Luận văn thạc sĩ an investigation into language learning strategies used by ethnic non english major students at a university in the north of vietnam

Scope of the study

This study examines second-year students at TNU who have enrolled in a minimum of 6 credits for general English It includes participants from various ethnic minority groups pursuing their BA degrees The research focuses on language learning strategies and explores how these strategies relate to factors such as gender, English language proficiency, major fields of study, and learning styles among TNU's ethnic students.

Aims of the study

This study investigates the types and frequency of language learning strategies (LLSs) used by ethnic students at TNU, aiming to identify the relationship between these strategies and factors such as gender, English language proficiency, major fields of study, and learning styles.

Research questions

This study addresses the following research questions:

1 What English language learning strategies do TNU ethnic students employ for their EFL learning?

2 What English language learning strategies are frequently used by TNU ethnic students?

The study investigates the significant variations in students' choices of language learning strategies based on gender, major fields of study, levels of proficiency, and learning styles It aims to identify the main patterns of variation that emerge from these factors, providing insights into how different demographics and educational backgrounds influence language learning approaches.

Definitions of terms

The Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), developed by Oxford in 1990, is a tool used to examine and evaluate the frequency of language learning strategies among learners It includes two versions: version 5.1, which consists of 80 items aimed at native English speakers learning a foreign language, and version 7.0, which has 50 items tailored for non-native English speakers studying English as a second or foreign language.

Strategy categories as defined by Oxford (1990) and used in the SILL

Memory strategies, such as those outlined in items 1 to 9 on the SILL, enhance the storage and retrieval of new information Techniques like associating sounds and mental images with new content, along with the use of flashcards, are effective methods for improving memory retention.

Cognitive strategies, as outlined in items 10 to 23 of the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), encompass techniques that involve transforming, analyzing, or synthesizing language These strategies include reasoning, translating, and practicing language functions in real-life contexts.

Compensation strategies: compensation strategies (items 24 to 29 on the

SILL) allow learners to fill in gaps of information by predicting from context, using gestures, native language use and using descriptions

Metacognitive strategies: metacognitive strategies (items 30 to 38 on the

SILL) include establishing goals and objectives, self-monitoring, evaluation of progress, planning how and when to learn

Affective strategies, as outlined in items 39 to 44 of the SILL, are essential actions that help learners sustain positive attitudes, emotions, and motivations crucial for effective language acquisition Techniques such as self-encouragement and engaging in conversations with others exemplify these strategies, fostering a consistent learning experience.

Social strategies: social strategies (items 45 to 50 on the SILL) include interacting with others in various social environments

Learning styles refers to cognitive characteristic, effective, and psychological behaviours that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment

Ethnic refers to the ethnic minority groups the students belong to In this study, the participants consist of minority groups of Thai, Tay, Nung, Dao and H‟mong

English Language Proficiency Levels refer to their proficiency levels graded into „high‟, „moderate‟ or „low‟ These levels are based on the students‟ end-of-semester test scores

Major field of study refers to the academic discipline to which an undergraduate student formally commits (e.g Social Sciences and Natural Sciences)

Significance of the study

This study addresses a significant gap in the literature, as there have been no prior investigations focusing on Vietnamese learners, particularly those from mountainous regions By systematically organizing theoretical concepts and empirical evidence related to learners' Language Learning Strategies (LLSs), this research informs its methodology and findings The existing literature on LLSs among Vietnamese learners is notably scarce, especially regarding the relationship between learner variables and LLS usage This research aims to expand the understanding of LLSs among Vietnamese EFL learners, contributing valuable insights to this underexplored area.

Students can significantly enhance their awareness of Language Learning Strategies (LLSs) as a crucial element in their English learning journey Traditionally, Vietnamese students have approached LLSs through trial and error, often overlooking their importance as a self-regulated aspect of learning However, effective utilization of these strategies requires initial learning, as highlighted by Griffiths (2004) By recognizing the necessity of mastering LLSs, ethnic students at TNU can cultivate a more positive attitude toward their learning, fostering independence This study sheds light on the relationship between LLS usage and learner variables, such as gender and English proficiency, providing valuable insights for teachers on how students can better manage their English learning Consequently, English educators can enhance the learning experience by promoting the appropriate application of LLSs through both implicit and explicit strategy training.

This study offers valuable insights for language educators, administrators, and policymakers aiming to enhance the language learning experience for TNU ethnic students It highlights the need to adjust material design, educational objectives, and support services to better meet the learning strategies (LLSs) of these students Additionally, the findings serve as a significant resource for researchers and scholars both locally and internationally, contributing to the development of effective instructional designs for teaching English as a foreign language, particularly focusing on fostering independent learning through suitable LLSs.

Structure of the study

This thesis is organized into three parts: Introduction, Content, and Conclusions and Recommendations

The introduction establishes the research context by outlining its background and defining the problem statements It presents the research questions and highlights the significance of the study within the broader EFL research field Additionally, this section clarifies operational definitions, delineates the nature and scope of the study, and articulates its aims and objectives.

Chapter 1 includes a thorough literature review that follows the introduction, outlining the conceptual framework guiding the research This section offers a detailed overview of relevant theoretical and empirical studies, highlighting the context of the research and identifying gaps in existing English as a Foreign Language (EFL) research Ultimately, it situates the present study within the broader theoretical framework of foreign language acquisition, providing valuable insights into prior research in the field.

Chapter 2 outlines the methodological framework and procedures of the research process, detailing the research design, methods, and instruments utilized It provides a rationale for the selection of the SILL inventory, semi-structured interviews, and two questionnaires as research tools Additionally, the chapter describes the data collection and analysis procedures, addresses ethical considerations and limitations of the chosen research design, and presents information on the population and sampling methods employed in the study.

The third chapter outlines the study's results, focusing on the quantitative analysis of the SILL and perceptual learning styles questionnaires to identify trends related to language proficiency, gender, major field of study, and learning styles Additionally, it discusses qualitative insights gathered from semi-structured interviews, where students share their attitudes, perceptions, and experiences regarding their English as a Foreign Language (EFL) studies, influencing their choices of language learning strategies (LLSs).

The third chapter discusses the findings in relation to existing theoretical research, highlighting comparisons and contrasts with previous studies on the same subject Additionally, it reveals the implications of these research findings for both theoretical and empirical studies in the field of language learning strategies.

The Conclusions and Recommendations section highlights key findings and outlines potential advancements in research achieved through this study It emphasizes the need for further exploration in the field, identifying existing gaps and suggesting new directions for future research efforts.

Summary

This research investigates the types, frequency, and patterns of variations among four key factors influencing language learning strategies employed by TNU students in learning English as a foreign language It aims to identify the specific strategies utilized by ethnic students at Thai Nguyen University through a review of existing literature.

This section outlines the rationale for the study, emphasizing its importance by evaluating previous research contributions and identifying gaps in the existing literature It highlights that limited research has been conducted on the relationship between language learning strategies (LLSs) and the factors influencing TNU students' choices of LLSs Additionally, this part addresses the research questions and the significance of the study.

The initial section of the study provided definitions of key terms and outlined the structure from the introduction to the conclusion Following this background, the next segment will review relevant literature, focusing on the exploration of language learning strategies This research aims to examine the types, frequency, and potential patterns of variations in language learning strategies among ethnic students at Thai Nguyen University, considering factors such as gender, fields of study, English proficiency levels, and learning styles.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

Research on Language Learning Strategies (LLSs) gained significant attention in the mid-seventies, focusing on understanding the behaviors and characteristics of effective language learners According to Rubin (1987), the primary aim of LLS studies is to identify the strategies employed by successful language learners, highlighting their potential as powerful tools for language acquisition (O'Malley et al., 1985) Scholars have explored various aspects, including the traits of good language learners, how they process new information, the strategies they use for comprehension and retention, and the factors influencing their choice of LLSs Numerous studies have contributed to this field, including works by Stern (1975), Rubin (1975), Naiman et al (1978), Ramirez (1986), Chamot and Küpper (1989), O'Malley and Chamot (1990), Oxford and Cohen (1992), and Griffiths (2008).

Research into language learning strategies reveals a complex landscape, highlighting differences between successful and unsuccessful learners (Griffiths, 2004) Hismanoglu (2000) notes a significant shift in language education, focusing more on the learners and their processes rather than solely on teachers and instructional methods.

Some researchers remain skeptical about the benefits of Language Learning Strategies (LLSs), challenging the notion that they directly lead to proficiency and success Macaro (2006) points out the lack of evidence supporting the causal relationship between strategy use and achievement Additionally, Taguchi (2002) questions the effectiveness of a one-size-fits-all approach to identifying good language learners, emphasizing that this perspective overlooks crucial variables such as learning styles, gender, age, and cultural background.

Despite criticisms regarding language learning strategies (LLSs) research (Macaro, 2007; Oxford, 1994; Rees-Miller, 1993; Oxford & Nyikos, 1998; Takeuchi, 2003; Griffiths, 2007), the advantages of LLSs in education are undeniable Macaro (2003) highlights that effective learner strategy instruction, particularly when focused on metacognition and sustained over time, enhances successful learning Furthermore, Fewel (2010) emphasizes that strategy training can significantly contribute to learner success Additionally, Ehrman et al (2003) note that such training positively influences motivation, aptitude, strategic knowledge, and the perceived effectiveness of applying strategies in language learning.

Research indicates that learners can enhance their language acquisition by being aware of various learning strategies (Chamot, 2001) Effective learners not only utilize diverse language learning strategies (LLSs) but also adapt them to suit specific tasks and their individual strengths Moreover, Oxford (2003) emphasizes that learners across different subjects benefit from strategic approaches in their studies, suggesting that when second language learners thoughtfully select and apply appropriate strategies, they significantly increase their chances of success.

Many research works have then explored the types and the nature of strategy use, the effectiveness (if any) of LLS training However, as stated by Phakiti

Research on language learning strategies (LLS) remains limited, with a lack of empirical evidence linking strategy use to effective language acquisition (2003, p.7) Rees-Millers (1993, p.11) emphasizes the need for empirical studies to evaluate the effectiveness of learner training before its classroom implementation Consequently, further research is essential to explore LLS among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners, particularly in mountainous regions, to aid them in selecting appropriate strategies for mastering the target language.

Language Learning Strategies Definitions

The definition of Language Learning Strategies (LLS) presents challenges due to varying interpretations among researchers, who describe them as "techniques," "tactics," or "skills." These definitions can overlap and conflict, complicating the understanding of LLS According to Oxford (1989), LLS are defined as "behaviours" or actions, making them observable In contrast, Weinstein and Mayer (1986) suggest that LLS encompass both observable behaviours and unobservable thoughts, highlighting the complexity of their definition.

Schmeck (1988, p.5) makes the clear distinction between “strategies” and

The distinction between "strategy" and "tactics" is subtle yet significant The term "strategy" originates from military terminology, referring to plans for executing operations Strategies are viewed as fundamental abstract categories that help organize and categorize information from the external world into cognitive structures within a conceptual network In contrast, tactics are defined as variable and personalized learning activities that learners employ to manage their learning environment and address input and output demands (Ellis, 2008, p 704).

The nature of what is LLS is also an argument among researchers Stern

In the discussion of language learning strategies (LLS), Ellis (1983, as cited in 1994) characterizes strategies as general tendencies that reflect the overall approach of language learners, distinguishing them from techniques, which he defines as specific observable behaviors Conversely, Wenden (1987) contends that LLS should focus on specific actions or techniques rather than a broad learner approach, emphasizing the importance of particular methods in the learning process.

Language learning strategies (LLS) have been defined in various ways over the years, despite the lack of consensus in the literature regarding their definition and identification (Wenden and Rubin, 1987, p.7) Notable definitions highlight the diverse perspectives on LLS.

 “Particular forms of observable learning behavior, more or less consciously employed by the learner” (Stern 1983, p 405)

 “The behaviors and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning that are intended to influence the learner‟s encoding process” (Weinstein and Mayer

 “Techniques, approaches or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning and recall of both linguistic and content area information” (Chamot 1987, p 71)

Learner behaviors and thought processes encompass the strategies, operations, and routines employed to enhance the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and application of information (Wenden and Rubin, 1987).

 “Strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affects learning directly” (Rubin 1987, p 23)

 “Specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations” (Oxford 1990, p 8)

 “The mental process which learners employed to learn and use the target language” (Nunan 1991, p 168)

 “The techniques and tricks that learners use to make the language easier to master” (McIntyre 1994, p 185)

 “The special thoughts or behaviours that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information” (O‟Malley and Chamot 1995, p 1)

Learners utilize specific strategies to acquire a second language (L2), which can be categorized as either behavioral or mental Behavioral techniques include practices such as repeating new vocabulary aloud to enhance retention In contrast, mental strategies involve leveraging linguistic or situational context to deduce the meanings of unfamiliar words.

Consciously chosen learning processes play a crucial role in education, as the element of choice imbues strategies with their unique qualities These strategies involve actions that learners are at least partially aware of, even if they do not fully concentrate on them.

 “Any thoughts, behaviours, beliefs, or emotions that facilitate the acquisition, understanding, or later transfer of new knowledge and skills” (Weinstein, Husman and Dierkin 2000, p 727)

 “The techniques or procedures that facilitate a learning task” (Chamot

Researchers recognize language learning strategies as techniques for acquiring knowledge and enjoying second language learning, yet definitions remain ambiguous and broad Macaro (2006) critiques strategy research, arguing that even cognitive strategies like seeking meaning and inferencing are defined too broadly to be effectively taught or assessed He further describes these definitions as "loose," leading to confusion and interchangeability among various learner behaviors (Macaro, 2007).

Researchers often juxtapose the term "processes" without clearly defining the differences between them Each researcher tends to propose a definition based on the specific context, setting, or characteristics of the subject being studied.

Although many researchers have attempted to differentiate between two or more of the terms discussed above and to posit a clear definition of the concept

“strategy”, in practice many of the concepts appear to be interchangeable Cohen

The term "strategy" encompasses both general and specific approaches, suggesting that all can be referred to as "strategies" while recognizing a continuum from broad categories to specific ones (1998, p.10) Oxford and Crookall (1989:404) emphasized that the terminology is less significant than the fact that these strategies enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of learning The researcher aligns with Liang (2009) in identifying key characteristics of Language Learning Strategies (LLS).

- Learning strategies are either behavioral thus observable, or mental then not observable

- Learning strategies could be either general approaches or specific actions or techniques adopted to learn a target language

- Learners are generally aware of what approaches or techniques they have used in language learning, despite some subconscious activities under certain circumstances (p.27)

Language Learning Strategy Classifications

Language learning strategies are defined as specific, self-directed steps that learners take to improve their language acquisition (Oxford, 1990) These strategies can be categorized into two main orientations: direct learning, which includes memory, cognitive, and linguistic deficiency compensation strategies, and indirect learning, encompassing metacognitive, affective, and social strategies Other classifications by researchers such as Wong-Fillmore (1979), Rubin (1981), and Chamot (1990) further divide strategies into metacognitive, cognitive, and socio-affective classes Despite various frameworks, commonalities persist across these classifications, emphasizing the importance of both direct and indirect approaches in language learning.

Meta-cognitive strategies refer to the processes that involve reflecting on one's own learning, which includes planning for learning, monitoring progress during the learning activity, and evaluating the effectiveness of learning afterward (Chamot, 1987) These strategies are essential for enhancing self-awareness and improving overall learning outcomes.

(ii) “Cognitive strategies involve manipulation or transformation of the material to be learned; in other words, the learner interacts directly with what is to be learned” (Chamot, 1987, p 72)

Affective learning pertains to emotions, attitudes, values, and behaviors, while social behavior focuses on interactive exchanges between individuals Socio-affective strategies are techniques that promote social interaction and positively influence the learner's emotional state to enhance the learning experience.

(iv) Direct strategies are strategies that directly involve the target language as they require mental processing of the language (Oxford, 1990, p 37)

Indirect strategies play a crucial role in language learning by focusing on planning, evaluating, seeking opportunities, managing anxiety, and fostering cooperation and empathy (Oxford, 1990) While Oxford's classification is regarded as one of the most comprehensive frameworks for learning strategies (Ellis, 1994), it remains selective, as numerous strategies exist beyond those listed (Oxford, Lavine, and Crookall, 1989) Additionally, Oxford (1990) notes that categories may overlap, exemplified by the metacognitive strategy of planning, which can also be viewed as a cognitive strategy due to its reasoning component.

According to Oxford (1990), learning strategies can enhance learners' fluency in their existing knowledge and facilitate the acquisition of new information about the target language's appropriateness However, she notes the lack of consensus on the definition, categorization, and number of strategies, raising questions about the feasibility of establishing a scientifically validated hierarchy of these strategies.

The classification of language learning strategies (LLS) remains complex and often contentious, with varying opinions on terminology and definitions This study specifically focuses on the types of LLS utilized by TNU ethnic students, aiming to explore how their choices are influenced by four key factors: gender, major field of study, level of proficiency, and learning styles.

The 50 strategies in the Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire (LLSQ) were classified based on the combined principles of goal orientation and content/skill knowledge Figure 1 below shows a summary of the classification scheme on LLSs of the current study as presented in the LLSQ

Factors Influencing Language Learning Strategy Choice

Individual variability in learning is crucial, as each learner approaches information processing differently, influenced by various factors Selinker (1972) emphasizes that any second language learning theory must prioritize these individual differences to be deemed valid Rather than conforming to a generalized statistical model, learners exist in a complex, unique social context, highlighting that they are more than mere statistics (Roebuck, 2000).

Individual learners are viewed as capable of intentionally employing learning strategies to enhance their own educational experiences (Rubin, 1987, as cited in Griffiths, 2003) This perspective aligns with the insights of Gardner and MacIntyre, emphasizing the proactive role of learners in their development.

In 1993, a model of language learning was proposed, highlighting the complex interactions between language learning strategies (LLSs) and various individual factors, including intelligence, aptitude, attitudes, motivation, and anxiety Additionally, the model suggests that other learner variables such as personality, gender, learning styles, beliefs, and personal circumstances may also influence the selection of language learning strategies.

Students from diverse national backgrounds often exhibit varying learning styles, influenced by their cultural and educational contexts These differences can lead to distinct strengths and weaknesses in learners, highlighting the impact of cultural background on educational experiences.

Students' communication styles and learning approaches are influenced by their cultural backgrounds, as highlighted by Corbett (1999) Some students grow up in "talkative" environments that encourage open expression, while others are taught to think carefully before speaking, viewing the imposition of ideas as impolite Usuki (2000) notes that this results in varying levels of activity in learning, with some students being more proactive and others more passive Additionally, Ching (1992) and Clarke (1996) emphasize that cultural factors can lead to differences in how students perceive mistakes and face loss, impacting their interactions and learning strategies in educational settings Understanding these national characteristics is essential for fostering effective teaching and learning experiences.

1.4.1 Language Learning Strategies and Gender

Numerous studies have examined the connection between language learning strategy usage and gender, including works by Bacon (1992), Boyle (1987), and others However, research specifically focusing on language learning strategies in relation to gender remains limited.

Research by Oxford and Nyikos (1989) indicates that gender significantly affects the use of language learning strategies (LLSs), with female undergraduate students employing these strategies more frequently than their male counterparts Their study, which involved over 1,200 participants, highlighted the pronounced differences in strategy usage based on gender.

Chang et al (2007) conducted a study on the impact of gender on English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning strategies among Taiwanese college students, involving 1,758 participants The research revealed significant differences in the use of cognitive, metacognitive, and social strategies based on gender, highlighting the varying approaches to language learning between male and female students.

A recent study by Zeynali (2012) involving 149 learners at an institute in Tabriz, Iran, reveals significant gender differences in language learning strategies The research indicates that female learners tend to utilize language learning strategies more frequently than their male counterparts Notably, females employ social and affective strategies more often, while a contrasting study by Zarei (2013) found that males used all strategy categories more frequently, except for social strategies, where both genders exhibited equal usage.

Mixed results suggest that the choice of language learning strategies (LLS) may be more influenced by social and cultural factors associated with gender rather than biological sex Language learning is inherently a social process shaped by socio-cultural constructs, which means that the implications tied to gender roles can significantly impact learning outcomes This understanding accounts for the varied findings regarding gender in different research contexts Therefore, this study focuses on a socio-culturally-oriented notion of gender, emphasizing the importance of the broader social and cultural context when analyzing differences between sexes.

The debate over the significance of strategy choice differences between male and female learners continues, with research suggesting that they may employ varying strategies and frequencies in language learning This study seeks to explore the relationship between gender and language learning strategy use among TNU ethnic students.

1.4.2 Language Learning Strategies and English Language Proficiency

Recent studies indicate that students with higher language proficiency utilize a broader array of language learning strategies compared to their less proficient peers (Green & Oxford, 1995; Ghadessy, 1998; Intaraprasert, 2004; Su, 2005; Khalil, 2005; Teng, 2006; Chang et al., 2007; Wu).

In language learning research, some scholars have opted to categorize learners as "successful" or "unsuccessful," rather than simply labeling them as high or low proficiency levels This terminology, as noted by Rubin (1987) and Cohen et al (1996), emphasizes the effectiveness of learners in acquiring a new language, thereby providing a more nuanced understanding of language proficiency.

Research on Hispanic learners in the United States highlights the impact of the growing Latino population due to migration A key finding indicates that proficiency levels significantly influence the strategies chosen by these learners.

(1991) and Green and Oxford (1993) found that learners with a high level of proficiency used strategies more often than students with low proficiency

Research indicates that Egyptian learners favor metacognitive and memory strategies over cognitive ones (Aliweh, 1989; Touba, 1992) Similarly, studies on Thai learners show a correlation between strategy use and language proficiency (Mullins, 1992) Indonesian learners reportedly prefer a wide range of strategies, excluding affective ones (Davis & Abas, 1991), while Nuril (1998) highlights the role of culture in shaping learning strategies Like their Indonesian counterparts, Malaysian learners also tend to avoid affective strategies due to discomfort in expressing emotions, which can inhibit their learning process.

Language Learning Strategy Research in Vietnam

Research on language learning strategies (LLSs) in Vietnam primarily examines the overall strategies students utilize to succeed in acquiring a target language (Huyền, 2004; Hiền, 2007) Additionally, some studies explore how strategy selection correlates with variables such as age, gender, and proficiency level (Khương, 1997; Hoàng, 2008; Nhan and Lai, 2013).

In a study conducted by Hoang (1999) involving eighty EFL learners from high schools and universities in Hue, Vietnam, key insights into English learning strategies were uncovered The research categorized participants into four groups based on academic levels and utilized questionnaires derived from prior class observations and interviews Findings revealed significant correlations between the frequency and perceived usefulness of various strategies, indicating that Vietnamese learners predominantly favored metacognitive approaches Additionally, cognitive strategies emerged as the most frequently employed, while social and affective strategies were utilized the least across all groups The study highlights the need for tailored training courses in language learning strategies (LLS) to enhance English proficiency among learners in the region.

In her 2005 research study, Huyen investigates the vocabulary learning strategies utilized by English-major university students and the frequency of these strategies Utilizing questionnaires derived from Oxford's (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), she collects data to analyze students' approach to vocabulary acquisition The findings reveal that students predominantly favor direct strategies over indirect ones in their learning process.

In her 2008 study, Hang investigates the vocabulary learning strategies utilized by high school students, focusing on how these strategies vary based on gender and academic major The research involved 67 male and female students specializing in Mathematics and English.

A questionnaire based on Oxford's (1990) SILL was used to gather data from students for this study The findings revealed no significant gender differences in vocabulary learning strategy preferences Additionally, English major students employed the strategies outlined in the questionnaire more frequently than their Mathematics counterparts.

In Hien's 2007 study, which utilized Oxford's (1990) SILL to examine the connection between language learning strategies and the academic performance of 200 second-year English major students, it was found that the students were classified as "medium" strategy users They frequently employed compensation strategies, while metacognitive, cognitive, affective, social, and memory strategies were used with medium frequency Additionally, the study revealed a positive correlation between the frequency of strategy use and students' academic achievement.

Recently, Nhan and Lai (2013) conduct a research study on the similarities and differences in the frequency of strategy use for EFL learning by 50 male and

A study involving 50 female first-year students at Ho Chi Minh City University of Natural Resources and Environment revealed that both male and female Vietnamese students utilize language learning strategies at a medium frequency, with males reporting a higher usage than females The findings indicate that female learners prefer indirect strategies more frequently, whereas direct strategies are used less often compared to their male counterparts Additionally, males showed a significant preference for compensation and social strategies, while females predominantly employed memory and affective strategies.

Research on language learning strategies among Vietnamese students has predominantly focused on university-level English majors, leaving a gap in understanding the experiences of students from ethnic minority groups and non-English majors Prior studies have explored variables such as language achievement, age, and gender in relation to students' strategic approaches to language learning.

Theoretical Framework of the Present Study

The researcher reviews existing studies and materials on language learning strategies to establish a foundational understanding and contextualize the current investigation within previous research This process also incorporates insights from other scholars to develop a specific theoretical framework for the study.

This study examines the relationship between four independent variables—students' gender, major fields of study, levels of language proficiency, and learning styles—and their use of language learning strategies Prior to introducing the theoretical framework of the current research, a review of past empirical studies on language learning strategies is provided to clarify the variables influencing these strategies Figure 1 illustrates the theoretical framework derived from this empirical research.

Figure 2: Theoretical Framework based on the Empirical Research

Research indicates that language learning strategies and their frequency of use are influenced by two primary sets of variables: learner-related factors such as anxiety, attitudes, age, gender, field of study, motivation, and learning style, and teaching conditions including the type of university, teacher perceptions, teaching methodology, and course length Additionally, there is a reciprocal relationship between the use of language learning strategies and learning outcomes, such as language proficiency and achievement levels This suggests that active engagement with language learning strategies can enhance proficiency, while higher proficiency may also encourage the use of these strategies.

The present investigation aims at examining variation in the use of overall strategy use and by looking individually at patterns of variation by gender, the

This study examines the relationship between language achievement levels, language proficiency, and learning styles among ethnic non-English major students at Thai Nguyen University It is posited that these factors influence the strategies that students choose to employ in their language learning The theoretical framework guiding this investigation is illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 3: Theoretical Framework of the Present Study

This study explores the relationship between four key variables—gender, field of study, language proficiency, and learning styles—and their impact on learners' choice of language learning strategies While gender and language proficiency have been extensively researched, the influence of the major field of study, particularly in natural and social sciences, remains largely unexplored Additionally, there is a notable absence of empirical research focusing on ethnic students in mountainous regions, highlighting a gap in the existing literature.

TNU ethnic students’ use of strategies

Conclusion

Language Learning Strategies (LLSs) refer to the various steps, actions, techniques, and behaviors that learners utilize in their language acquisition process Researchers have offered diverse definitions of LLSs based on their individual purposes, experiences, and expertise, leading to a variety of interpretations within the academic community.

This study explores Learning Strategies (LLSs) as conscious behaviors and thought processes employed by TNU ethnic students to improve their English language skills These strategies encompass both observable actions, such as specific techniques, and unobservable mental processes that facilitate effective learning.

A review of literature on Language Learning Strategies (LLS) in Vietnam and globally reveals that educational researchers have explored variations in LLS influenced by demographic factors across diverse settings and target populations Additionally, the research design, including data collection methods and focal points, plays a significant role in these investigations Other pertinent variables, such as learners' beliefs, career interests, and varying teaching and learning conditions, also contribute to the understanding of LLS.

This study addresses the gap in research regarding the relationship between the learning strategies of ethnic students and individual factors such as gender, language proficiency, major field of study, and learning styles By exploring these connections, the research aims to enhance the understanding of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching and learning, making a significant contribution to the existing body of knowledge.

This chapter examines educational research methodologies and outlines the research design of the current study, explaining the rationale behind the choice of a mixed-methods approach It further details the study's setting, participants, instrumentation, data collection methods, and data analysis processes, with a summary provided at the end.

Thai Nguyen University (TNU) is situated in Vietnam's northern midland and mountainous region, home to a diverse population of ethnic minorities, which comprise 24% of the area's residents, the highest percentage in the country Currently, TNU enrolls around 90,000 students, including approximately 65,000 undergraduates (55,000 full-time and 10,000 part-time) along with professional vocational students The university receives an annual average of 70,000 to 80,000 applications from across the nation, primarily from the 16 northern upland provinces of Vietnam.

This study explores the significance of Learning Strategies (LLSs) in the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) education in Vietnam, where research on LLSs is still developing By investigating the types and frequency of LLSs employed by ethnic non-English major university students at TNU, the research aims to establish a scientific foundation for practical applications Additionally, it examines the relationships between LLS usage and variables such as students' gender, major field of study, English language proficiency, and learning styles.

Definitions and Characteristics of Qualitative Research

There are many definitions of qualitative research, however, most of researchers, when defining the term, tend to focus on the purpose as follows:

Qualitative research aims to understand the meanings individuals construct from their experiences and how they interpret their world (Merriam, 2009) Parkinson & Drislane (2011) highlight an epistemological perspective, characterizing qualitative research as involving methods like participant observation and case studies, which yield narrative and descriptive accounts of specific settings or practices Sociologists employing these methods often reject positivism in favor of interpretive sociology Additionally, qualitative research is viewed as a situated activity that contextualizes the observer within their environment.

Qualitative research encompasses a variety of interpretive practices that render the world visible and transformative It involves creating representations through field notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, and personal memos This approach emphasizes studying phenomena in their natural settings, allowing researchers to interpret and understand the meanings that individuals attribute to their experiences.

In conclusion, the researcher aligns with Marguerite & Katherine (2010) in stating that qualitative research, also known as interpretive or field research, is a methodology adapted from sociology and anthropology for educational contexts Qualitative researchers employ inductive reasoning and emphasize the importance of uncovering diverse perspectives.

Regarding characteristics of qualitative research, Marguerite & Katherine

(2010) conclude some common characteristics of qualitative research as follows:

 Studies are carried out in a naturalistic setting

 Researchers ask broad research questions designed to explore, interpret, or understand the social context

 Participants are selected through nonrandom methods based on whether the individuals have information vital to the questions being asked

 Data collection techniques involve observation and interviewing that bring the researcher in close contact with the participants

 The researcher is likely to take an interactive role where she or he gets to know the participants and the social context in which they live

 Hypotheses are formed after the researcher begins data collection and are modified throughout the study as new data are collected and analyzed

 The study reports data in narrative form

Definitions and Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Different researchers give different definitions to “quantitative research” Here are some of them:

Quantitative research, as defined by Barbie (2013), involves the numerical representation and manipulation of observations to describe and explain various phenomena This method is widely utilized across natural and social sciences, such as physics, biology, psychology, sociology, and geology Cohen (1990) further clarifies that quantitative research employs empirical methods and statements, typically expressed in numerical terms A crucial aspect of this research type is the application of empirical evaluations, which assess how well a specific program or policy meets established standards or norms.

In conclusion, the researcher aligns with Creswell's (1994) definition of quantitative research, which is characterized by the collection of numerical data that is analyzed through mathematically based methods, particularly statistics.

Punch (1998) includes the following characteristics of quantitative research:

• An emphasis on collecting and analyzing information in the form of numbers

• An emphasis on collecting scores that measure distinct attributes of individuals and organizations

• An emphasis on the procedures of comparing groups or relating factors about individuals or groups in experiments, correlational studies, and surveys.

Research Design for the Present Study

Cohen et al., (2002) state that “there is no single blueprint for planning research” (p 87) Burns and Grove (2003, p.195) also define a research design as

A research design serves as a comprehensive blueprint for conducting a study, ensuring maximum control over factors that could compromise the validity of the findings According to Parahoo (1997, p 142), it is defined as a structured plan detailing the methods of data collection and analysis, specifying how, when, and where these processes will occur This structured approach is essential for maintaining the integrity of the research outcomes.

The effectiveness of research is largely influenced by its specific purposes, which dictate the methodology and design employed It is essential to clearly define these purposes and the types of research being conducted A systematic plan must be established for data collection, detailing the target participants, methods, timing, and subsequent analysis and interpretation of the gathered data (Cohen et al., 2002).

According to Robson (2002), researchers should establish their research purposes and questions prior to developing their research design, as these elements dictate the methodology and overall structure of the study.

The present study is a cross-sectional survey According to Babbie (1973), a cross-sectional survey is “the most frequently used study design” (p.65) and it

This study aims to both describe and analyze the use of Learning Strategy (LLS) types and their frequencies among ethnic students, while also exploring the relationships between these strategies and various learner variables.

This study utilized a mixed-method design, combining quantitative and qualitative approaches through two questionnaire surveys and a semi-structured interview The rationale for this mixed methods research design is supported by four key advantages highlighted by Denscombe (2010, p 119): it provides a more comprehensive understanding of the research topic, establishes clearer connections between various methods and data types, effectively employs triangulation, and adopts a practical, problem-driven approach to research.

The choice of a mixed methods approach in this study was primarily driven by the potential to yield more significant and meaningful results The investigation of Language Learning Strategies (LLSs) is inherently complex, encompassing various aspects that require thorough exploration To achieve a comprehensive understanding, the study employed both questionnaires and interviews for data collection.

Creswell (1994) identifies three design modes for combining quantitative and qualitative approaches: two-phase design, dominant-less dominant design, and mixed-methodology design This study employs a mixed-method design that aligns with Creswell's second mode, where a dominant approach is utilized alongside an alternative method Specifically, the study predominantly uses a questionnaire survey for the quantitative component, complemented by semi-structured interviews as the qualitative aspect, illustrating the dominant-less dominant design effectively.

The mixed-method design is characterized as an "unbalanced/sequential design," where the quantitative approach takes precedence, addressing the primary research questions In this framework, qualitative findings serve to enhance and clarify the results derived from the quantitative analysis.

By referring to it as „sequential‟, the researcher refers to time The quantitative design was used before the qualitative one The mixed design is depicted in Figure 4 below

Figure 4: Research Design for the Present Study

The study was conducted in two phases, beginning with the administration of the Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire (LLSQ) and the Perceptual Learning-styles Preferences Questionnaire (PLPQ) to assess the types and frequencies of language learning strategies employed by ethnic students This phase involved 527 participants and aimed to explore the relationship between the language learning strategies used and various learner variables.

In the second stage of the research, ten participants with a high frequency of language learning strategy usage were chosen for semi-structured interviews The data gathered from both stages revealed the types and frequencies of language learning strategies, as well as their relationship with learner variables among non-English major students at Thai Nguyen University The overall research design is outlined accordingly.

Stage 1 – Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire and Perceptual Learning-styles Preference Questionnaire

Format: The LLSQ contains 50 items, each having 5 choices ranging from

According to Oxford's (1990) strategy classification system, the 50 items can be categorized into six distinct groups: memory strategies, cognitive strategies, compensation strategies, meta-cognitive strategies, affective strategies, and social strategies, with the spectrum ranging from "the statement is never or almost never true of me" to "the statement is always or almost always true of me."

The PLPQ is based on a perceptual modality framework designed to assess students' preferences for four primary learning styles: visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile, alongside two social interaction factors, which are individual or group learning.

Data collection: quantitative data of students‟ strategy use, learning styles

Number of participants: 10 Format: The participants were interviewed individually and a list of questions was given to the participants 10 minutes prior to the interview The interviews were audio-taped

Data collection: qualitative data of the opinions on use of strategies in regular practice with reference to their ethnic minority groups

In sum, Figure 4 below summarises the research design adopted in this study

Figure 5: The flow chart of the Research design

Mixed Methods Approach Research Design

Mixed-Methods Research

The use of both qualitative and quantitative research techniques in a single study constitutes mixed method research A consensus definition by Johnson et al

Mixed-methods research, as defined by 2007, involves integrating qualitative and quantitative approaches to enhance research understanding and collaboration This methodology allows researchers to collect both types of data, leveraging the strengths of each to provide a comprehensive view of context, processes, and interactions alongside precise measurements of attitudes and outcomes Marguerite and Katherine (2010) highlight that educational researchers increasingly value this approach, as it offers flexibility in data collection methods and presents results that are both compelling and informative through a combination of summary statistics and detailed narratives.

Recent research indicates that qualitative and quantitative methods are complementary, and their integration can enhance the understanding of social phenomena (Hashemi & Babaii, 2013) Concurrent designs in mixed methods research are more prevalent than sequential designs, as they ensure that data from both approaches is relevant at the same time This advantage has been highlighted in studies of linguistic articles since 1995.

The mixed methods approach, as highlighted by Hashemi and Babaii (2013), requires equal emphasis on both qualitative and quantitative strands during analysis This versatile research methodology enhances the effectiveness of mixed methods in future studies.

In this study, the researcher is guided by Greene's (2001) summary of mixed-methods purposes, acknowledging that not all purposes are applicable to every mixed-methods research.

Triangulation: Mixing methods for this purpose seeks convergence, corroboration, and correspondence of results across the different methods

Complementarity: Mixed methods as used for this purpose measure overlapping, but distinct facets of the phenomena under investigation

Development: For this purpose, different methods are used sequentially in order to use the results of one method to help develop the other method or inform its implementation

Expansion: For this purpose, different methods are used for different inquiry components in order to extend the breadth and range of the inquiry

Mixed methods research aims to uncover paradoxes and contradictions by integrating insights from different methodologies, allowing for the re-examination of questions and results This approach fosters the development of new perspectives and frameworks, enhancing the overall understanding of the research topic.

Mixed-methods research presents certain disadvantages, as highlighted by Marguerite and Katherine (2010), who note that it necessitates expertise in both qualitative and quantitative methodologies Furthermore, conducting a mixed-methods study typically demands more time and resources compared to studies that utilize only a single data type, as researchers must invest effort in creating quantitative measures alongside qualitative analysis.

Mixed method research faces significant challenges, particularly in quantifying qualitative data, as highlighted by Roberts (2000), who notes that such data can suffer from collinearity, where statistical relationships may stem from the coding strategy rather than the data itself To streamline data analysis, researchers often alter their designs, including reducing sample sizes, which can compromise their statistical power and understanding of outcomes (Driscoll et al., 2007) Additionally, Onwuegbuzie & Johnson (2004) identify that mixed methods research is often time-consuming and costly, and finding researchers proficient in both qualitative and quantitative methods is difficult, complicating the balanced integration of these approaches in research.

To address the limitations of qualitative and quantitative approaches, this study strikes a balance by legitimizing data quantity and resolving integration crises through a thorough evaluation of resources provided to the researcher before the research begins A personal approach is employed, involving the researcher with participants alongside a neutral third party to minimize ambiguity and bias The most effective research method is selected based on its ability to answer the research questions, utilizing qualitative data to complement quantitative findings Specifically, a quantitative approach was deemed more suitable for answering the first three research questions, while a qualitative approach offered deeper insights into the relationship between language learning strategies (LLS) and the factors influencing the choices of TNU students.

Creswell (2009) emphasizes that employing a combination of research methods is more advantageous than relying solely on qualitative or quantitative approaches The integration of mixed methods reveals diverse themes and perspectives that would remain undiscovered if only one method were used (Driscoll et al.).

2007) It is the need for such a discovery that makes the use of mixed method research a reliable tool to use for research

To recall, this research aims to answer the following questions:

1 What English language learning strategies do TNU ethnic students employ for their EFL learning?

2 What English language learning strategies are frequently used by ethnic students at TNU?

3 To what extent do the students‟ choices of language learning strategies vary significantly with their gender, major fields of study, levels of proficiency and learning styles? If so, what are the main patterns of variation?

The choice of research method is largely influenced by the nature of the questions posed, with quantitative methods being suitable for establishing measurable relationships between variables, as seen in questions 1 to 3 In contrast, a qualitative approach is more effective for exploring the perspectives of ethnic students at TNU Therefore, a mixed-method approach was necessary to adequately address these questions Participants' responses to the quantitative LLSQ questionnaire were complemented by semi-structured qualitative interviews, allowing for data triangulation The commitment to presenting original, authentic, and unbiased research findings was a key reason for adopting this mixed-method strategy, which also serves to clarify and address any conflicting theories or challenges encountered during the research.

Data Collection Methods

In the field of research, various instruments are utilized to gather data for survey studies, including observations, case studies, test results, and previous surveys However, questionnaires and interviews are the most commonly employed methods, as they allow researchers to obtain data directly from individuals through questioning rather than merely observing their behavior.

The questionnaire allows respondents to independently answer a series of questions on paper, while the interview involves an interviewer posing questions and documenting the answers Guyette (1983, pp 60-61) evaluated the pros and cons of these two methods, highlighting their distinct advantages and disadvantages.

May seem cold to community persons or respondent may be suspicious

Greater response likely in community efforts

Time to complete questionnaire minimal/ Respondent may skimp on time or fail to respond to some questions

Interview is time consuming/ Completion rate usually higher than questionnaire

Educational level may affect interpretation of questions

Educational or experience level less of an effect because interviewer explains questions

Literacy Literacy required Literacy not required Language restriction May be limited to English or a written language

Interpreter may be trained for the interview

Questions may contain bias - usually detected during the pretest

Interviewer may influence the responses or cause tension -training may prevent this

Respondent can add comments, but usually does not take the time

Tends to yield more complete data/ Interviewer able to encourage and note comments

Cost primarily involves duplication, postage, and data processing

Besides copies of instrument for noting responses and data processing, additional costs are salary of interviewers and travel

Training for persons to code and process data, if needed

In-depth training needed for interviewers in addition to data preparation

Increased chance of non- responses may introduce bias into the study

Data summaries from open- ended questions difficult to summarize

More difficult to give back to the respondent, unless materials are mailed

Services, materials, or payment can be given to the respondent at the time of the interview

Respondent may not identify as closely with the project, due to the less personal nature of the method

Cooperation for future involvement of the respondent may be gained through the personal contact/ Respondent may feel more like a participant and take an interest in the results

This study employs a cross-sectional survey methodology, sampling 527 ethnic students from TNU Utilizing the Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire (LLSQ) and the Perceptual Learning-styles Preferences Questionnaire (PLPQ), the research investigates the relationship between language learning strategy use among these students and various learner variables, including gender, major fields of study, proficiency level, and preferred learning styles.

Recognizing the individuality and diversity of learners (Skehan, 1986), the researcher aims to explore the relationship between language learning strategy use and various learner characteristics In phase 2, individual ethnic students were interviewed to analyze how the results from the Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire (LLSQ) and Proficiency Level Questionnaire (PLPQ) in phase 1 related to these students The interviewees represented a range of ethnic backgrounds, proficiency levels, learning styles, genders, and fields of study, providing a comprehensive understanding of the impact of these variables on language learning strategies.

Research Questions

This study investigates the types and frequencies of language learning strategies (LLSs) employed by TNU EFL ethnic learners, focusing on the relationship between these strategies and various influencing factors Specifically, it explores how students' gender, major field of study, language proficiency level, and learning styles affect their choice of LLSs To guide this investigation, the study poses several research questions aimed at uncovering these dynamics.

1 What English language learning strategies do TNU ethnic students employ for their EFL learning?

2 What English language learning strategies are frequently used by TNU ethnic students?

3 To what extent do the students‟ choices of language learning strategies vary significantly with their gender, major fields of study, levels of proficiency and learning styles? If so, what are the main patterns of variation?

Data Collection Instruments

This study utilized a questionnaire to gather information on language learning strategies, specifically employing the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), developed by Oxford in 1990 The SILL is a self-scoring tool that assesses a wide range of second language (L2) learning strategies and is available in two versions: version 5.1, which contains 70 items and targets native English speakers, and version 7.0, which includes 50 items and is aimed at non-native English speakers learning the language as a second or foreign language.

The SILL is a self-scoring survey and consists of 50 items, which Oxford and Burry-Stock (1995) divided into six categories:

1 Memory strategies, such as grouping, imagery, rhyming, and structured reviewing (nine items)

2 Cognitive strategies, such as reasoning, analyzing, summarizing (all reflective of deep processing) as well as general practicing (fourteen items)

3 Compensation strategies (to compensate for limited knowledge), such as guessing meanings for the context in reading and listening and using synonyms and gestures to convey meaning when the precise expression is not known (six items)

4 Metacognitive strategies, such as paying attention, consciously searching for practice opportunities, planning for language tasks, self-evaluating one‟s progress, and monitoring error (nine items)

5 Affective (emotional, motivation-related) strategies, such as anxiety reduction, self-encouragement, and self- reward (six items)

6 Social strategies, such as asking questions, cooperating with native speakers of the language, and becoming culturally aware (six items) (p 5)

The survey consists of statements beginning with "I do " (for example, "I review English lessons often"), where students indicate their agreement using a 5-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from 1 (Never or almost never true of me) to 5 (Always or almost always true of me).

The Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) is a widely recognized and reliable strategy scale, demonstrating high internal consistency with scores ranging from 0.89 to 0.98 across various studies (Oxford and Burry-Stock, 1995) Its ESL/EFL versions, including translations, have also shown strong reliability, evidenced by a score of 94 in a study involving 590 Taiwanese university EFL learners (Yang, 1994) and 91 in research using the Korean translation.

The present study will utilize the 50-item version of the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) as the survey instrument for 59 Korean EFL learners, following the methodology of Oh (1992) This version is specifically tailored for ESL/EFL learners and has been shown to possess a high degree of content validity, criterion-related validity, and construct validity, as demonstrated by Oxford and Burry-Stock (1995).

The content validity of the LLSQ was confirmed by a high inter-rater agreement of 95 among five judges, indicating strong consensus To enhance comprehension, the LLSQ was translated into Vietnamese for students As shown in Table 2.1, the overall LLSQ questionnaire demonstrated excellent internal consistency with a Cronbach's alpha of 95 Additionally, the Cronbach's alpha values for the six components of the LLSQ were generally satisfactory, with most components exhibiting correlation coefficients above 8.

Table 2.1: The Reliability of the Vietnamese/English Version of the LLSQ

Measure and Components Cronbach’s Alpha

The overall reliability for the LLSQ 95

While the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) offers significant advantages, it also presents notable drawbacks that complicate its application One major limitation is its lack of detailed insights into the specific language learning strategies employed by students during various tasks The effectiveness of learner self-reports relies heavily on the participants' willingness to share candidly about their cognitive and emotional behaviors, as highlighted by Harlow (1988) and Oxford (1990) This reliance raises concerns about the validity of the findings, particularly due to the social desirability response bias, where participants may tailor their answers to align with perceived researcher expectations This bias is typically indicated by a correlation between the Marlowe-Crown Social Desirability Scale and instruments like the SILL, although research by Oxford (1996) indicates that this correlation does not apply to the SILL.

The challenges faced by researchers, such as biased conclusions, subjectivity, and difficulty in verbalizing findings, often stem from learners' low self-awareness Nevertheless, ongoing research indicates that learners can recall and objectively articulate the strategies they employ, particularly when these strategies are linked to grades or sanctions (Chamot and Kupper, 1989; O'Malley and Chamot, 1990) Consequently, the researcher remains mindful of these limitations when utilizing the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) in this study.

2.8.2 Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire

The study utilized an adapted version of the Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire (PLPQ), originally developed by Reid (1987, 1990, 1998) Adapting existing instruments, as noted by Walker and Burnhill (1997), enhances the quality of research by building on validated theories and findings from previous studies This questionnaire is grounded in a perceptual modality approach, aiming to assess students' preferences among four primary learning modalities—visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile—alongside two social interaction factors: individual and group learning.

The visual subscale comprises items 6, 10, 12, 24, and 29, which highlight the importance of visual learning in acquiring a second language Statements such as "I learn better by reading what the teacher writes on the chalkboard" and "When I read instructions, I remember them better" emphasize how visual cues enhance comprehension and retention in language learning.

The auditory subscale includes items 1, 7, 9, 17, and 20, featuring statements that highlight the effectiveness of learning through auditory means and verbal instructions For instance, students express that they comprehend better when teachers provide verbal instructions and learn more effectively when receiving oral explanations on how to perform tasks in class.

Kinesthetic behavior in the classroom emphasizes experiential learning, as reflected in statements such as "I prefer to learn by doing something in class" and "When I do things in class, I learn better." This approach, highlighted by items 2, 8, 15, 19, and 26, underscores the importance of hands-on activities for effective learning.

Tactile learners thrive through hands-on experiences with materials, as highlighted by Reid (1995) This learning style is exemplified in statements such as, "I learn more when I create something for a class project" and "I learn better when I draw while studying." Key items reflecting this approach include 11, 14, 16, 22, and 25.

The subscale that describes group-oriented learners includes items 3, 4, 5,

21 and 23 while the individual learning style subscale is composed of items 13,

The group-oriented subscale includes statements such as "I get more work done when I work with others" and "I learn more when I study with a group," highlighting the benefits of collaborative learning In contrast, the individual subscale features items like "When I study alone, I remember things better" and "I prefer to work by myself," emphasizing the advantages of solitary study Key items from both subscales include numbers 13, 18, 27, 28, and 30, reflecting diverse learning preferences among individuals.

Reid (1995) introduced a self-scoring guideline that classifies participants' learning style preferences into three categories: major, minor, and negligible The scoring system assigns minimum and maximum scores of 38-50 for major preferences, 25-37 for minor preferences, and 0-24 for negligible preferences, effectively reflecting individuals' inclinations towards different learning styles.

Data Collection Procedures

At TNU, students are required to complete 6 credits of General English (GE) during their first two years, attending three 45-minute classes per week In the first semester of their second year, they must also enroll in 4 credits of English for Specific Purposes, which consists of four 45-minute classes weekly Class sizes range from 40 to 50 students, aged between 18 and 35, most of whom have previously studied GE for 3 to 7 years in secondary or high school, primarily hailing from mountainous regions in northern Vietnam.

In the initial phase of data collection, 527 ethnic students were randomly selected from a pool of over 4,000 at TNU to participate in the study These participants completed the Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire (LLSQ) and the Perceptual Learning-Style Preference Questionnaire (PLPQ) The majority of the students, aged between 18 and 35, represent various ethnic minority groups, genders, fields of study, proficiency levels, and learning styles.

In the second phase of data collection, ten students were purposefully selected for interviews after completing the LLSQ and LPLQ questionnaires These interviewees were chosen to represent various learner variables, including ethnicity, gender, major fields of study, language proficiency, and learning styles Despite all participants having studied English for 3 to 7 years in high school, their English proficiency was generally below average, as indicated by their scores from the first semester final exams.

2.9.2 Characteristics of Participants in the Quantitative Phase

The study utilized descriptive statistical analyses and independent-samples t-tests to examine the background variables of participants, including gender, major fields of study, self-reported proficiency levels, and learning styles A total of 527 ethnic students from six universities at TNU participated in the research, with a summary of their backgrounds presented in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 Details of the participants’ background

In the current study, the ethnic composition of the participants included 108 Nung individuals (20.5%), 145 Tay individuals (27.5%), 94 Thai individuals (16.3%), and 94 H'mong individuals (17.8%).

In the study, male ethnic students comprised 52.8% of the total participants with a count of 278, while female ethnic students accounted for 47.2% with 249 participants Among the students, 221 (41.9%) pursued natural sciences, whereas 306 (58.1%) focused on social sciences.

A survey of students revealed that 55.4% (292 students) self-identified as having low language proficiency, while 29.8% (157 students) reported a medium level of proficiency, and 14.8% (78 students) considered themselves to have a high level of language proficiency.

A study on perceptual learning styles revealed that 135 students identified as visual learners, accounting for 25.6% of the total participants Additionally, 103 students (19.5%) preferred tactile learning, while 63 students (12%) identified as auditory learners Kinesthetic learners comprised 12.35% with 65 students, and 78 students (14.8%) favored group learning styles Lastly, 83 students (15.7%) reported individual learning preferences.

2.9.3 Characteristics of the participants in the Qualitative Phase

To facilitate further reference, each interviewee was assigned a numerical code The characteristics and SILL results of the ten selected student interviewees are presented in Table 2.4 below.

Table 2.4: Characteristics of the interviewees

Code Ethnic group Gender Major of

Code Ethnic group Gender Major of

The interviewees in Table 2.4 were intentionally chosen based on their ethnic backgrounds, gender, fields of study, English proficiency levels, and preferred learning styles, which included 4 participants from the Tay group, 3 from the Thai group, and others from the H'mong community.

(1), Dao (1) and Nung (1), female (4) and male (6), Natural Sciences (4) and Social Sciences (6), High level of English proficiency (4), Moderate level (4) and Low level (2)

Regarding learning styles, two of them preferred tactile style, kinesthetic (1),

The interviewees' responses to the LLSQ indicated a high level of strategy use, with scores ranging from 3.58 to 3.78 As illustrated in Figure 5, the average results across six strategy groups revealed notable differences in usage Compensation and memory strategies emerged as the most frequently employed, while cognitive and social strategies were utilized less often compared to the others.

Figure 6: Group averages of the LLSQ scores

The interviewees demonstrated a low average use of cognitive strategies, with many ethnic students indicating they did not attempt to emulate native English speakers and expressed a lack of interest in reading English materials.

2.9.4 Data Collection 2.9.4.1 Quantitative data from the two questionnaires

Due to time constraints and the specific parameters of this study, probability sampling methods like random sampling were not feasible Consequently, non-probability sampling was deemed more appropriate for the circumstances Specifically, opportunity or convenience sampling was utilized to recruit participants for the quantitative phase of the research.

Opportunity sampling, also known as convenience sampling, is a data selection technique where researchers utilize their local knowledge or past experiences to identify and contact participants This method targets the most accessible members of the population and is recognized as the most prevalent form of non-probability sampling (2006; Denscombe, 2010; Weathington, Cunningham).

This study utilized opportunity sampling, focusing on the availability of ethnic non-English major students from four universities within Thai Nguyen University.

Data Analysis

The study utilized quantitative analysis to evaluate data from the LLSQ and PLPQ, focusing on students' learning strategies and perceptual learning styles Descriptive statistics, paired t-tests with Bonferroni correction, and ANOVA were conducted using SPSS software A significance level of less than 05 and 01 was established for the statistical tests, and the Bonferroni correction was applied to reduce the risk of Type I errors in multiple comparisons.

Before performing statistical analyses on the data sets, preliminary data cleaning was conducted to identify potential outliers, missing values, and errors, adhering to Morrow and Skolits's (2013) 12 steps for data cleaning Univariate outliers are defined as cases with standardized scores exceeding 3.29 standard deviations from the mean (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013) The analysis revealed that there were no outliers present in the data set.

An exploratory data analysis was performed to evaluate the normal distribution of scores from LLSQ and PLPQ The Shapiro-Wilks test for normality was utilized, alongside the assessment of standardized skewness and kurtosis for each independent variable, comparing results to the threshold of ± 3.29 as outlined by Tabachnick & Fidell (2013).

Wilks test for normality (p = 000) in conjunction with the skewness and kurtosis test signified a departure from the normality for some of the data sets

The descriptive statistics method was employed to analyze the frequency of strategy use among students, categorizing it into three levels: high use, medium use, and low use This classification is based on the holistic mean scores reflecting the frequency of strategy application This approach specifically addresses Research Question 2 of the study.

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a statistical method employed to assess significant differences among the means of two or more groups, determining if the variation exceeds expected levels Typically, the independent variables in ANOVA are nominal, while the dependent variable is an interval In this study, ANOVA was utilized to explore the relationship between ethnic students' reported strategy use and various factors, including gender (male or female), major field of study (social sciences or natural sciences), levels of language proficiency (high, moderate, or low), and learning styles (visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, individual, or group).

The post hoc Bonferroni-corrected paired t-tests were employed to analyze significant differences among the means of six learning strategy categories following an ANOVA, which is applicable when the variable consists of more than two groups This statistical method identifies which specific pairs of groups contribute to overall differences In this study, the Bonferroni-corrected paired t-test was utilized to evaluate the mean differences in students' use of six categories of learning strategies: memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social The predetermined minimum significance level for all tests was set at p < 05.

Qualitative data underwent transcription, translation, and analysis, starting with a review of interview transcriptions to grasp the overall findings Initial insights were documented as memos, emphasizing the importance of "hearing what the interviewees say" (Creswell, 1998, p 144) This approach facilitated the identification of major themes and categories within the data, akin to open coding in grounded theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990) Through careful reading and classification, subthemes emerged, represented by specific data segments Additionally, the exploration of interconnections among themes and subthemes mirrored axial coding Ultimately, the data was represented through explanatory interpretations, thoroughly supported by the findings.

Synthesizing Quantitative and Qualitative Data

In a mixed-methods study, Yin (2008) emphasizes the importance of combining quantitative and qualitative methodologies for two key purposes: triangulation and complementarity This integration occurs during the inference stage, enhancing the overall analysis and understanding of the research findings.

The LLSQ and PLPQ are utilized for triangulation, offering insights into language learning strategies employed, their frequency, and variations influenced by gender, major field of study, proficiency level, and learning styles Analyzing interview data provides a comprehensive understanding of how these factors impact individual language learners Moreover, qualitative data analysis uncovers the specific relationships among the four variables and the strategies used by individual learners.

The analysis of interview data provided valuable insights into the learner variables explored in this study These qualitative results enhanced the quantitative findings, offering a comprehensive understanding of how learners from diverse ethnic backgrounds, universities, genders, majors, proficiency levels, and learning styles employed language learning strategies.

„complementarity‟ of mix-methods research.

Conclusion

This article provides a comprehensive overview of research methods in language learning strategy studies, detailing their definitions, characteristics, and application principles relevant to the current study It outlines the proposed research questions and the methods for data collection and generation Additionally, the article discusses the research design and concludes with an analysis, interpretation, and reporting of the data.

Having established the methodological framework, the next chapter will discuss the data analysis process and major findings and results of this study.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS