Introduction
Research problem
The Mekong Delta, despite its prominent status as the rice bowl of Vietnam and recent increases in agricultural and aquaculture production (Garschagen, Diez, Nhan, & Kraas,
The Mekong Delta region faces significant challenges, including limited enterprise development and Foreign Direct Investment, resulting in socio-economic disparities in education and workforce qualifications compared to other areas of the country To address these issues and promote socio-economic growth, the Vietnamese Prime Minister approved the comprehensive "Plan for the Mekong Delta towards 2020 with the Orientation to 2030" on February 12, 2014.
To achieve the goals outlined in the document, attracting foreign investment and enhancing the quality of education and training are crucial strategies In this regard, proficiency in foreign languages, particularly English, is essential However, the Mekong Delta, like other regions in Vietnam, faces challenges in cultivating a workforce with adequate English skills.
English has long been a mandatory subject in secondary and high school graduation exams, and it has recently been added to primary education curricula At the tertiary level, it remains a required foreign language for undergraduates and graduates Despite these advancements in English language education, studies reveal that Vietnamese learners struggle to develop effective communication skills Factors contributing to this issue include curriculum design, insufficient resources, and the quality of teachers and textbooks A significant barrier to achieving desired outcomes in English teaching is the inadequate translation of teacher education program learning into classroom practice Although teacher training programs emphasize communicative teaching methodologies, these theories and practices are seldom implemented in actual English classes This raises the critical question: why is there such a disconnect?
Exploring teachers' beliefs about language teaching and learning is a promising area for improving educational outcomes According to Shinde and Karekatti (2012), these beliefs significantly influence learner success, highlighting the importance of understanding and addressing educators' perspectives in language instruction.
Teachers' beliefs significantly shape their consciousness, attitudes, methods, and policies, ultimately impacting student development According to Helen (2003), these beliefs guide teachers in choosing their instructional approaches and activities Therefore, the beliefs held by English teachers in Vietnamese schools play a crucial role in determining their teaching practices and, consequently, the learning outcomes for their students.
Teacher cognition encompasses what educators think, know, and believe, significantly influencing their classroom practices (Borg, 2003) This concept includes both beliefs and knowledge about language teaching and learning, which are interconnected (Baker & Murphy, 2011; Verloop, Van Driel & Meijer, 2001) In this study, "language teacher cognition" is used interchangeably with "teacher cognition" to reflect the complexity of educators' mental processes (Borg, 2015) Individual teachers may possess varying cognitions about language instruction, shaped by factors such as school-based learning, professional development, and sociocultural contexts (Borg, 2003; 2015; Macalister, 2012) In Vietnam, understanding these cognitions and the situational influences on teachers is crucial for enhancing the English proficiency of language learners Most research on language teacher cognition has focused on pre-service teachers (Burri, 2015; Debreli, 2012; Farrell, 1999; Gan, 2013; Johnson, 1994; Numrich).
1996; ệzmen, 2012; Peacock, 2001; Silva, 2005; Sinprajakpol, 2005; Yỹksel & Kavanoz,
2015) and in-service experienced teachers (e.g Baker, 2014; Farrell & Bennis, 2013; Farrell
Research on language teacher cognition has gained significant attention, but there is a notable lack of studies focusing on novice language teachers, particularly those in their first five years of teaching The early years are crucial for their professional development, influencing their long-term commitment to effective teaching While initial research primarily concentrated on ESL contexts, there is a scarcity of documented studies addressing Non-Native Speaking (NNS) EFL novice teachers.
In Vietnam, there is a notable lack of research focused on the cognitions and practices of novice language teachers Most existing studies on language teacher cognition have primarily targeted experienced in-service teachers, particularly concerning the implementation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) methods (Canh & ).
The present study aims to address the gap in research regarding novice language teachers in the EFL context, particularly in Vietnam, as highlighted by Barnard (2009), Hiep (2007), and others By exploring novice teachers' cognitions, this research will contribute valuable insights to the limited existing literature and offer practical recommendations for enhancing teacher education programs Understanding teachers' cognitions and practices can also provide essential implications for language policymakers in the implementation of teaching innovations.
This study offers valuable insights for language curriculum designers, highlighting the impact of contextual factors on teachers' curriculum implementation Understanding these influences is crucial for effectively enhancing the language competence of Vietnamese learners (Nation & Macalister, 2010).
Purpose of the study
This study aimed to explore the beliefs and teaching methods of five novice high school teachers in the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), focusing on their personal experiences and practices in language education.
4 situational and sociocultural factors that shaped their cognitions and practices In particular, the present study aimed to address the following research questions:
How do the personal, situational and sociocultural contexts in which the novice teachers live and teach influence their cognitions and teaching of English in Vietnamese classrooms?
1 What theories and practices in relation to English teaching and learning are used in pre-service teacher education in Vietnam?
2 What beliefs and knowledge (cognitions) about teaching and learning English are held by the novice teachers in the study and how are these evident in their teaching?
3 How are the theories and practices espoused in their teacher education evident in their classroom teaching?
This research utilized Borg's (2015) model of language teacher cognition and Shulman's (1986, 1987) framework of teachers' knowledge categories as foundational guides Borg's model provided insights into how novice teachers' cognitions are shaped by various contextual factors, while Shulman's categories offered a structured understanding of the different types of knowledge that influence teaching practices.
The 1987 model was utilized to pinpoint the specific types of knowledge held by teachers and to establish a conceptual framework for discussing these knowledge categories A qualitative research design incorporating various data collection methods was implemented to explore the teachers' contexts, cognitions, and their connection to classroom practices Data collection methods included curriculum texts, interviews with teacher educators and school vice-principals, classroom observations, as well as biographical and stimulated recall interviews with novice teachers involved in the study.
Significance of the study
This research contributes to the existing body of literature on language teacher cognition, focusing specifically on the underexplored area of novice teacher cognition within the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context.
In Vietnam, research on language teacher cognition predominantly centers on pre-service and experienced teachers, leaving a significant gap concerning EFL novice teachers This study aims to fill that gap by offering a comprehensive analysis of the cognitions and practices of Vietnamese novice language teachers in the context of language teaching and learning.
Secondly, this empirical research also enables an extension of our understanding of Borg’s
The study builds on the 2006 "Language Teacher Cognition" model to explore how teachers' biographies, including their school-based learning and professional experiences, shape their beliefs and practices in the classroom By conducting biographical interviews, the research highlights the impact of personal, situational, and socio-cultural contexts on Vietnamese language policies and their implementation by teachers This investigation enhances our understanding of Borg’s (2015) model within the specific EFL context of Asia, emphasizing the need to consider the contextual factors influencing teachers to better support their professional development.
Thirdly, the results of this study provide important knowledge to inform the work of language policy makers in their efforts to improve the English language competence of Vietnamese learners
Language teacher education programs are essential for reshaping teachers' cognitions, which in turn influences their classroom practices (Macalister, 2016) This study aims to enhance teacher education by offering suggestions to improve teaching practices for both pre-service and in-service teachers The findings have significant implications for designing a teacher education curriculum that better supports pre-service teachers in navigating contextual factors for effective teaching.
Outline of the thesis
This thesis is structured into eight chapters, beginning with an introduction Chapter Two provides a literature review that informs the study, focusing on several key areas: the general challenges faced by novice teachers, specific challenges for ESL/EFL novice teachers, the connection between language teachers' cognitions and their teaching practices, the difficulties of implementing Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) in Asian contexts, and relevant studies on language teacher cognition in Asia regarding CLT/TBLT implementation The chapter concludes by highlighting research gaps in the Asian educational landscape.
Vietnamese teaching contexts which the study will address
Chapter Three presents the description of the theoretical models drawn on as important guides for the present study: Borg’s (2015) model of language teacher cognition and
Shulman’s model of teachers’ knowledge categories, developed in 1986 and 1987, provides a framework for understanding the essential concepts in Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) This chapter highlights the significance of Subject Matter Content Knowledge (SMCK) as a critical component in these teaching methodologies.
Chapter Four outlines the educational setting of the study and details the research methodology and procedures used for data collection and analysis Additionally, it addresses the strategies implemented to improve the study's trustworthiness.
Chapter Five explores the socio-cultural influences on novice teachers' cognitions and practices, focusing on the Vietnamese language curriculum and textbooks, teaching methodologies, and insights from teacher educators' interviews It emphasizes the teaching theories endorsed within the Vietnamese educational context and their implementation into practical pedagogy through curriculum and teaching resources.
Chapter Six explores the personal, situational, and sociocultural factors influencing teachers' cognitions through an analysis of their interviews presented as biographies It begins by outlining the socioeconomic context of the Mekong Delta, where the participating teachers reside and work, and delves into how this environment affects the cognitions of five novice teachers Additionally, the chapter discusses the participants' family backgrounds and prior learning experiences, highlighting their impact on teaching practices.
7 professional coursework, and additional contextual factors both inside and outside of their classrooms
Chapter Seven explores the contextual factors that influenced teachers' Subject Matter Knowledge for Teaching (SMCK) and Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), as previously discussed in Chapters 5 and 6 Utilizing recorded classroom data, it illustrates how teachers' cognitions were manifested in their teaching practices and rationales The chapter specifically examines teachers' decision-making regarding textbook activities, the use of first language (L1) and second language (L2), and their approach to grammar instruction Ultimately, it concludes that contextual factors, particularly teachers' assumptions about learners' knowledge, significantly impacted their cognitions and teaching practices.
Chapter Eight wraps up the study by highlighting its key findings and discussing their implications for advancing theoretical understanding, enhancing language policy, and refining teacher education and professional development programs Additionally, it outlines the study's contributions and offers recommendations for future research in the area of language teacher cognition.
Literature review
Introduction
This study explores the cognitions of novice EFL Vietnamese teachers regarding language teaching and learning, examining the connection between these beliefs and their classroom practices The literature review highlights existing knowledge on teachers' beliefs and their formation, identifying research gaps that this study aims to address Section 2.2 outlines the general challenges faced by novice teachers, with a specific focus on those in second and foreign language teaching Section 2.3 reviews factors influencing teachers' cognitions about language education, including studies on pre-service and a limited number of in-service and novice teachers Finally, Section 2.4 addresses the difficulties associated with implementing Communicative Language Teaching and Task-Based Language Teaching methodologies.
This article examines the implementation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) in Asian contexts, highlighting research on language teacher cognition in relation to these methodologies Additionally, it identifies a significant research gap within Asian and Vietnamese educational settings that this study aims to address.
Novice teachers and their challenges
The term "novice teacher" refers to educators who have recently completed their initial teacher education and begun their teaching careers (Farrell, 2009) According to Ginns et al (2001), the first years of teaching are crucial for novice teachers' professional development, significantly impacting their commitment to effective teaching During this formative period, novice teachers test their beliefs, expand their teaching strategies, acquire practical knowledge, and develop their professional identity (Kang & Cheng, 2014) However, they often face significant challenges and experience 'reality shock' as they adjust to their new professional roles (Caspersen & Raaen, 2014).
Many principles learned in teacher education programs may not effectively apply to real classroom situations, leading to challenges for educators (Farrell, 2006) Teachers often face intense pressure to meet the constantly evolving demands of their classes and schools (Ginns et al., 2001) Alarmingly, attrition rates among educators, particularly novice teachers, are high globally, with 14% of new teachers in the U.S leaving by the end of their first year, 33% within three years, and 50% within five years (Hong, 2010; Alliance for Excellent Education, 2004) The main reasons for teacher attrition include inadequate support and unfavorable working conditions.
Novice teachers are frequently assigned to instruct low-performing students, which increases their responsibilities and challenges as they work with learners needing additional support Unfortunately, many of these beginning teachers lack access to professional support, feedback, or guidance on effectively assisting these challenging students to succeed (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2004; Hong, 2010).
A review of studies on novice teachers across various countries highlighted significant challenges, including classroom discipline, student motivation, and the need for effective communication with parents and colleagues (Veenman, 1984) Fantilli and McDougall (2009) noted similar issues in Canada, emphasizing the stress and anxiety faced by novice teachers due to unfamiliar school cultures and insufficient support A recent study by Caspersen and Raaen (2014) found that novice teachers in Norway struggled to articulate their needs despite receiving equal support, unlike their experienced counterparts who effectively utilized available resources The authors suggest that inadequate teacher education may contribute to these challenges, advocating for collaboration among teacher educators, novice teachers, and schools to improve the transition from education to the teaching profession.
The high attrition rate among novice language teachers in ESL contexts is a significant concern in the professional community, as noted by various researchers (Farrell, 2012; Swanson, 2012; Valeo & Faez, 2014) However, there is a lack of literature specifically addressing EFL contexts, with existing studies primarily concentrating on teacher burnout (Carmel & Badash, 2018; Ghanizadeh & Jahedizadeh, 2016; Javadi & Khatib, 2014).
Teacher attrition in ESL contexts is significantly influenced by poor working conditions, job insecurity, insufficient subject matter knowledge, and inadequate classroom management skills (Kalantari & Kolahi, 2017) Many ESL teachers are often employed in casual or part-time roles, which exacerbates these issues (Valeo & Faez, 2014) In EFL settings, teacher burnout stems from daily interactions with students, parents, and colleagues, negatively affecting language teaching practices (Wood & McCarthy, 2002; Javadi & Khatib).
The initial years of teaching are vital for a teacher's success and longevity in the profession However, research focusing on the experiences of novice teachers in second and foreign language education is significantly less documented compared to studies in general education fields.
English language education faces challenges similar to those in general education, including insufficient mentor support (Farrell, 2003), the transitional gap between pre-service and in-service teacher development (Farrell, 2012), and the lack of preparedness to address the diverse needs of low-literacy students and those with learning disabilities (Baecher, 2012) Additionally, effective classroom management remains a critical issue (Farrell, 2012; Shin).
Novice teachers of English as a second or foreign language often encounter significant challenges, including behavioral problems among students and difficulties in communication with parents Additionally, they face the reality shock of overwhelming workloads and struggle with students' low English proficiency Research indicates that these teachers, similar to their counterparts in other disciplines, are frequently unprepared for the demands of their initial teaching years.
Farrell’s (2003, 2006) two consecutive studies of a secondary school English teacher in Singapore provide some insights into the experiences and challenges facing a Singaporean
In his 2003 study, Farrell explored the challenges faced by a novice ESL teacher during his initial years of teaching The teacher experienced a significant increase in workload, from 16 to 35 periods per week, and was tasked with various responsibilities outside of teaching, including student counseling and organizing extracurricular activities He was expected to assess students' work in levels for which he had no training, while also managing low English proficiency and disciplinary issues among students Despite assurances of mentorship, the teacher only met his mentor once and received minimal support thereafter, exacerbated by his isolation in a separate office that hindered collaboration with colleagues The principal provided some encouragement and support for the teacher's innovative ideas, but overall, the lack of guidance and community left the novice teacher feeling overwhelmed and unsupported.
In Farrell's (2006) study, the transition of novice teachers from education programs to classroom environments revealed significant challenges The first conflict arose from a disconnect between the learner-centered teaching methods the novice teacher wished to implement and the traditional, teacher-centered approach expected by the school Additionally, the teacher faced a second conflict regarding the content deemed most beneficial for students versus the established syllabus focused on standardized testing Lastly, the novice struggled to form professional relationships with busy colleagues and administrators, who often grouped themselves by experience level These mismatches in teaching philosophy and lack of support contributed to a challenging first year for the novice teacher.
Farrell (2006) emphasizes that novice teachers face significant challenges when transitioning from pre-service education to actual classroom practice, indicating that teacher education programs often fail to provide sufficient preparation for this shift The necessity for support during this transition is clearly underscored.
Novice teachers require significant affirmation and support during their first year, as feedback without negative repercussions can facilitate their growth (Farrell, 2006) According to Maynard and Furlong (cited in Farrell, 2008), while novice teachers develop their teaching routines in complex contexts, they may resist new approaches to avoid disrupting their perceived successful methods This tendency highlights a critical issue: the teaching practices adopted by novice teachers in new environments may continue into their experienced years, ultimately influencing student learning outcomes.
Positive support during the challenging early years is crucial for novice teachers, as it aids in managing their workload, fulfilling administrative tasks, and enhancing their teaching skills (Villani, 2002; Pogodzinski, 2013; DeAngelis, Wall, & Chen, 2013) A study by Brannan and Bleistein (2012) found that social support significantly impacts the work performance of novice teachers, highlighting three key sources: mentors, co-workers, and family Novice teachers reported receiving valuable assistance from mentors, including teaching ideas, lesson plans, and classroom management tips, which made them feel valued and supported Additionally, collegial relationships facilitated the sharing of ideas and resources, while family support often included childcare and help with organizational tasks Overall, the emotional and practical support from mentors, colleagues, and family members plays a vital role in the success and retention of novice teachers.
Teacher education programs and placement schools are crucial in offering the necessary support for teachers to thrive in evolving educational settings Understanding the transition experienced by novice teachers is essential for their development and success in the profession.
Language teachers’ cognitions and relations to practice
Teachers play a crucial role in effective teaching and learning, serving as key agents of change within classrooms and society (Bourn, 2015) Their values, beliefs, and cognitions are vital for successfully implementing educational innovations Research by Farrell highlights that novice teachers' beliefs and knowledge about language teaching significantly influence their classroom practices Teacher cognition, as defined by Borg (2003), encompasses the unobservable aspects of teaching related to what educators know, believe, and think, which profoundly impacts their pedagogical decisions, instructional methods, and professional growth (Zhang & Liu, 2014).
Research on language teacher cognition gained prominence in the 1980s, largely due to advancements in teaching methods (Burns, Freeman, & Edwards, 2015) Prior to this period, limited research was attributed to the dominance of Direct and Audiolingual Methods in the 1970s, which emphasized structured, automatic language use with minimal cognitive engagement from teachers (Brown, 2007; Larsen-Freeman, 2000) In contrast, Burns et al (2015) highlight that innovative methods, such as Communicative Language Teaching, foster greater cognitive involvement among educators.
Teaching, Community Language Learning, Natural Approach, the Silent Way, and
Innovative teaching methods, such as Suggestopedia, have significantly influenced educators' approaches to teaching, prompting them to carefully consider their instructional choices (Burns et al., 2015; Freeman, 2016) These methods encourage both novice and experienced language teachers to engage in reflective practices regarding their classroom techniques Research on language teacher cognition, particularly concerning the growing adoption of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), is crucial for advancing our understanding of effective teaching strategies in this field (Barnard & Nguyen, 2010; Littlewood, 2007, 2014).
15 understanding about teachers’ beliefs in relation to their decisions about their pedagogical practices, which in turn have an impact on their learners’ learning
In his 2015 book, "Teacher Cognition and Language Education: Research and Practice," Borg highlights various studies on teacher cognition in contexts where English is taught as a first, second, or foreign language He notes that research in this field has garnered increasing attention, with investigations conducted in multiple countries, including the USA, the UK, Hong Kong, and Canada.
Interest in the influence of various factors on teachers' cognitions regarding language teaching and learning has grown significantly since Borg's review, with studies highlighting the impact of previous learning experiences, professional coursework, and school contexts (Baker, 2014; Burri et al., 2017; Deng & Lin, 2016) This article examines research focused on ESL/EFL teachers, illustrating how these elements shape their educational beliefs and practices.
Research on teacher education's influence on teachers' cognitions primarily focuses on pre-service teachers, revealing valuable insights into their beliefs and knowledge regarding language teaching and learning The cognitions developed during their training are crucial as they significantly shape the practices of novice teachers in their future careers.
Research indicates that prior learning experiences significantly shape pre-service teachers' beliefs and classroom practices Johnson (1994) found that reflections from teaching practicums revealed that these teachers' experiences as second language learners influenced their selection of theories, methods, and materials Furthermore, their school-based learning experiences affected how much they accepted or rejected the content of their teacher preparation courses (Johnson, 1994, pp 445-446).
Several studies (Debreli, 2012; Farrell, 1999; Numrich, 1996; Yüksel & Kavanoz, 2015) have demonstrated specifically how negative experiences led pre-service teachers to reject more
Traditional teaching methods are being replaced by more interactive activities like games, singing, and pair work, as highlighted by Debreli (2012) In Numrich’s (1996) study, teachers' negative experiences with humiliation and discomfort during their own language learning influenced their decision to adopt a communicative approach, prioritizing students' expression and avoiding interruptions for error correction.
On the other hand, other studies (Farrell, 1999; Kunt & ệzdemir, 2010; Numrich, 1996; Yüksel & Kavanoz, 2015) have pointed to the persistence of beliefs in a traditional approach
A longitudinal study by Peacock (2001) on trainee teachers in Hong Kong revealed that their beliefs about language learning remained largely unchanged after three years of studying TESL methodology, with most still prioritizing vocabulary and grammar rules Peacock attributes this persistence in beliefs to the trainees' own experiences as second language learners This finding is further supported by Chappell, Bodis, and Jackson (2015), who argue that altering teacher behavior through education and training is a complex challenge.
“teachers have their individual ideas, beliefs, knowledge and preferences, all of which have a significant influence on their professional actions” (p 7)
By contrast, studies by ệzmen (2012) and Burri (2015) demonstrate the impact of teacher education programs on the changes in pre-service language teachers’ cognitions ệzmen
A longitudinal study conducted in 2012 examined the evolving beliefs of 49 pre-service Turkish teachers during a four-year constructivist training program Initial interviews revealed that in their first two years, these teachers prioritized vocabulary and grammar in language instruction, influenced by their previous experiences in primary and secondary education However, by the third year, as they engaged in micro-teaching practices with a student-centered syllabus, their beliefs shifted towards a more academic understanding of language teaching Despite this transformation, they faced challenges in applying innovative teaching principles in practice Ultimately, by the conclusion of their training and practicum, most participants viewed language learning as a process aimed at enhancing communicative competence.
17 teacher as mentor and counsellor, a position that was congruent with the approach taken in their teacher education courses
Burri's (2015) study highlights the significant impact of a postgraduate pronunciation course on ESL/EFL student teachers' understanding of pronunciation pedagogy The research found that teacher education greatly influenced the cognitive development of teachers, particularly those lacking prior experience in teaching pronunciation As a result, these educators recognized the importance of pronunciation in language instruction and gained a broader perspective on English varieties, realizing that native-like proficiency is not necessary for effective communication.
In 2015, the course emphasized key elements that greatly enhanced student teachers' cognitive development Notably, group work and discussions, along with accent comparisons facilitated by the lecturer, offered participants valuable exposure to diverse Englishes and accents This collaborative approach not only fostered knowledge construction but also heightened participants' awareness of the various forms and accents of English.
The classroom context significantly influences pre-service teachers' cognitions and practices during their practicum experiences (Gan, 2013; Johnson, 1996; Silva, 2005; Sinprajakpol, 2005) According to Wang and Odell (2002), this period often presents a "conceptual struggle about teaching and learning" (p 515), as pre-service teachers confront challenges that may contradict their personal beliefs about effective teaching.
Pre-service teachers often face challenges in implementing innovative pedagogical practices like Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) due to factors such as the extensive time needed for task preparation, students’ limited English proficiency, classroom discipline issues, and discouragement from cooperating teachers (2013) Similarly, in Sinprajakpol’s (2005) study, a Thai teacher cited the constraints of a prescribed curriculum as a barrier to practicing her educational beliefs, leading her to use Thai instead of English to expedite her lessons and adhere to the curriculum requirements.
Research indicates that both experienced and novice teachers shape their cognitions and teaching practices through prior learning experiences, professional training, and the specific contexts of their schools and classrooms.
Challenges of teaching CLT in an Asian context
Recognizing the significance of English as a global language, Asian governments are committed to enhancing students' proficiency in English (Littlewood, 2007; Mustapha & Yahaya, 2013; Savignon & Chaochang, 2003; Shi, Baker, & Chen; Thinh, 2006; Zhu & Shu, 2017) This commitment has prompted reforms in key aspects of the teaching process, including teacher roles, curriculum design, and teaching methodologies, shifting towards a communicative approach (Jihyeon, 2009; Karakas, 2013) Consequently, traditional teacher-centered methods that heavily focused on grammar and vocabulary have diminished in popularity, as they are deemed insufficient for fostering effective communication skills in real-world contexts (Chang & Goswami, 2011; Savignon & Chaochang, 2003; Sreehari, 2012) In response, innovative teaching strategies such as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) have emerged as preferred methods across many Asian countries (Barnard & Nguyen, 2010; Butler, 2011) These approaches prioritize authentic language use and communication, making them fundamental to the language education policies and curricula in various Asian nations.
(Mustapha & Yahaya, 2013; Nishino, 2008; Sarab, Monfared, & Safarzadeh, 2016; Yook,
Despite the increasing interest in Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) in Asia, several challenges hinder their effective implementation in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms Researchers such as Bax (2003), Butler (2011), Ellis (1996), Hu (2002), and Koosha have highlighted these difficulties, emphasizing the need for strategies to overcome them.
The conflict between Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) principles and local cultural values poses challenges in Asian regions, particularly in EFL classrooms Cultural differences between Western and Eastern societies are seen as significant barriers to effectively implementing communicative teaching methods for English language learning.
(2013), the CLT approach is not always appropriate nor compatible with the local socio-
In the EFL context, there is often a disconnect between home culture and classroom cultures, leading to a lack of appreciation for practical language acquisition methods This stems from traditional views where teachers are seen as knowledge transmitters and students as passive recipients, a perspective rooted in Confucian traditions, particularly in China Such cultural values emphasize mastery of knowledge and teacher-centered instruction, which contrasts sharply with the learner-centered approach of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) CLT promotes cooperative learning and active student participation, yet this conflicts with the cultural tendencies of many Asian learners, who may exhibit obedience, limited critical thinking, and reluctance to engage in classroom interactions.
Butler (2011) highlights two significant challenges to implementing Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in Asian contexts: classroom-level constraints, such as limited resources, class sizes, and management issues, and societal-institutional constraints, including rigid testing systems and minimal opportunities for English use outside the classroom Empirical studies across various Asian countries, including Taiwan, China, Japan, Bangladesh, Iran, and Korea, reveal similar difficulties For instance, Shin (2012) identifies several obstacles faced by teachers in Korea utilizing Teaching English Through English (TETE), such as students' difficulties in understanding English instruction, low participation rates, and challenges related to exam preparation and classroom management Additionally, Li (1998) is recognized for his influential research in the EFL/CLT domain, further underscoring the complexities of teaching English in these contexts.
The challenges in implementing Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) can be categorized into four main constraints: first, teacher-related issues such as deficiencies in spoken English and strategic competence, as well as misconceptions about CLT; second, student-related factors including low English proficiency and lack of motivation; third, systemic obstacles like large class sizes and grammar-focused examinations; and finally, limitations inherent to CLT itself, such as inadequate consideration of EFL teaching needs and ineffective assessment tools.
Studies across Asia reveal significant challenges in implementing Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in classrooms An empirical study in Taiwan by Chang and Goswami (2011) highlighted barriers such as inadequate teacher training, lack of knowledge and skills, student resistance to participation, low English proficiency, test-oriented teaching, large class sizes, limited teaching hours, and insufficient English-speaking environments Similar obstacles were identified for EFL teachers in Iran and Bangladesh, with Iranian teachers noting a shortage of supplementary materials for communicative activities, while Bangladeshi teachers emphasized the need for training and support in CLT, as well as the approach's inadequacy for their teaching context.
In Vietnam, since the promotion of CLT/TBLT by the government as the preferred way of teaching English communicatively and effectively (MOET, 2006; Van, Hoa, Minh, Phuong,
Recent studies have increasingly examined the implementation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) in classrooms, highlighting the challenges teachers face in adopting these methodologies In Vietnam, the obstacles to implementing CLT in language education mirror those encountered in other Asian countries.
The article highlights various contextual challenges faced by Vietnamese EFL teachers, including traditional examinations, large class sizes, cultural constraints regarding teacher and student roles, low student motivation, and limited teaching resources Despite growing interest in these issues from a language teacher cognition perspective, there is a lack of research on how novice teachers navigate these challenges in their initial teaching years This study aims to fill that gap by investigating the impact of contextual factors on the cognitions and practices of novice Vietnamese EFL teachers.
In the Asian EFL context, teachers generally exhibit positive attitudes towards the implementation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) A study conducted in Bangladesh by Ansarey (2012) revealed that EFL teachers developed a keen interest in learning English during their own education, motivated by the belief that proficiency in multiple languages would lead to lucrative job opportunities They advocated for a shift in focus from grammar to meaning, emphasizing the importance of communication in English language learning However, despite their favorable views on communicative approaches, research indicates a significant gap between teachers' beliefs and their actual classroom practices (Gerami & Noordin, 2013; Mellati, Fatemi, & Motallebzadeh, 2013).
A study by Tayjasanant and Barnard (2010) on Thai EFL teachers revealed a preference for "student-centered learning" through communicative activities, aimed at enhancing language acquisition However, observational data indicated that teacher talk predominantly overshadowed student discourse, limiting genuine interaction The researchers highlighted that the effectiveness of student-centered learning was further constrained by the prevalence of ‘close-ended’ questions from teachers, which restricted opportunities for students to practice English These findings align with previous research by Karavas-Doukas (1996) and Lamb, emphasizing the challenges in implementing communicative methodologies in EFL contexts.
1995), as in the following teacher’s observation: “it is not that once this theory
[communicative approach] was introduced, everyone could immediately use it” (Tayjasanant
In Vietnam's EFL teaching context, qualitative research highlights a significant gap between teachers' beliefs and their actual classroom practices regarding Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) Studies, such as Canh and Barnard (2009), reveal that despite a curriculum emphasizing communication, teachers predominantly rely on textbook-based, test-oriented methods, focusing on grammar instruction in Vietnamese rather than fostering meaningful language use Constraints like time pressure, limited English proficiency among students, and insufficient instructional hours hinder effective implementation and student motivation Furthermore, the reliance on multiple-choice tests for high-stakes assessments undermines the communicative goals of the curriculum, resulting in a superficial commitment to communication in the classroom.
To compare with secondary and/or high school teachers, university lecturers appeared to face similar challenges in apply CLT into their teaching, even though they might be committed to
A study by Hiep (2007) revealed that tertiary EFL teachers, despite their positive beliefs about Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), faced significant challenges in implementing its practices The teachers recognized the importance of CLT for enhancing students' language proficiency and fostering meaningful communication over mere accuracy However, classroom observations indicated difficulties in organizing pair and group work for activities like role plays and simulations These challenges were attributed to students' lack of motivation in a non-English environment, their focus on written exams, and reluctance to engage in collaborative work Additionally, the teachers' limited repertoire of CLT techniques and contextual factors hindered their ability to effectively employ CLT, even with advanced training, such as master's degrees and postgraduate diplomas in TESOL.
In Vietnam, contextual factors significantly constrain the implementation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), reflecting Borg’s focus on how these elements influence language teachers’ beliefs and practices Both CLT and TBLT emphasize meaningful communication and collaboration, leading to similar challenges in teachers' cognitions and classroom practices, as highlighted in various studies (Brown, 2007; Canh, 2011; Tran, 2015; Viet, 2013) For instance, Canh (2011) examined eight teachers at a gifted upper secondary school, revealing their strong preference for traditional grammar instruction and an emphasis on memorizing grammatical rules The study also found a tendency among these teachers to favor a Presentation-Practice-Production (PPP) model over the task sequencing recommended in the curriculum.
In a study by Canh (2011), several contextual factors are identified that influence teachers' beliefs and their teaching practices These factors include students' low language proficiency, the challenges posed by large class sizes, the pressures associated with examinations, and issues related to teachers' professional development.
In summary: Identifying the gap
This review highlights the significant focus on language teacher cognition, yet identifies existing research gaps While studies on language teachers' cognitions have increased, they predominantly originate from the United States, Hong Kong, the United Kingdom, and Australia (Borg, 2009) Furthermore, Borg (2009), ệztỹrk and Gürbüz (2017), and Tajeddin and Aryaeian (2017) emphasize the need for more research on language learning in diverse EFL education contexts.
Research indicates that there is a greater focus on language teacher cognition in pre-service contexts compared to in-service settings, leaving a gap in understanding the factors influencing the cognitions and practices of practicing teachers, especially novice educators in Vietnam (Borg, 2009) The literature review highlights a growing body of work on teacher cognition, yet underscores the need for more studies addressing this area.
Vietnam (Canh, 2011; Canh & Barnard, 2009; Hiep, 2007; Tran, 2015; Viet, 2013, 2014), studies are targeted at more experienced teachers, leaving scant attention to novice teachers
A wide gap in research on this particular group of teachers, as displayed in many parts of
In the context of Asia, particularly Vietnam, there is an urgent need to explore novice teachers' beliefs and classroom practices to gain deeper insights into the field of language teacher cognition.
Recent research highlights a gap in methodologies used to study language teachers, with most relying on questionnaires and interviews, while classroom observations and video-stimulated recall are underutilized These methods are crucial for understanding the discrepancies between teachers' beliefs and their actual practices To gain comprehensive insights into teachers' cognitions and practices, this study incorporates diverse data sources, including documents, interviews, and observations, aiming for robust results Additionally, while sociocultural factors outside the classroom significantly influence teaching practices, they are often overlooked in existing studies This research addresses these gaps by exploring the relationship between novice language teachers' cognitions and practices in Vietnamese high schools, emphasizing the impact of sociocultural factors on their beliefs and teaching methods.
The next chapter will present the theoretical framework used to guide the investigation of cognitions and practices of the teachers in the study described in this thesis