic fashion, Dikilitaş (2012) describes the sentential level as “grammatical features of syntax at surface level representing semantics at deep structure”
In Vietnamese high schools, English writing instruction primarily occurs in grammar classes, where students focus on sentence-level accuracy through exercises like transformation and matching This approach emphasizes grammar learning over developing writing as an independent skill Consequently, the study aims to shift the focus towards teaching English writing at the textual level, specifically targeting paragraph and text genres.
Dikilitaş (2012) emphasizes the importance of functional cohesion at the surface level of writing, which contributes to deeper coherence This indicates that writers must effectively organize their ideas into cohesive and coherent paragraphs and texts As writing serves as a means of communication, it fulfills various communicative needs and achieves specific purposes (Hyland, 2003), reflecting the diverse genres or text types that exist.
In “D Writing” sections of Tieng Anh 10, Tieng Anh 11 and Tieng Anh 12, the coursebook series used to teach English subject at high school, students are exposed to
When teaching English writing in selected high schools in Ho Chi Minh City, it is crucial to explore 14 different text types These genres provide a foundational understanding of writing, helping students develop their skills effectively.
In An introduction to Applied Linguistics of Schmitt (2010), the author points out that writing involves the cycle of three aspects, that is, (1) relational aspect; (2) strategic aspect; and (3) textual aspect
Relational aspect: “Writing is always embedded in a rhetorical situation–a particular social […] under which written expression and communication take place” (Schmitt,
According to Halliday (2010), language is utilized in specific ways to achieve goals, indicating that texts are inherently linked to their social contexts (Hyland, 2003) Writing serves a purposeful function, aiming to fulfill objectives such as persuasion, invitation, or reporting, while also being contextualized within specific social situations like school or family Therefore, it is essential for learner writers to possess "genre knowledge" (Schmitt, 2010) To enhance students' social awareness, teachers should incorporate authentic materials in the language classroom, as these resources are tailored for real-life interactions and transactions (Maroko, 2010).
According to Schmitt (2010), effective writers utilize diverse strategies to evaluate the rhetorical situation and craft their written texts accordingly This indicates that student writers need to adapt their writing techniques based on the specific rhetorical context they encounter Schmitt further emphasizes the role of writing teachers in guiding this process.
Understanding the strategic aspect of writing is crucial for writing teachers, as it allows them to focus on teaching students how to write effectively rather than merely discussing the writing process To foster meaningful idea construction and proper text formation, educators must choose suitable instructional methods that enhance students' writing skills.
15 instruct students how to write (i.e., the steps to manipulate their writing such as planning, organizing ideas, choosing linguistic features) instead of merely linguistic knowledge
According to Halliday (1973, in Schmitt, 2010), writers must not only convey their ideas but also facilitate readers' understanding of the text It is crucial for writers to consider whether their audience can comprehend their writing In essence, effective writing requires the use of specific discourse features to ensure coherence and cohesion, as emphasized by Schmitt (2010).
Theoretical Orientations to Teaching Writing
Teaching has been interpreted in various ways by theorists and educators, with numerous educational psychologists proposing theories on skill and knowledge acquisition over the last century In the context of teaching writing as a language skill, Khanalizadeh & Allami (2012) identify three primary theoretical orientations: (1) a formal system, (2) a cognitive process, and (3) a social activity Additionally, Hyland (2003) supports these theoretical orientations in the teaching of writing.
Behaviorist learning theories view writing as a product shaped by the writer's understanding of grammar and vocabulary According to this perspective, the development of writing skills occurs through imitation and manipulation of models presented by the teacher.
(2) Cognitive learning theory: Writing is emphasized as a cognitive process, reflecting on the strategies students use to write
Social constructivism learning theory views writing as a social activity that is developed through interaction within a social context This perspective emphasizes that language forms are embedded in specific social settings to fulfill particular language functions.
This study is grounded in three key educational theories that inform the nature of writing and teaching approaches A comprehensive review of these theories highlights their relevance and application in educational contexts.
Ertmer and Newby (1993) highlight the differences between behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism, noting that behaviorists focus on strategies to enhance stimulus-response associations through instructional cues, practice, and reinforcement (Winn, 1990) In the context of teaching English writing, behaviorists suggest that teachers should first provide students with relevant language forms, such as vocabulary and grammar, and offer model texts before allowing them to practice and manipulate the language.
Ertmer and Newby (1993) argue that behavioral principles fall short in explaining the acquisition of higher-level skills that require deeper cognitive processing Supporting this perspective, the researcher contends that rigidly applying these principles in writing instruction may hinder students' logical thinking and their ability to express personal meanings (Hyland, 2003).
Cognitive learning theory focuses on understanding knowledge, its acquisition, and application (Li, 2008) As Li (2008) explains, the English writing process involves various mental activities, including logical thinking, reasoning, and deduction Learners must generate ideas, select suitable words and materials, structure paragraphs coherently, complete sentences logically, employ specific writing techniques, and revise their work Consequently, Li asserts that the process of writing in English is fundamentally a cognitive endeavor.
Vygotsky (1978), the founder of social constructivism, emphasizes that knowledge is most effectively built through collaborative efforts and social negotiation rather than through competition for recognition among learners This perspective has led researchers in second language writing to advocate for cooperative learning among students.
Collaborative writing enhances learners' writing skills by encouraging them to share responsibility for the quality of the text Through this teamwork, students make collective decisions on various elements of the writing, fostering a deeper understanding of the writing process.
In writing classes, students engage in meaningful exchanges and negotiations with peers and teachers, fostering a collaborative learning environment (Luu Trong Tuan, 2011) This approach alleviates the isolation often felt by learners during the writing process and provides positive reinforcement regarding their understanding of linguistics, content, and ideas in text composition.
Approaches to Teaching Writing
The three primary teaching approaches influenced by established learning theories are the product approach, process approach, and genre-based approach Each of these approaches is discussed in detail below.
The product approach to writing encourages students to create a final text that resembles a model provided by teachers According to Al-Hammadi & Sidek (2015), this method involves learners following an example of writing to adapt and recreate an original text Hyland (2003) outlines four key stages involved in the product approach to writing.
Learners engage in familiarization by studying a text to grasp its grammar and vocabulary They then practice controlled writing by manipulating fixed patterns through substitution tables Finally, guided writing allows them to imitate model texts by filling in gaps, completing texts, or creating parallel texts.
Free writing: Learners use the patterns they have developed to write a letter, essay, etc
In this approach, the teacher serves as a model for language, guiding exercises and correcting errors to ensure a final, error-free product.
In conclusion, the product approach to writing prioritizes grammar, vocabulary, and mechanics over content, process, audience, and purpose (Bae, 2011) This approach views writing as a form-based activity, distinguishing it from other methodologies It is supported by the integration of structural linguistics and behaviorist learning theories, emphasizing the importance of technical aspects in writing instruction.
The process approach to writing, as defined by Tribble (1996) and cited in Alodwan & Ibnian (2014), emphasizes the individual writer's creativity and focuses on cultivating effective writing practices rather than merely imitating existing models This perspective highlights writing as a cognitive process, underscoring the importance of personal development in writing skills.
The process approach to writing emphasizes the development of organization and meaning, as highlighted by Matsuda (2003), who notes the importance of invention strategies, multiple drafts, and formative feedback from both teachers and peers Badger & White (2000) further assert that the teacher's role is to facilitate learners' writing rather than merely providing input, allowing students significant freedom within their tasks Overall, this approach is centered on the learner, promoting a more engaging and personalized writing experience.
Process approach to teaching writing, with the researcher‟s perspective, embraces some traits of cognitive learning, social constructivism theories:
Cognitive learning theory emphasizes that student writers engage in mental processes to produce a final draft, requiring them to generate relevant ideas, select suitable vocabulary, and utilize linking words to effectively structure their paragraphs and arrange sentences logically.
Social constructivism theory emphasizes collaborative learning, where students engage in brainstorming sessions to negotiate and explore ideas with their peers During the revision phase, they share their initial drafts with classmates to receive constructive feedback on both the content and structure of their work.
Genre, or text type, is defined as "abstract, socially recognised ways of using language" (Hyland, 2007), highlighting the significance of understanding the social and cultural context in writing (Hammond & Derewianka, 2001, in Luu Trong Tuan, 2011) Essentially, writing serves as a means to achieve specific communicative goals tailored to particular social situations.
To apply the approach to instructional process for writing skill, Callaghen & Rothery
(1988, in Sawangsamutchai & Rattanavich, 2016) develop the three–phase teaching– learning cycle: (1) Modeling, (2) Joint negotiation of text, (3) Independent construction
Modeling involves the explicit teaching of lexico-grammatical and rhetorical patterns to improve learners' comprehension of specific communicative situations (Sawangsamutchai & Rattanavich, 2016) To effectively master written genres, students require direct instruction, emphasizing that genre forms should be taught through an analytical study of models (Martin, 1993, in Elashri, 2013) This phase of the genre-based approach aligns with the Familiarization stage of the product approach However, while the product approach primarily focuses on the analysis of linguistic features in model texts, the genre-based approach emphasizes the examination of the genre's schematic structure.
Joint negotiation of text involves integrating learners' prior knowledge with the structure and features of the targeted genre, as guided by the teacher, to create coherent text (Sawangsamutchai & Rattanavich, 2016) This phase allows learners to engage in exercises that manipulate relevant language forms (Elashri, 2013) The researcher highlights the connection between this phase of the genre-based approach and the Controlled and Guided Writing stages, where learners participate in structured activities related to the model text before transitioning to free writing.
Independent construction involves learners utilizing the schematic structures and linguistic features acquired in earlier stages to create their own text, fostering the development of collaborative skills among them (Sawangsamutchai & Rattanavich).
Schematic structure, as defined by Luu Trong Tuan (2011), encompasses the internal organization of a text, including its introduction, body, and conclusion, along with linguistic features such as grammar, vocabulary, and connectors The final phase of the genre-based approach parallels the process approach, where writers independently develop their ideas and collaborate with peers for revisions.
Normally, teaching–learning cycle of genre–based consists of three aforementioned phases; yet, Hyland (2007) and Liang (2015) propose one more phase alternatively called
"Setting the context," as described by Hyland (2007), involves revealing the genre's purposes and its common settings Liang (2015) emphasizes the importance of this phase in building knowledge of the cultural and social contexts surrounding the topic For example, teachers can enhance students' understanding of a text's social function by prompting them to consider questions such as: What is the text about? Who authored it, and who is the intended audience? Why was it written? (Kongpetch, 2006, in Liang, 2015).
Roles of Writing Teacher
Richards & Rodgers (1986, in Al–Hammadi & Sidek, 2015) claim that teacher roles are related to a set of issues including: (1) The kind of job teachers are required to fulfill;
Educators have varying levels of control over the learning practices they adopt, including the ability to choose the educational methods used and the nature of interactions between learners and themselves Based on the subject matter and the characteristics of the learners, teachers must assess which roles to assume and how prominently these roles should be expressed in the educational process.
In teaching English writing, writing teachers fulfill various roles that significantly influence their students' learning experiences The extent of control a writing teacher has over students' writing development varies, impacting the dynamics of interaction within the classroom This inquiry prompts a review of key teacher roles identified in existing literature, highlighting the importance of both teacher-student and student-student interactions in fostering effective writing skills.
In the fourth edition book “The Practice of English Language Teaching”, Harmer
(2001) presents several terms to describe a particular kind of teacher Nevertheless, he categorizes these terms into two main groups:
A knowledge transmitter, as defined by Harmer (2001), is a "performer" who emphasizes the importance of providing students with essential facts and information before encouraging independent thinking (Ihedioha, 2012) Ihedioha further argues that this deductive model places significant control over the learning process in the hands of the teacher, suggesting that some students may thrive better in learning environments that are less teacher-directed (Sprinthall & Sprinthall, 1990, in Ihedioha, 2012).
The researcher acknowledges Harmer's (2001) and Ihedioha's (2012) perspectives on the often excessive role of teachers as mere knowledge transmitters in the classroom However, they argue that direct knowledge transmission and comprehensive input are essential, particularly for low-level students This viewpoint is further supported by Nguyen Ho Hoang Thuy (2009), emphasizing the importance of structured guidance in the learning process.
Language teachers must offer learners essential input before prompting them to write, but the extent of this role should be carefully considered It is crucial for educators to combine their role as knowledge transmitters with other teaching methods to enhance students' learning outcomes effectively.
From a learner-centered perspective, educators believe that when teachers adopt the role of facilitators, students are more motivated to learn English as a Foreign Language (EFL) or English as a Second Language (ESL) effectively According to Harmer (2001), a facilitator is a type of teacher who promotes learner autonomy by utilizing group work and pair work, acting more as a resource than merely a transmitter of knowledge In writing classrooms, teachers, as facilitators, should engage in specific tasks to support this approach.
Organizing students to do various writing activities (Harmer, 2001) such as brainstorming (Mohammad & Hussein, 2013);
Provoking the students into having ideas when they get stuck (Harmer, 2004);
Organizing writing activities collaboratively through the use of pairwork and group work (Storch, 2005) such as peer feedback (Alnasser, 2013);
Create a favorable environment for students to write a lot (Uddin, 2014)
When teachers shift from being mere knowledge transmitters to facilitators in the writing classroom, students become more proactive in their learning and engage actively in cooperative writing activities This raises the question of whether high school teachers can solely assume the facilitator role or if they seek a balanced approach that combines both roles The following chapters will delve into these considerations by exploring teachers' beliefs about teaching writing at the high school level.
Uddin (2014) highlights two contrasting roles of a teacher in the writing classroom, aligning with Harmer's (2001) framework The first role positions the teacher as a transmitter of knowledge, while the second emphasizes the teacher as a facilitator of learning.
Table 2.1 – Teacher Roles Proposed by Uddin (2014)
Give feedback on accuracy of language
Teacher–centred writing classroom Teacher as a knowledge transmitter
Create a favorable environment for students to write a lot
Student–centred writing classroom Teacher as a facilitator
In addition to serving as a knowledge transmitter and facilitator, the researcher emphasizes the importance of the feedback provider role, which is crucial for helping both high school teachers and students identify strengths and weaknesses in English writing skills.
Feedback is essential for the development of writing skills, making it crucial for teachers to provide constructive input on students' work This feedback can be given at two key stages: during the writing process and after completion It encompasses two main types: feedback on form, which addresses grammar, spelling, punctuation, and vocabulary, and feedback on content, which evaluates organization, ideas, and detail (Fathman & Walley, 1990, in Zaman & Azad, 2012).
This article explores the criteria used by teachers in selected high schools in Ho Chi Minh City to provide feedback on students' English writing The investigation will delve into the teachers' educational beliefs and their practical teaching activities, addressing how these factors influence their feedback methods.
Teacher Beliefs
Definition of Teacher Beliefs
Yang et al (2014) emphasize that teacher beliefs constitute a teacher's knowledge system related to language teaching and learning, serving as a crucial network for decision-making in educational contexts.
25 instruction” This definition, as for the researcher, reflects relationship between beliefs and practices and posits the need to study teachers‟ beliefs in connection to practices
Due to the fact that the definition of teacher belief is shady in the education literature, numerous terms have been employed to conceptualize the term “teacher belief” Borg
In 2003, Uddin (2014) defines "teacher cognition" through sixteen key terms, which include knowledge, theories, attitudes, images, assumptions, metaphors, and conceptions These terms encompass teachers' perspectives on teaching, students, subject matter, curricula, instructional materials, activities, and their own self-concept.
Succinctly stated, teacher beliefs are cognitive tools with which powerfully affect or control a teacher‟ behaviors, instructional choices, material development, etc.
Categories of Teacher Beliefs
Teachers‟ beliefs have been categorized into various types by researchers (e.g., William & Burden, 1997; Yin, 2006; Zheng, 2009; Chai, 2010; Fives & Buehl, 2012)
Table 2.2 – Teacher Beliefs Suggested by Some Authors
Yin 2006 (1) learners and learning; (2) language teaching;
(1) learners and learning; (2) language teaching;
Chai 2010 (1) knowledge and learning (epistemological beliefs);
The study identifies two predominant types of teacher beliefs: (1) beliefs regarding the nature of the subject matter and (2) beliefs about teacher roles and the teaching process These insights will inform the systematic development of questionnaires and interviews for the research.
2.2.2.1 Teachers’ beliefs about the subject matter
Calderhead (1996, in Yin, 2006) argues that every subject area in the school curriculum is linked to various beliefs regarding its nature and the understanding of that subject Yin references multiple studies that explore teachers' beliefs about their subject matter.
Table 2.3a – Examples of Teachers’ Beliefs about Subject Matters
Author (year) Subject matter Sub–categories of beliefs Examples
Didactic–orientation Activity–orientation Discovery–orientation Process–orientation Change–orientation
Teachers having a didactic–orientation believed that science consisted of “just facts”, which were effectively transmitted to students through lectures, memorization, and practice
Teachers with a discovery–orientation assumed that science rested on the discovery of truth
Text–orientation Reader–orientation Context–orientation
The text–orientation viewed the meaning of a literary text to be in the text itself, in the language, tone, theme, and structure used
The reader–orientation considered the meaning of a literary text to be personal and subjective
Understanding teachers' perceptions of writing is crucial in teaching writing skills, as their views can range from limited to diverse, often varying by context (Calderhead, 1996, in Yin, 2006) This indicates that beliefs about the nature of writing can differ significantly based on the specific educational environment in which educators operate.
Writing is often perceived as a singular and universally true form of expression, a notion frequently reinforced by educators However, an alternative perspective emphasizes that writing must be socially contextual, situationally specific, and purposeful This view posits that "writing is a social activity aimed at achieving specific writing goals."
Writing relies on a foundation of vocabulary, expressions, and grammatical structures learned in isolation It is often viewed as an activity focused on form and linguistic accuracy, emphasizing the importance of memorization and practice.
Teachers are essential in developing students' English writing skills; however, students also significantly shape their own abilities through active self-reflection, peer interaction, and the process of making meaning.
It is inferred from this belief that “writing is a complex cognitive process of multiple steps”; and “writing is a social activity in term of interaction among writers”.
This study explores high school teachers' beliefs regarding the importance and nature of EFL writing skills, examining their perceptions, feelings, and thoughts from various perspectives.
Table 2.3b – Teachers’ Beliefs about Nature of Writing Skill
Subject matter Sub–categories of beliefs
(1) Form–based (2) Cognitive process–based
(3) Functional social–based (4) Interactive social–based
2.2.2.2 Teachers’ beliefs about teacher roles and teaching
Teachers' beliefs significantly influence their perceptions of their roles and responsibilities in the classroom (Richards et al., 2001) According to Zheng (2009), educators have varying conceptual orientations towards teaching, with some viewing it as a process of information transmission while others see themselves as facilitators of language learning Chai (2010) expands on this by defining these beliefs as "pedagogical beliefs," which are often shaped by their understanding of the subject matter Similar to Zheng, Chai categorizes these pedagogical beliefs into two main views: the knowledge transmission view and the knowledge construction view.
Accordingly, the two aforementioned views can lead to two different types of teacher roles and teaching in practices of writing instruction, that
Teachers with traditional beliefs view education as a means of transmitting knowledge, where students are seen as passive recipients In contrast, constructivist teachers perceive teaching as a way to facilitate students' active construction of meaning and understanding from their experiences These educators create learning environments that encourage students to engage actively in the sense-making process.
Inferring from this kind of teachers‟ beliefs, the researcher can explore what teachers think about “models of effective instruction, instructional approaches, [their] teaching role, and appropriate classroom activities” (Yin, 2006)
2.2.2.3 Relationship between beliefs about the subject matter, about teacher roles and teaching
According to Grossman (1991), as noted by Yin (2006), teachers' beliefs about the subject matter significantly impact their instructional judgments and decisions This suggests that educators should develop their beliefs about teaching based on their understanding of the subject they are delivering.
29 teacher role and teaching of this subject matter such as determine to choose appropriate instructions and educational materials, etc
Hofer and Pintrich (1997) highlight the connection between beliefs about teaching and the acquisition of knowledge, suggesting that these beliefs are interrelated Teachers' perceptions of English writing significantly influence their roles and teaching approaches in developing students' writing skills For instance, if teachers view writing as a form-based activity, they are likely to adopt the role of knowledge transmitters and engage in knowledge transmission activities Conversely, if they see writing as an interactive social activity, they may take on the role of facilitators and promote collaborative writing among students.
Importance of Teacher Beliefs on Practices of Teaching Writing
Learners' beliefs about language learning are crucial, and equally important are the beliefs of their teachers regarding language teaching, as emphasized by Shinde & Karekatti (2012) According to White (1999, cited in Shinde & Karekatti, 2012), teacher beliefs significantly influence their teaching practices.
Beliefs have an adaptive function to help individuals define and understand themselves;
Beliefs are instrumental in defining tasks and behaviors;
Teachers‟ belief systems, including their attitudes, expectations, and assumptions about teaching and learning, are considered a basic source of teachers‟ classroom practices
Research indicates a significant connection between teachers' beliefs and their instructional practices, as highlighted by Berry (2006) and White (1999) Teachers often base their classroom decisions on these beliefs, which directly influence the performance of both educators and students This study aims to explore whether the writing instructional practices of high school teachers stem from their underlying beliefs, emphasizing the crucial role that teacher beliefs play in educational outcomes.
30 considerations in counting for why teachers choose such teaching activities for their classroom instructional practices.
Factors Impacting Teacher Beliefs and Teachers’ Practices of Teaching Writing
Discrepancies between teachers' beliefs and their actual classroom practices have been a topic of significant debate According to Khader (2012), teachers possess intricate belief systems that do not always align with their teaching methods due to various complex factors.
The teachers‟ beliefs cannot necessarily have a huge impact on the way they teach;
They are required by law to teach certain things which may (not) go along with beliefs;
Teachers must compensate for the disjunction between their personal beliefs and realities of classroom restrictions as what teachers believe and what they actually do are quite different
Several factors contribute to the disconnect between teachers' beliefs and their actual writing instruction practices Melketo (2012) utilizes Borg's (2003) model, which serves as a prominent framework for understanding the influences that affect how these beliefs are reflected in classroom settings.
Borg‟ (2003) model reveals the four core factors which impact writing teachers‟ manifestation of their beliefs in classroom practices, including:
Schooling: Certain knowledge, Subject goals, etc
Professional Coursework: Teachers’ experience, Curricular, Materials, etc
Contextual Factors: Teachers’ time, Students’ motivation, Examination demands, etc Classroom: Classroom size, Duration, Teacher–student ratio, etc
Researchers should examine Borg's (2003, adapted in Melketo, 2012) framework to explore the factors contributing to the gap between teachers' beliefs about writing instruction and their actual classroom practices in high schools in Ho Chi Minh City.
Summary of English Writing Curriculum at Vietnamese High School
English Textbooks for High School
In term of teaching–learning material, the textbook for high schools in Vietnam is prescribed by MOET, following a learner–centred approach that
“Teachers organize, guide students to actively participate in solo, pair and group activities Teachers need to incorporate different teaching methods, techniques harmonically; […] employ supplementary materials to motivate students […];
Students are the goal of the teaching and learning process Students proactively participate in learning activities and communicative activities creatively and collaboratively”.
The textbook series for the high school consists of three books for three different grades, namely Tieng Anh 10, Tieng Anh 11, and Tieng Anh 12 Each textbook includes
16 units and 6 revision lessons Each unit is composed of five periods presented in the following sequence: Reading, Speaking, Listening, Writing, and Language Focus
There are six common topics overarching the textbook series at high school level, that
Objective of MOET towards Writing Skill at High School
Based on the English curriculum of MOET, after finishing each grade, high school students must achieve certain competence of writing skill presented in Table 2.4
Table 2.4 – Objective of MOET (2006) toward Writing Skill at High School
Write texts of 100–120 words on familiar topics based on models/ prompts for personal or basic communicative purposes
Write texts of 120–130 words on familiar topics based on models/ prompts for personal or basic communicative purposes
Write texts of 130–150 words on familiar topics based on models/ prompts for personal or basic communicative purposes
To meet this goal, each high school grade is allocated a total of sixteen 45-minute periods dedicated to developing writing skills, with one writing period assigned per unit.
Description of the Writing Sections
In 2007, Nguyen Thi Thuy Minh critically assessed the English textbook series for high school, highlighting key characteristics of the "D Writing" section She noted that this section typically begins with preparatory tasks where students analyze requirements, explore models, or brainstorm ideas, followed by controlled or guided writing exercises, and concludes with a free writing activity However, these activities often lack a clear focus on audience and writing purpose Additionally, she pointed out that the types of texts students are expected to produce range from personal and formal letters to narratives, as well as descriptions of charts, graphs, and tables, culminating in expository essays.
Table 2.5 – Text Types of Writing Sections
Unit Tieng Anh 10 Tieng Anh 11 Tieng Anh 12
1 Writing a narrative Writing about a friend Writing about family rules
2 Writing an enrolment form Writing a personal letter Describing features of a leaf hat
3 Writing a curriculum vitae Writing a letter of invitation
4 Writing a letter of complaint Writing a form letter for gratitude Describing school system in Vietnam
5 Writing instructions Describing information in table Writing a letter of request
6 Writing a confirmation letter Writing a letter of reply Writing a letter of job application
7 Writing advantage– disadvantage Interpreting statistics from a chart Writing a report
8 Giving directions Describing a celebration Describing the world in the future
9 Describing information in table Writing a letter for satisfaction Describing main features of a desert
10 Writing a letter of invitation Describing a location Writing measures to protect species
11 Writing a letter of acceptance Describing information in chart Describing a book
12 Writing a profile Describing the preparations for the coming Asian Games Giving instructions
13 Describing a film Describing about a collection Describing a sporting event
14 Writing an announcement Describing a camping holiday Writing a short description of an international organization
15 Describing a city Writing a biography Describing a chart
16 Describing a chart Writing a report on a place Writing a letter of recommendation
Studies on Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices in Teaching Writing
Teaching writing to high school EFL learners is a challenging task for language teachers, requiring significant language proficiency and reflective practice (Ferris, 2007) It is crucial for educators to understand and believe in effective writing instruction, as this influences their classroom behaviors and teaching methods To establish the theoretical framework for this study, section 2.4 will examine recent research on second language teachers' beliefs and practices regarding writing instruction (e.g., Farrell, 2006; Corpuz, 2011; Khanalizadeh & Allami, 2012; Abadi & Marzban, 2012; Melketo, 2012; Uddin, 2014; Nigam, 2015; Gaitas & Martins, 2015) While some studies indicate a correlation between teachers' beliefs and their writing instruction practices, others highlight a significant disconnect.
Reflective practice is crucial for teachers as it allows them to examine their values and beliefs about teaching and learning, ultimately bridging the gap between their beliefs and classroom practices (Farrell, 2006) In a qualitative study of Chee, a female ESL teacher with 20 years of experience, data was gathered through classroom observations, reflective journals, and conversations The findings revealed that Chee views writing as an intellectual activity that requires significant time for thinking and analysis, and she adopts a process-oriented approach to teaching writing, believing it helps students discover new ideas Additionally, while Chee values peer responses in writing classes, she noted that students rarely engage in discussions about their writing after receiving feedback, leading her to provide her own feedback based on student expectations.
Chee was unafraid to modify her practices when they clashed with her beliefs, highlighting the complexities involved in translating beliefs into actions This tension can arise from various factors, including students' preferences and diverse learning styles.
In 2012, Khanalizadeh & Allami conducted a study examining the beliefs of Iranian EFL primary teachers regarding the nature of writing and its instruction Utilizing a 15-item questionnaire and an open-ended question, the research explored three theoretical orientations: writing as a formal system, a cognitive process, and a social activity The findings revealed that most teachers viewed writing as a productive skill akin to speaking, with a focus on form-based instruction While some acknowledged the significance of text content, the majority advocated for using various samples for teaching writing However, this form-oriented approach created challenges, such as the need for teachers to correct every grammatical error and the constraints on class time for writing lessons Additionally, opinions varied on the importance of grammatical knowledge versus cohesion and coherence in writing Notably, the study focused solely on teachers' beliefs without examining their actual teaching practices or the relationship between beliefs and instructional methods.
In a study focused on primary teachers, Nigam (2015) explored the beliefs of a fourth-grade teacher and their influence on writing instruction at Auburn Elementary School in the United States Utilizing various data collection methods, including teacher interviews and classroom observations, the research highlighted the teacher's conviction that fostering a passion for writing and a comprehension of the writing process components, such as brainstorming and planning, are essential for student success.
The participant, a fourth-grade teacher, demonstrated a strong appreciation for process-oriented writing instruction, emphasizing the importance of collaboration among students She believed that fostering independence in writing could be achieved through group work, reflecting her commitment to social constructivism in education However, she acknowledged that her beliefs did not always align with actual writing instruction practices The teacher identified several factors contributing to this gap, including assessment demands, availability of professional development, challenges within the classroom environment, and her own preparation for teaching writing.
Uddin's (2014) study on fifteen teachers from a private university in Bangladesh highlights the connection between teachers' pedagogical beliefs and their writing instruction practices The research, which included a questionnaire based on Hyland’s (2003) literature review and interviews with two teachers, revealed that most participants expected students to produce grammatically correct sentences and engage in various writing forms, such as reports and essays Teachers believed in providing model texts, assisting students with idea generation, tailoring exercises to proficiency levels, and offering corrective feedback Uddin emphasized the need for teachers to receive training in diverse writing instruction approaches, supplemented by practical demonstrations The study also found that teachers viewed writing as a process involving stages like idea gathering, planning, and revising However, challenges such as large class sizes and an exam-oriented culture hindered their ability to implement these beliefs in practice.
The demands of timely syllabus completion, challenges faced by low-level students, and time constraints are significant issues in education One interviewee emphasized the importance of student engagement in extracurricular activities, particularly encouraging writing practice at home The researcher strongly supports this perspective, as consistent practice is essential for improvement.
Gaitas & Martins (2015) conducted a study to explore the connection between Portuguese primary school teachers' beliefs and their writing instruction practices during the first four years of education Utilizing a 52-item questionnaire, the research assessed teachers' beliefs, preferred activities, and classroom organization related to writing The questionnaire categorized responses into three groups: teachers' beliefs, teaching activities, and classroom organization Findings revealed that teachers valued both form-based beliefs, which emphasize individual writing and explicit teaching of vocabulary and grammar, and meaning-based beliefs, which promote student engagement in writing regardless of correctness and collaboration in pairs or small groups Notably, 75% of the participating teachers acknowledged the importance of both belief types in their teaching approach Additionally, the study indicated that teachers organized writing activities in various configurations, including solo, pair, and small group settings, demonstrating a strong alignment between their beliefs and actual teaching behaviors.
In the similar context and time with Khanalizadeh & Allami‟s study, however, Abadi
In a study by Marzban (2012), English teachers' beliefs regarding writing instruction for children and adolescents were examined using a 35-item questionnaire This questionnaire was categorized into four key areas: the meaning of writing, the importance of writing, teaching activities and practices, and feedback The findings indicated that participants recognized the need for differentiated approaches to teaching writing skills based on the age of the students.
Teachers recognize the significance of writing as a means of self-expression and a skill that enhances fluency, accuracy, and proficiency in English They believe that writing helps students expand their vocabulary, improve spelling and grammar, organize information effectively, and succeed in examinations To reinforce their beliefs, educators encourage students, both in elementary and high school, to practice writing sentences using the grammatical concepts learned in class Additionally, Abadi & Marzban highlight that factors related to students, the cultural context of schools, and educational curricula can influence Iranian teachers' perspectives on teaching writing.
Melketo (2012) explored the relationship between instructors' pedagogical beliefs and their teaching practices in a qualitative study focused on academic writing instruction at an Ethiopian university Over four months, he conducted successive interviews and observations with three instructors, revealing that their beliefs about teaching writing were generally consistent with their actual classroom practices.
1 Writing is an intellectual activity which takes a lot of time for thinking and analyzing.
All three teachers adopted process approach to writing: planning, drafting, revising and editing, and writing a final text
2 Writing is a process through which
3 Writing involves thinking, creativity and practice
However, the teachers‟ beliefs and practices in teaching writing also confronted some tensions related to three core steps of teaching:
Reading texts should be used as source of information Imitated texts
Generating ideas via learner–centered brainstorming Teacher–oriented explanations
Helping students in drafting and redrafting One draft, focusing on final draft
Writing should be collaborative Individually work submitted to the teacher for home checking
Revision Helping students edit grammatical, mechanical features Almost sidestepped
Error correction Eliciting peer correction should be encouraged Teacher directly correct students‟ errors
Melketo identified several factors that lead teachers to adopt teaching methods that contradict their expressed beliefs, including time constraints, perceptions of student expectations, classroom management challenges, and a perceived lack of student motivation Notably, the study revealed that the focus on "teaching the test" instead of "teaching the subject matter" created tension between teachers' beliefs and their actual classroom practices This dilemma aligns with existing literature on the challenges educators face in balancing their pedagogical ideals with practical classroom realities.
Le Van Canh (2011) described high school level in Vietnamese educational system
A study by Corpuz (2011) investigated the interplay between teachers' beliefs, students' preferences, and teachers' practices regarding corrective feedback in writing Conducted with two experienced teachers and thirty students at an Australian university, the research utilized qualitative methods such as interviews and classroom observations The findings revealed that teachers believed written error correction enhanced students' proofreading skills, although they acknowledged it was time-consuming Consequently, teachers allocated extra time to clarify the feedback given Initially, they favored explicit written feedback strategies, transitioning to more implicit methods like peer feedback as the course progressed to support student learning Ultimately, the study highlighted that teachers acted in accordance with their beliefs.