Energy Storage in the Emerging Era of Smart Grids Part 1 pptx

Contents Preface IX Part 1 Energy Storage Systems 1 Chapter 1 Electrochemical Energy Storage 3 Pier Luigi Antonucci and Vincenzo Antonucci Chapter 2 Supercapacitor-Based Electrical Ene

ENERGY STORAGE IN THE EMERGING ERA

OF SMART GRIDS Edited by Rosario Carbone

Energy Storage in the Emerging Era of Smart Grids

Edited by Rosario Carbone

Published by InTech

Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia

Copyright © 2011 InTech

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of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book

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Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic

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Image Copyright design56, 2010 Used under license from Shutterstock.com

First published September, 2011

Printed in Croatia

A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com

Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechweb.org

Energy Storage in the Emerging Era of Smart Grids, Edited by Rosario Carbone

p cm

ISBN 978-953-307-269-2

free online editions of InTech

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Contents

Preface IX Part 1 Energy Storage Systems 1

Chapter 1 Electrochemical Energy Storage 3

Pier Luigi Antonucci and Vincenzo Antonucci Chapter 2 Supercapacitor-Based Electrical Energy Storage System 21

Masatoshi Uno Chapter 3 Rotor Design for High-Speed Flywheel

Energy Storage Systems 41

Malte Krack, Marc Secanell and Pierre Mertiny Chapter 4 An Application of Genetic Fuzzy Systems

to the Operation Planning of Hydrothermal Systems 69

Ricardo de A L Rabêlo, Fábbio A S Borges, Ricardo A S Fernandes, Adriano A F M Carneiro and Rosana T V Braga

Chapter 5 Lightning Energy: A Lab Scale System 89

Mohd Farriz Basar, Musa Yusop Lada and Norhaslinda Hasim Chapter 6 Fabrication and Characterization of MicroPCMs 111

Jun-Feng Su Chapter 7 Energy Storage and Transduction in Mitochondria 139

Bahareh Golfar, Mohsen Nosrati and Seyed Abbas Shojaosadati

Part 2 Technologies for Improving Energy Storage Systems 159

Chapter 8 Bidirectional DC - DC Converters

for Energy Storage Systems 161

Hamid R Karshenas, Hamid Daneshpajooh, Alireza Safaee, Praveen Jain and Alireza Bakhshai

VI Contents

Chapter 9 Bi-Directional DC - DC Converters

for Battery Buffers with Supercapacitor 179

Jan Leuchter Chapter 10 Bio-Inspired Synthesis of Electrode Materials

for Lithium Rechargeable Batteries 207

Kisuk Kang and Sung-Wook Kim

Chapter 11 Thioether Bond Containing Polymers

as Novel Cathode Active Materials for Rechargeable Lithium Batteries 237

Zhang J.Y., Zhan H., Tang J., Zhan L.Z., Song Z.P., Zhou Y.H and Zhan C.M

Chapter 12 Nanostructured MnO 2 for Electrochemical Capacitor 251

Mao-wen Xu and Shu-Juan Bao Chapter 13 High Temperature PEM Fuel Cells Based

on Nafion®/SiO 2 Composite Membrane 279

XiaoJin Li, ChangChun Ke, ShuGuo Qu, Jin Li, ZhiGang Shao and BaoLian Yi

Part 3 Practical Applications of Energy Storage 299

Chapter 14 Energy Storage for Balancing

a Local Distribution Network Area 301

I Grau Unda, P Papadopoulos,

S Skarvelis-Kazakos, L M Cipcigan and N Jenkins Chapter 15 Sizing and Management

of Energy Atorage for a 100% Renewable Supply in Large Electric Systems 321

Oscar Alonso, Santiago Galbete and Miriam Sotés Chapter 16 Complementary Control of Intermittently

Operating Renewable Sources with Short- and Long-Term Storage Plants 349

E F Fuchs and W L Fuchs Chapter 17 Practical Application

of Electrical Energy Storage System in Industry 379

Drabek, Streit and Blahnik Chapter 18 Predictive Optimal Matrix Converter Control

for a Dynamic Voltage Restorer with Flywheel Energy Storage 401

Paulo Gambôa, J Fernando Silva,

S Ferreira Pinto and Elmano Margato

Chapter 19 Unified Power Flow Controllers Without Energy

Storage: Designing Power Controllers

for the Matrix Converter Solution 425

Joaquim Monteiro, J Fernando Silva,

Sónia Pinto and João Palma

Chapter 20 The Benefits of Device Level Short Term Energy Storage

in Ocean Wave Energy Converters 439

D O’Sullivan, D Murray, J Hayes,

M G Egan and A W Lewis

Chapter 21 A New On-Board Energy Storage System

for the Rolling Stock 463

Masao Yano

Preface

Traditional electrical power systems were essentially based on centralized and fuel consuming power generation plants, where end-users were supplied via unidirectional transmission and distribution grids

The increasing demand for electrical energy and, at the same time, the need for reducing CO2 emissions are now changing these strongholds, and power systems are more and more integrated by “distributed generation” (DG), that is to say small and medium size generator plants managed by end-users (now called “prosumers”, to underline that they are both consumers and producers) and essentially based on renewables

In order not to compromise reliability and quality of the supply, modern power systems now have to become “smarter”, for properly managing power, received both from centralized and distributed sources; of course, this could be accomplished by means of sophisticated control and communication technologies but, in our opinion, energy-storage systems can also have a central role

In fact, electricity generated from renewables by distributed plants, unlike to that generated by fuel consuming centralized plants, is highly “intermittent” and this worsens the problem of optimally matching electricity availability with electricity demand of end-users

Without solving this problem, reliability, quality and stability of modern power system are seriously compromised

Reliable, high-efficient and cost-effective energy storage systems - undoubtedly – can play a crucial role for a large-scale integration on power systems of DG and for enabling the starting and the consolidation of the new era of so called smart-grids

A non exhaustive list of benefits of the energy storage properly located on modern power systems with DG could be as follows: it can increase voltage control, frequency control and stability of power systems, it can reduce outages, it can allow the reduction of spinning reserves to meet peak power demands, it can reduce congestion

on the transmission and distributions grids, it can release the stored energy when energy is most needed and expensive, it can improve power quality or service reliability for customers with high value processes or critical operations and so on

X Preface

At this moment, a large number of energy storage technologies and systems are available and effectively viable; nevertheless, existing storage technologies can be complimented with innovative researches in order to find new, more reliable and cost-effective solutions

The main goal of the book is to give a date overview on: (i) basic and well proven energy storage systems, (ii) recent advances on technologies for improving the effectiveness of energy storage devices, (iii) practical applications of energy storage, in the emerging era of smart grids

The book is organized into three sections

In the first section (chapters from 1 to 7), the basic and well proven technologies for making up an energy storage system are reviewed

In Chapter 1, electrochemical energy storage technologies are reviewed, also showing how batteries, electrochemical flow cell systems, hydrogen based systems and capacitors can be effectively used on modern distribution grids for integrating renewable energy sources (RES), in order to improve their availability, reliability and power quality

In Chapter 2, specific reference is made to supercapacitors It is shown that they can be used as an effective alternative to traditional secondary batteries, especially in applications where batteries have to be cycled with shallow depth of discharges, in order to achieve long cycle lives High-efficiency power electronic converters suitable for overcoming some specific problems related to practical utilization of supercapacitors (voltage imbalance in series connections and terminal voltage variations during charging/discharging process) are also introduced and discussed

In Chapter 3, the state of art of high-speed flywheels is overviewed Particular attention is dedicated to the problem of the optimization of the rotor design process and well proven approaches for solving it are introduced and discussed, with specific reference to a hybrid composite flywheel rotor

In Chapter 4, the operation planning of hydrothermal systems is analysed, with the main aim to optimize the reservoirs of the hydroelectric systems so that thermoelectric generation can be profitably replaced, whenever possible, by hydroelectric generation The specification of reservoir operation rules by means of Genetic Fuzzy Systems is investigated and the Mamdani fuzzy inference systems is efficiently used to estimate the operating volume of each hydroelectric plant based on the value of the energy stored in the hydroelectric system

In Chapter 5, a lab scale system is experimented to demonstrate the real possibility to capture the energy from lightning return strokes, as that can also be considered a clean energy sources The capacitor is used as energy storage device while a high-frequency switching is used to isolate it (and its stored energy), once it has been supplied by means of a lab-generated lightning impulse voltage

In Chapter 6, the storage of thermal energy is considered Phase change materials (PCMs) are specifically introduced and analysed due to their well proven capability to store thermal energy as latent heat, thanks to a constant-temperature phase-change process

In order to obtain a high heat transfer rate, micro encapsulated PCMs are proposed to

be used; their fabrication process and their characterization are discussed in depth

Finally, in Chapter 7, the energy storage process that characterises living organisms is introduced Energy transduction in animal living cells takes place on the mitochondrion and the energy is stored in the body in the form of high-energy molecules such as Adesonine Three-Phosphate (ATP), maintaining the body at a constant temperature of about 37°C; the investigation of this process could be helpful in searching for an alternative energy storage systems, if studied from a thermodynamic point of view In this chapter, a thermodynamic model for ATP synthesis is proposed and a quantitative comparison between the rate of energy loss and efficiency of energetic and thermogenic mitochondria is operated Quantitative evaluation of different mitochondria leads to a better understanding of their thermodynamic functions

In the second section (chapters from 8 to 13), recent advances on technologies for improving energy storage systems are introduced and analysed

In Chapter 8, bidirectional dc-dc converters are considered The most common and economical energy storage devices in medium-power range are batteries and super-capacitors, and bidirectional dc-dc converters could be a key element because they can allow energy exchange between storage devices and the rest of system High efficiency, lightweight, compact size and high reliability are, of course, some important requirements for bidirectional dc-dc converters In this chapter, they are reviewed and classified; isolated bidirectional dc-dc converters, employing soft-switching techniques, and they are investigated with particular emphasis

Chapter 9 includes a detailed analysis of bidirectional dc-dc converters, as well as the characterization of their performances for power buffer utilizations Furthermore, the dynamic behaviour of an electrical energy generating set (like that for military applications), with a power buffer based on supercapacitors, is specifically studied and discussed

In Chapter 10, a new possibility for improving electrochemical performances of lithium rechargeable batteries (probably, the most leading candidates for large scale energy storage devices) is investigated In particular, it is shown that nano-structured electrodes, based on the bio-material templates, possess superior electrochemical performances, such as specific capacity, rate capability and cyclability, due to the improved Li-ions and electrons supply, and strain accommodation upon cycling; that

is to say, bio-inspired synthesis can be considered as a promising way for fabricating Lithium rechargeable batteries with improved performances

In the same direction, Chapter 11 introduces and discusses the possibility of using thioether polymers for fabricating novel cathode active materials for lithium batteries

Finally, in Chapter 13 fuel cells are considered Fuel cells based on polymer electrolyte membranes are considered to be one of the most promising alternative energy conversion device and can have an important role also as energy storage systems An improvement of this kind of fuel cell can be obtained by incrementing their operating temperature (at the moment it is limited at about 80 °C); high temperature avoids the existence of two phase flow in the flow field so enhancing stability and reliability of the system, it also reduces the power loss caused by the electrochemical polarization of cathode and it is also beneficial to effectively making use of the exhaust heat and to enhance the CO endurance of the anode In this chapter, the issue of developing a new type of proton exchange membrane that can be endurable to high temperatures (over

100 °C), still maintaining a high proton conduction, is introduced and discussed; an effective solution is introduced and tested

In the third section (chapters from 14 to 21), a lot of practical applications of energy storage are considered and their effectiveness is evidenced

In Chapter 14, the role of an energy storage system in balancing a local distribution network area is introduced and discussed In particular, after concerning with the technical challenges that arise from intentional islanding of micro-grids that include micro-generation sources, a combination of an energy storage system and a backup generator is proposed as an effective solution for intentional islanding A micro-grid model is defined and studied by means of a simulation software A methodology for calculating the requirements of the energy storage system is introduced and utilized referring to a case-study and, then, it is shown as the combined use of a backup generator with an energy storage system can be profitably used for supporting the islanding operation mode of a distribution network area

In Chapter 15, having in mind a future scenario where a power system could be made with 100% of renewable resources, the crucial role of an energy storage system is evidenced and analysed referring, as a case-study, to the Spanish electric power system

Chapter 16 analyses problems and benefits of utilizing and managing a mix of term and long-term energy storage devices in a power system with intermittent renewable resources The chapter evidences the fundamental role of modern power electronic converter designing and utilization together with that of a proper selection for a complementary control algorithm

short-Chapter 17 gives an overview of practical utilization of different kind of energy storage devices in industrial applications

In Chapter 18 it is shown that flywheel energy storage devices can be profitably used

in practice Also in this case, the fundamental role of power electronic converters is amply evidenced and a matrix converter is introduced and analysed together with a proper control technique, to control the power transfer process between the flywheel and the distribution grid The reported results show that flywheel energy storage devices with “predictive optimal” matrix converter control can be used as a voltage restorer to excel in the mitigation of voltage sags and swells as well, as voltage distortion at critical loads

Chapter 19 shows how a three-phase matrix converter can make ease the interaction of power electronic converters with grids, for controlling active and reactive power flows, also without an energy storage system Their benefits in replacing the classical topologies with associations of back-to-back converters are evidenced by means of simulation results and experiments referring to some case-studies

The ocean wave energy short term variability is the main topic of Chapter 20 In this context, the short term energy storage is considered as a possible element in the amelioration of this fluctuating resource With reference to a case-study based on an oscillating water column type wave energy device, it is shown as a judicious combination of mechanical and electrical energy storage can reduce power fluctuations to the grid, reducing peak-to-average ratios

In the field of electric trains, Chapter 21 deals with the possibility to use an on-board energy storage system for the rolling stock The proposed energy storage system is based on both rechargeable batteries and electric double layer capacitors In this chapter, it is shown how an on-board energy storage system can effectively enable energy savings and, at the same time, it is a promising tool to prevent regenerative energy failure for rolling stock In practice, the energy storage devices and their charge/discharge converters are proposed to be shunt connected to main DC power source in a typical configuration By means of simulation case studies and experiments, it is shown that the regeneration power can be effectively absorbed and saved and that braking can be realized without additional energy consumptions

Rosario Carbone

University “Mediterranea” of Reggio Calabria

Italy

Part 1

Energy Storage Systems