Using translation for teaching and learning english at some high schools in hue sử dụng phương pháp dịch trong dạy và học tiếng anh tại một số trường trung học phổ thông tại huế

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HUE UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES --- NGUYEN HOANG KIM AU USING TRANSLATION FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING ENGLISH AT SOME HIGH SCHOOLS IN HUE MA THES

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HUE UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

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NGUYEN HOANG KIM AU

USING TRANSLATION FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING ENGLISH

AT SOME HIGH SCHOOLS IN HUE

MA THESIS IN THEORY AND METHODOLOGY

OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

CODE: 60.14.01.11

SUPERVISOR: TRUONG BACH LE, Ph.D

HUE, 2016

BỘ GIÁO DỤC VÀ ĐÀO TẠO

ĐẠI HỌC HUẾ

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ

-

NGUYỄN HOÀNG KIM ÂU SỬ DỤNG PHƯƠNG PHÁP DỊCH

TRONG DẠY VÀ HỌC TIẾNG ANH TẠI MỘT SỐ TRƯỜNG TRUNG HỌC PHỔ THÔNG TẠI HUẾ LUẬN VĂN THẠC SĨ LÝ LUẬN VÀ PHƯƠNG PHÁP

DẠY HỌC BỘ MÔN TIẾNG ANH

MÃ SỐ: 60.14.01.11

NGƯỜI HƯỚNG DẪN KHOA HỌC: TS TRƯƠNG BẠCH LÊ

HUẾ, 2016

STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP

The work contained in this thesis has not previously been submitted for a degree or diploma in any university I certify that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, my thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the thesis itself

Signed:

Nguyễn Hoàng Kim Âu

Date: December 19th, 2016

ABSTRACT

The research aims to investigate teachers‟ perceptions and use of translation in teaching English as well as students‟ perceptions and use of translation in learning English, whereby some suggestions and implications can be drawn out to improve English teaching and learning efficacy Therefore, in order to collect data for the study, totally 24 EFL teachers and 90 students from 3 high schools in Hue were chosen as participants Here, two research instruments including questionnaire and interview were employed The results of the study show that both EFL teachers and learners not only have acknowledged the role of translation but have applied such teaching tool in the process of English teaching and learning as well More specifically, teachers often use translation to teach vocabulary, idioms, and grammatical points or to explain complicated issues Regarding students, they usually use translation in class to talk with classmates in group activities and to learn words, idioms or grammar points and practice translation exercises at home After examining the results, the research also suggests some guidelines of better teaching and learning English with the support of translation The study concludes that pedagogical translation, if effectively used, can be of great values for both English teaching and learning Despite its existing difficulties and limitations, the paper may act as a useful contribution to foreign language pedagogy, especially at high schools

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor, Dr Truong Bach

Le, whose enthusiastic support and valuable advice helped me a lot in conducting the research and completing this paper I could not have imagined having a better mentor for my master study

Secondly, I would like to thank the EFL teachers and students at Nguyen Hue High school, Quoc Hoc High school and Gia Hoi High school, who participated in the research as participants and gave me precious information and comments

My best thanks also go to the staff working at the university library, who created favorable conditions for me to get access to necessary material and information for the study

Last but not least, I would like to thank my family and friends for supporting me spiritually throughout writing this thesis in particular and my life in general

Without all the aforementioned support and encouragements, this research would have never been completed

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SUB COVER PAGE 1 i

SUB COVER PAGE 2 ii

STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP iii

ABSTRACT iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v

TABLE OF CONTENTS vi

LIST OF TABLES x

LIST OF CHARTS xi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiii

CONTENTS OF THESIS CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rationale for the research 1

1.2 Objectives of the research 2

1.3 Research questions 2

1.4 Significance of the research 3

1.5 Scope of the research 3

1.6 Brief outline of the research 4

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2.1 Introduction 5

2.2 Origins and some definitions of translation 5

2.3 The notion of pedagogical translation 7

2.4 Translation in some foreign language teaching approaches 10

2.4.1 Grammar-translation method 11

2.4.2 Community language learning 12

2.4.3 Direct method 13

2.4.4 Audio-lingual method 14

2.4.5 Communicative approach 15

2.5 Pros and cons of the use of translation in foreign language classroom 16

2.5.1 Arguments against translation 17

2.5.2 Arguments for translation 20

2.6 English teaching and pedagogical translation in Vietnam 25

2.6.1 Some traits of English teaching and learning in Vietnam 25

2.6.2 Pedagogical translation in English teaching in Vietnam 27

2.7 Summary 28

CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 29

3.1 Research design 29

3.2 Participants 30

3.3 Data collection 30

3.3.1 Questionnaire 30

3.3.2 Interview 31

3.4 Procedure 31

3.5 Data analysis 32

CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 33

4.1 Background information of research participants 33

4.1.1 Teachers‟ background information 33

4.1.2 Students‟ background information 34

4.2 Findings and discussion from questionnaires and interviews 34

4.2.1 Teachers‟ perceptions towards the use of translation in teaching English 34

4.2.1.1 Language employment in teaching English 34

4.2.1.2 The role of translation in English teaching 35

4.2.1.3 Advantages of translation towards teachers in teaching English 36

4.2.1.4 Disadvantages of translation towards teachers in teaching English 38

4.2.1.5 Translation‟s efficacy on the teaching of four skills 40

4.2.2 Teachers‟ use of translation in teaching English 41

4.2.2.1 Using translation tasks and activities 41

4.2.2.2 Using translation in certain situations 42

4.2.2.3 Textbook sections in which translation is often used 46

4.2.2.4 Translation tasks often employed in terms of language 47

4.2.2.5 Translation tasks often employed in written or oral form 48

4.2.2.6 Translation tasks often employed in terms of linguistic units 49

4.2.2.7 Requirements for preparing Vietnamese meanings of new words before class 52

4.2.3 Suggestions for better teaching efficacy by using translation 53

4.2.4 Students‟ perceptions towards the use of translation in learning English 56

4.2.4.1 The role of translation in English learning 56

4.2.4.2 Preference for major types of English learning activities 57

4.2.4.3 Advantages of translation towards students in learning English 58

4.2.4.4 Disadvantages of translation towards students in learning English 63

4.2.4.5 Translation‟s efficacy on the learning of four skills 65

4.2.5 Students‟ use of translation in learning English 66

4.2.5.1 Practicing translation tasks 66

4.2.5.2 Situations for using translation in EFL classes 67

4.2.5.3 Frequently translated linguistic units for self-study 69

4.2.5.4 Mental translation when hearing or reading English 70

4.2.5.5 Mental translation before writing or speaking English 71

4.2.5.6 How students remember word meanings 72

4.2.5.7 Using translation tools to support English learning 73

4.2.6 Suggestions for better learning efficacy by using translation 74

4.3 Summary 76

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS 77

5.1 Conclusion of the research 77

5.1.1 Teachers‟ perceptions and use of translation in English teaching 77

5.1.2 Students‟ perceptions and use of translation in English learning 78

5.2 Implications for better English teaching and learning efficacy with the use of translation 79

5.2.1 For teachers 79

5.2.2 For students 80

5.3 Limitations of the research 80

5.4 Suggestions for further investigations 81

REFERENCES 82

APPENDICES APPENDIX 1: Questionnaire for teachers 91

APPENDIX 2: Questionnaire for students 96

APPENDIX 3: Interview sheet for teachers 101

APPENDIX 4: Interview sheet for students 103

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 4.1: Background information of teachers 33 Table 4.2: Background information of students 34

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 4.1: Teachers‟ language employment in teaching English 35

Figure 4.2: Teachers‟ evaluations of the role of translation in English teaching 36

Figure 4.3: Teachers‟ opinions on translation‟s advantages 37

Figure 4.4: Teachers‟ opinions on translation‟s disadvantages 38

Figure 4.5: Teaching areas where translation is considered to be appropriate 40

Figure 4.6: Frequency of using translation tasks and activities in teaching English 41

Figure 4.7: Frequency of using translation in some situations in English teaching 43

Figure 4.8: Lesson types in which translation is used frequently 46

Figure 4.9: Translation tasks frequently employed in terms of language 48

Figure 4.10: Translation tasks frequently employed in written or oral form 48

Figure 4.11: Translation tasks frequently employed regarding linguistic units 50

Figure 4.12: Frequency of requirements for preparing Vietnamese meaning of new words before class 52

Figure 4.13: Suggestions for better English teaching by using translation 54

Figure 4.14: Students‟ evaluations of the role of translation in English learning 56

Figure 4.15: Students‟ preference for major kinds of English learning activities 57

Figure 4.16: Students‟ opinions on translation‟s advantages 59

Figure 4.17: Students‟ opinions on translations disadvantages 64

Figure 4.18: Language skills that can be improved thanks to translation 65

Figure 4.19: Frequency of practicing translation tasks 66

Figure 4.20: Situations in which translation should be used 67

Figure 4.21: Translation tasks students often practice in terms of linguistic units 69

Figure 4.22: Mental translation into Vietnamese when reading or hearing English 71

Figure 4.23: Mental translation before writing or speaking English 72

Figure 4.24: How students remember word meanings 73

Figure 4.25: Frequency of using translation tools 74 Figure 4.26: Suggestions for better English learning by using translation 75

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ALM: Audio-Lingual Method

BA: Bachelor of Arts

CLL: Community Language Learning

CLT: Communicative Language Teaching

CSs: Communicative Strategies

EFL: English as a Foreign Language

ESP: English for Special Purposes

FL: Foreign Language

GTM: Grammar-Translation Method

L1: first language

L2: second language

MOET: Ministry Of Education and Training

SLA: Second Language Acquisition

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Rationale for the research

Since the 19th century, the ceaselessly increasing use of English as a means of communication among people from different countries, cultures and linguistic backgrounds has led to the situation in which millions of people learn English as their second language or foreign language to fulfill their personal purposes Therefore, teaching and learning English are of great importance nowadays In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in the use of translation the field

of EFL teaching and learning To tell the truth, the notion of translation seems to be perceived differently by people all over the world Its use in EFL classrooms, also,

is surrounded by much controversy and criticism Some authors and educators advocate the use of translation in teaching EFL whereas others do not Despite the fact that the use of translation in language classes has aroused controversial viewpoints and comments, it is still commonly considered as “a means to help learners acquire, develop and further strengthen their knowledge and competence in

a foreign language” (Leonardi, 2010, p.17) Translation, as one of the suggested methods in learning and teaching English, may play an important part in this field if used properly Therefore, the vital role of translation in foreign language teaching and learning is indeed worth considering

In the second half of the 19th century, according to Liu and Littlewood (1997), in most countries in East Asia in general and in Vietnam in particular, EFL teaching is conducted with the use of Grammar-Translation method, in which grammar, reading and translation tasks are much appropriated while oral language teaching is out of favor As time goes by, English has become an international language and things have changed Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has gradually found its way to Vietnamese education and become favorable However, in spite of the preference on communicative approach recently, pedagogical translation is still

in use at a lot of schools in Vietnam Particularly, in Hue City, this phenomenon is

also popular, especially at secondary schools and high schools Therefore, conducting studies concerning to the use of such tool for better teaching and learning English in Vietnam is necessary

After due consideration of the seriousness of the issues above, I decide to carry out

a research named “Using translation for teaching and learning English at some high schools in Hue” The paper focuses on identifying the perceptions of both EFL teachers and students at some high schools in Hue city towards the role of pedagogical translation as well as how they employ such tool in teaching and learning English Additionally, it is hoped that some useful implications can be drawn out in order to help both EFL teachers and students to raise the quality of learning and teaching English via the use of translation

1.2 Objectives of the research

The study attempts to reach these objectives:

1 Investigate the perceptions of EFL teachers at some high schools in Hue towards the use of translation in English teaching

2 Investigate the perceptions of EFL students at some high schools in Hue towards the use of translation in English learning

3 Identify how translation is used in the process of teaching English by EFL teachers at some high schools in Hue

4 Identify how translation is used in the process of learning English by EFL students at some high schools in Hue

5 Suggest some guidelines concerning the use of translation in the process of teaching and learning English

1.3 Research questions

In order to reach those aims above, the study seeks to address the following research questions:

1 What are the perceptions of EFL teachers at some high schools in Hue towards the use of translation in teaching English?

2 What are the perceptions of EFL student at some high schools in Hue towards the use of translation in learning English?

3 How translation is reported to be used for teaching English by EFL teachers at some high schools in Hue?

4 How translation is reported to be used for learning English by EFL students at some high schools in Hue?

5 How can translation be applied for better teaching and learning English?

1.4 Significance of the research

In the context of economic integration and globalization currently, the need for qualified labor force who can communicate with foreigners properly and fluently in Vietnam keeps rising each day As a result, the process of teaching and learning English has aroused much more concern than ever Despite recent controversy on its use in EFL classrooms, translation is still employed and considered as one of suggested teaching and learning methods Understanding the perceptions of both EFL teachers and students towards the use of translation and how translation is used for teaching and learning English are obviously necessary This can help teachers to make suitable adjustments in teaching process and provide students with better learning strategies Hence the findings and suggestions of this research can be of great value in terms of effective English learning and teaching Such benefits are not only for teachers and students at some high schools in Hue but for any EFL teacher and learner in this country as well

1.5 Scope of the research

Due to the limited time for conducting the research, only EFL teachers and students

at 3 high schools in Hue were chosen as research participants Specifically, regarding students, the research merely focuses on those of grade 12, who are

expected to own much more experience of English learning in comparison with learners of grade 10 or 11 As a result, the scope is narrowed down to EFL teachers and grade 12 students at 3 high schools in Hue, including Nguyen Hue High school, Quoc Hoc High school and Gia Hoi High school

1.6 Brief outline of the research

The paper will be presented as follows:

1 Abstract

2 Acknowledgements

3 Table of contents

4 Chapter I: Introduction

5 Chapter II: Literature Review

6 Chapter III: Research Methodology

7 Chapter IV: Findings and Discussion

8 Chapter V: Conclusion and Implications

9 References

10 Appendices

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter states important concepts including the origins and definitions of translation, the notion of pedagogical translation, the place of pedagogical translation in some foreign language teaching approaches, the pros and cons of using translation in EFL classrooms and the use of translation in Vietnamese English classrooms The chapter, with the aim of providing basis knowledge of the issue, outlines an overview of the background related to the field

2.2 Origins and some definitions of translation

“Translating means always questioning – what does this mean, what does that mean?

It is an incessant pursuit after the sense of things, which proliferates further and further as we try to explain it”

(Mor, 2011, p.113)

In the journey of tracing back to the origins of translation, its relation to languages obviously cannot be overlooked In his famous book “After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation”, Steiner (1998) once made an assertion that “translation exists because men speak different languages” (p.51) Obviously, translation shows

up wherever there are language barriers If a language is an individual nation then translation should be the passport to cross their borders On religious viewpoint, in

the Genesis (xi: 6-9), there used to be a unique language for the entire human

beings Nevertheless, due to human disrespect to God (the construction of Babel tower), they were given different languages as a punishment and could not understand each other Unfortunately, this is just a myth and the attempts to throw some light on the origins of translation need more linguistic explanations Thanks to globalization and integration, the need for translation has risen higher than ever in recent centuries This phenomenon is evident in Jumplet‟s (1923) words when he called the twentieth century “the age of translation” (as cited in Newmark, 1988a, p.1)

At literal level, the English word “translation” derives from the Latin word

“translatio” While the prefix trans- means “across”, the suffix –atio refers to

“carry” Thus “translation” should mean to carry something across This very term has a lot of implications like conversion, interpretation, rewording, transformation and etc For centuries, several studies have been made to find an appropriate definition for it Nonetheless, as Leonardi (2010) stated, “it is very hard and challenging to provide an exact definition of „translation‟ as there are as many definitions as theories and publications” (p.65)

Some researchers, despite the differences in their use of words, refer “translation” to the replacement of one text by another This point of view seems to be the one that receives the greatest concurrence In 1965, Catford considered translation as “an operation performed on languages” (p.1) in which a text in one language is substituted for a text in another Then later, Hartmann and Stork (1972), on their attempt to define the term, argued that in the process of translating, translators aim

at “the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation

of an equivalent text in a second language” (p.713) Those two definitions are quite simple and just focus on the basic level of translation

Other authors pay more attention to the function of meaning transferring of translation According to House (2009), the most important thing when conducting translation is to preserve the meaning of the original text after it has been replaced

by an equivalent one in another language On the same viewpoint, Newmark (1991) described the term as an “act of transferring meaning” (p.27) of a text from one language to another It can happen at any level of languages, entirely or partly Also, Hatim and Munday (2004) once again pointed out the importance of this function towards translation Talking about translation, they suggested that “one of the key problems for the analyst was in actually determining whether the source text meaning had been transferred into the target text” (p.34) All these three authors

stressed the role of the so-called meaning equivalence or semantic equivalence,

which is regard as the “key concept” of translation (Prasithrathsint, 2011, p.1) In

the process of translating, translators can employ several strategies to transfer a text

in the source language to the target language Nevertheless, the meaning of the original text should be preserved Otherwise, the act of translating is considered as a failure

Beside semantic equivalence, the style of the text should also be paid much attention too Nida (1984), in the book “On Translation” argued that “translation consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in meaning and secondly in terms of style” (p.83) The term “style” here can be understood as the writing style of the author Each writer has his own tone in writing, which makes his work different from others‟ Correspondingly, the translation product should obtain a style of writing which is as close as possible to that of the original text However, it is not easy to get that

“stylistic equivalence”

All in all, although the exact definition of translation is still controversial, those definitions above are quite acceptable and get much concurrence worldwide Therefore, they are chosen as the most appropriate for the thesis

2.3 The notion of pedagogical translation

In the long and complex history of translation, educators and researchers have made

a lot of attempts to apply translation in foreign language teaching Although the use

of the first language (L1) and translation in foreign language classrooms has always been in the heart of controversy, translation is widely considered as a teaching and learning tool with its own strengths and weaknesses When translation began to find its place in language classrooms other than translation classes, the term

“pedagogical translation” is applicable

Several definitions have been developed in order to describe the nature and essence

of the term Vermes (2010) pointed out that pedagogical translation is “an instrumental kind of translation” (p.83) and in the end, the process of translation only aims to develop the language proficiency of foreign language learners In similar lines, the famous author Leonardi (2010) defined pedagogical translation as

the methods used to employ translation in foreign language classrooms Alonso and Goitia (2015) once stated that this very term “refers to an additional resource in the process of learning a language” (p.133) On the viewpoints of those authors, pedagogical translation refers to any kind of translation used as a tool for pedagogical purposes

Unfortunately, confusion sometimes shows up between “pedagogical translation” and “translation pedagogy” (Leonardi, 2010, p.81) or in other words, between translation as a teaching tool for foreign language teaching and translation as the work of training translators, two of which were previously called “pedagogical translation” and “real translation” in succession by Klaudy (2003, p.133) Cook (2001) did noticed this and stated that “translation as a teaching technique is a different matter from translation as a goal of language teaching” (p.417) As a result, a clear distinction between those two notions should be made

Some studies have been conducted in order to clarify such matter The pioneer in this campaign should be Delisle (1980), when he wrote the lines below:

real translation is basically a performance itself (performance target) whereas pedagogical translation is merely a test of competence (competence target and competence source) which merges into a broader pedagogical package (p.4)

Here, Delisle emphasized the difference between the targets of those two translation types In simple words, real translation aims at the translated product while pedagogical translation is a tool for identifying or assessing learners‟ language competence This way of distinction, despite its needs to be complemented and developed a lot is obviously of great value in this field and has been taken by various authors and researchers

Echoing Delisle‟s viewpoint, on the attempt to clarify such differences, Leonardi (2010) made his remark that pedagogical translation is regarded as a teaching tool used to teach and learn a foreign language whereas translation pedagogy refers to the work of teaching translation for translators His remark on the dissimilarity of the two kinds of translation is clear and acceptable but still rather vague

In 1995, a distinction between “school translation” and “professional translation” (p.26-27) was made by Gile In his words, school translation, as “the most widespread and best known type of translation” (p.26), is employed in schools and universities so as to foster foreign language learners‟ language competency School translation is designed for the sake of students and aims at the development in their language performance On the contrary, professional translation is an act of

“communication enabling” whose major goal is to “help people who speak different languages communicate in specific situations” (p.27) Translators are there, lending their hands whenever people encounter language barriers Moreover, while school translation focuses on language and learners, professional translation attaches special importance to the content of language or in other words, the text that needs translating Correspondingly, the use of translation as a tool for teaching foreign language considerably differs from the work of teaching translation to train translators

In accordance with Klaudy (2003, p.133), there are two kinds of translation including “pedagogical translation” and “real translation”, both of which should be distinguished evidently Here I would like to briefly compare those two translation types via three factors, which are goal, function and “receiver” according to Klaudy‟s (2003) viewpoint

As Alonso and Goitia (2015) once stated, “In pedagogical translation it is not the message that matters, but the acquisition and improvement of the language itself” (p.133) In terms of goal, pedagogical translation is employed to help language learners raise their foreign language proficiency Conversely, real translation aims

to transfer information about reality in the source text into the target language

Regarding function, pedagogical translation is an “instrumental kind of translation” (Vermes, 2010, p.83) In the process of such translation, the language skills, knowledge as well as performance of learners are improved and the translated text can be used to assess their proficiency In contrast, the translated text or the product

of the translating act is the very target of real translation

Between the addressees of those two translation kinds, there are also differences In pedagogical translation, the receiver is the foreign language teacher, who desire to get data of learners‟ proficiency or foster their language competency whereas in real translation, the addressee is a reader who needs some information about reality in the target language

In spite of the differences in the use of words, the authors above all strive to develop appropriate taxonomy between two kinds of translation:

- One is considered as a pedagogical tool for foreign language teaching

- The other as a tool for professional translator training

In this paper, Klaudy‟s (2003) distinction is used as a basis on which essential features of pedagogical translation are clarified Additionally, in the following chapters, the word pedagogical translation is often shortened to “translation” Therefore, when the word “translation” is mentioned, it should be understood as pedagogical translation

2.4 Translation in some foreign language teaching approaches

As a potential tool for foreign language teaching, pedagogical translation has obtained its place in EFL classrooms Nevertheless, as mentioned in the previous sections, the use of translation is among the most controversial issues in this field A lot of studies as well as discussions have been carried out as ceaseless attempts to defend or oppose its position This, mostly or partly, is because of its bond with the Grammar-Translation Method (GTM) in the past Throughout the history of foreign language teaching, from the birth of GTM in 19th century to the advent of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) or Communicative Approach in 20thcentury, various kinds of treatment for translation have been displayed Pedagogical translation, which used to be one of the dominant teaching tools in EFL teaching, has gradually fallen out of favor and is even banned from curriculum in certain places The use of such tool depends a lot on the teaching method applied Thus, a brief overview of the position of translation in successive approaches of EFL teaching is obviously necessary in order to draw out some conclusions about its role

in the field This paper only focuses on five teaching approaches including grammar-translation method, community language learning, direct method, audio-lingual method and communicative approach

in foreign language pedagogy is usually thought to be bound up with the GTM This method of foreign language teaching is one of the most traditional methods which appeared first in the 19th century It was originally invented to teach languages such

as Latin and Greek (Vizental, 2008) Such method dominated the language scene up until 1940s Grammar-Translation method focuses on “grammar rules, memorization of vocabulary and of various declensions and conjugations, [as well as] translation of texts, [and] doing written exercises” (Brown, 1994, p.16) Specially, Brown (1994) also stated that in such method, grammar codes are considered as a basis for translating from foreign/second language to the first Reading and writing are the major skills focused and the first language dominates the classrooms Communicating with native speakers as well as communicative skills like listening and speaking is not appreciated In GTM, pedagogical translation is one of the main learning activities in classroom According to Chang (2011), Grammar-Translation method aims to “make language learning easier” and its main feature is “the replacement of traditional texts by exemplary sentences” (p.15) There is great controversy around this approach Some linguists support its use in EFL classrooms while some do not In 2012, Mondal made a remark that despite its disadvantages, GTM can enhance students‟ understanding of the target language On the contrary, Brown (1994) did not think such method should be used because it cannot improve a student‟s communicative ability in the language As

time goes by, in the context of globalization, the reasons for learning a foreign language has shifted from reading literary works to communicating with foreigners

As a result, Grammar-Translation method as well as pedagogical translation has fallen out of favor Nonetheless, “in modified form it (GTM) continues to be widely used in some parts of the world today” (Richards & Rodgers, 1986, p.4-5)

2.4.2 Community Language Learning

Community language learning (CLL) is a second language teaching method initially developed by Charles Arthur Curran (1913-1978) in the early 1970s Unlike other methods, CLL attaches special importance to affective factors in language learning such as language anxiety, motivation and attitude Thus, teachers usually encourage students to share their feelings about the learning process so that appropriate adjustments can be conducted The interesting thing is that students are provided with no textbooks or syllabus and have to work together to decide what they learn through meaningful conversations In CLL, learners are allowed to use their native languages until they feel confident enough to employ the foreign one In typical beginning lessons, students often sit in a circle, speaking out in their mother tongue The teacher, who is outside the circle, then translates the content into the target language so that the learners can repeat it This technique is used frequently until students can produce texts in L2 without the translation of teacher In the journey of language learning, students gradually improve themselves on the attempt to reach a state of independence of the counselor In this “counseling-learning” model, students are regarded as “clients” who receive support and instructions from a

“counselor” (teacher) The target of CLL is to create a durable connection between students and teacher in order to facilitate the language teaching and learning process Such relationship is indeed important, as Brown (1994) commented:

In order for any learning to take place, as has already been noted in Carl Roger’s model, what is first needed is for the members to interact in an interpersonal relationship in which students and teacher join together to facilitate learning in a context of valuing and prizing each individual in the group (p.59)

In addition, activities often used in this method are translation, tape recording, reflection on experience and group discussion or presentation

All in all, pedagogical translation, as a language teaching tool, is used in Community language learning method to support the learning of students when they are not qualified enough to effectively use the target language Therefore, in this approach, the role of translation is without doubts essential

2.4.3 Direct method

Even in its heyday, Grammar-Translation method received much criticism This is mainly due to its overemphasis on teaching grammar rules, written language and vocabulary without offering chances for learners to communicate in real situation (Brown, 1994) As a result, in the late 19th century, a movement in foreign/second language pedagogy emerged as a reaction to such shortcoming It is called the

“reform movement” This leads to reformed ideas in the field of foreign language teaching such as the focus on spoken language, the use of conversation in classrooms, teaching grammar inductively and specially the ban on pedagogical translation Following such innovative spirit, the direct method showed up as part of the so-called Natural approach, whose essence is that the process of learning a foreign language should resemble how a child acquires his mother-tongue in a natural way (Sanchez, 2009) This language teaching method, together with other innovative ones like Natural method, Conversation method, Communicative approach contributed a lot to the dismissal of the GTM (Malmkjær, 1998) Direct method is one of the most outstanding achievements of the attempts to make foreign language learning more like first language learning In this teaching method, the foreign/second language is the dominant one in class The use of the mother tongue

is regarded as an infringement of its core principle of complete exposure to the target language Correspondingly, textbooks are designed in the foreign language and learners are not permitted to use their first language (Siefert, 2013) In classroom, most time is devoted to the oral interaction between teacher and students

in L2 and written language is employed only after learners have got reasonably

good performance in oral language Thus there is no room for pedagogical translation here It is banned from the curriculum as a prevention of using the first language Such disfavor is obviously displayed in Gouin‟s statement (1892):

The classical method, with its grammar, its dictionary, and its translations, is a delusion – nothing but a delusion Nature knows and applies another method Her method is infallible; this is an undeniable, indisputable fact And with this method all children are equally apt in learning languages Do they not all learn their mother-tongue, and this within a time sensibly the same? (Gouin, 1892, p.35)

2.4.4 Audio-Lingual method

The birth of Audio-Lingual method (ALM) depended much on the historical contexts By the mid-20th century, after the US joined the Second World War, the Army Specialized Training Program was conducted at some universities so that military personnel can fluently communicate with other in various foreign languages The focus in foreign language pedagogy then was shifted from written to spoken skills Grammar-Translation method was totally worthless here due to its emphasis on written language and lack of communicative chances provided Similarly, the Direct Method was not suitable for this situation because of the shortage of pedagogical material (Sanchez, 2009) Accordingly, a new approach was indeed necessary to get military purposes at that time Fortunately, the Audio-Lingual method appeared in time The method was inspired and developed on the basis of both behaviorism in psychology and structuralism in linguistics The essence of this method, as Rivers (1964) stated, is the assumption that foreign language learning is actually a process of forming habits and reaching automation Like Direct method, Audio-Lingual method is also an oral-based approach in which oral language is given a priority However, Direct method focuses on vocabulary acquisition by using it in certain situations whereas ALM “drills students in the use

of grammatical sentence patterns” (Larsen-Freeman, 2000, p.36) Correspondingly, language learners are able to learn grammatical points as well as their pragmatic uses By over-learning the foreign language, students are believed to use it automatically In such process, new habits will be created and surpass the old ones

in their mother-tongue In the method, teachers employ a lot of dialogs through which new vocabulary and sentence patterns are displayed then such dialogues are taught through imitation and repetition (Larsen-Freeman, 2000) Popular techniques

in use are drills, gap-filling, memorization, grammar games, and etc About the use

of translation in Audio-Lingual method, Vizental (2008) gave a straightforward remark:

20th century audio-lingual teachers suggested teaching the foreign language by using it exclusively No explanation in or translation into the students‟ native tongue was allowed in their classes: all instructions had to be given in the target language, and meanings were explained with the help of visuals, realia (real objects), paralanguage, and demonstration (Vizental, 2008, p.31–32)

In his statement above, pedagogical translation, as a teaching tool, does not get a place in ALM This phenomenon is easily understandable since the use of L1 here is considered as interference for students to get higher foreign language proficiency

2.4.5 Communicative approach

In the second half of the 20th century, foreign language teachers noticed that a lot of their students were able to use sentences or words correctly when learning but could not do the same in real situations outside the classrooms Meanwhile, labor with the ability to communicate well in various languages was in great demand In such urgent circumstance, a new approach should be the best solution Correspondingly, Communicative approach or Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) was first introduced in the late 1970s as a response to the defects of previous approaches and

an attempt to meet the needs for worldwide communication in the context of globalization The focus in foreign language pedagogy was then shifted to communicative proficiency or communicative competence Learners then were supposed not only to acquire good skills and knowledge but to apply what they learned in suitable situations as well Such approach, in accordance with Basta (2011), proved that social and cultural knowledge are preconditions for comprehending and effective employing language forms In classrooms, teachers

play the role of facilitators who go around the room giving advice, promoting and sometimes attending conversations Students are provided with opportunities for using language in a lot of communicative activities like role plays or language games One of the most typical features of Communicative approach is the use of authentic materials These, beyond doubts, are useful tools for language learners to get familiar with real language in use and learn communicative strategies for interactions outside the classroom In addition, in CLT “language functions might

be emphasized over forms” (Larsen-Freeman, 2000, p.131) A great number of linguistic forms along with how to use them in different communicative circumstances are provided and explained by language teachers The first move should be made with simple forms then more complicated ones should do after students‟ proficiency in L2 is improved Regarding the place of translation, the Communicative Approach puts priority for “meaning input in L2” (Machida, 2008, p.141) Thus the employment of the mother tongue as well as pedagogical translation is restricted but not banned just like in the common beliefs Larsen-

Freeman (2000), in his famous book Techniques and Principles in Language

Teaching also stated that translation can be employed but in a smart way For more

specific details, Vizental (2008) wrote that the use of the first language is acceptable when it takes much time to explain things in the target language and pedagogical translation also gets a place in CLT

2.5 Pros and cons of the use of translation in foreign language classroom

[…] translation can be like medicine, which, when administered in the right dose and way, has a curative effect, and otherwise, when used injudiciously, it can also prove harmful (Shiyab & Abdullateef, 2001, p.7)

The usefulness of pedagogical translation, as a potential teaching tool, has always been a matter of debate throughout the history of foreign language pedagogy A lot

of studies have been carried out in order to clarify features of this teaching tool and draw some conclusions about its values In this section, a lot of arguments of some

researchers and educators, both for and against the use of translation will be briefly stated and summarized

2.5.1 Arguments against translation

As mentioned in previous sections, the protests against the use of translation appear

to be among various forms of reaction to the weaknesses of the Translation Method, the dominant method in foreign language classroom from the

Grammar-19th century to the next Several remarks have been put forward on the shortcomings

of pedagogical translation towards teaching and learning foreign languages

First and foremost, translation results in the use of the native language, which is considered as negative interference in learner‟s process of complete exposure to the target language by proponents of Direct Method, Audio-Lingual Method or CLT One of the strongest voices against such weakness is from Bloomfield (1933) when

he pointed out that:

“Translation into the native language is bound to mislead the learner, because the semantic units of different languages do not match, and because the student, under the practiced stimulus of the native form, is almost certain to forget the foreign one” (p.505)

In the argument above, Bloomfield stated that each language has different semantic features, which can lead to misunderstanding in the translation process The presence of the mother tongue here is nothing but a roadblock on students‟ path to higher target language proficiency On the same viewpoint, Leffa (2012) also wrote that students should avoid using their first language so that more time can be given

to the foreign language practice This move, according to her, will help learners form habits of using L2 and gradually make it natural In accordance with Pan and Pan (2012), translation requires the use of two languages, which limits the opportunities for students to get “sufficient FL input” (p.4) Furthermore, Heltai (1989) even called this teaching tool “a dangerous exercise” (p.292) because it heightens the employment of the source language

The second defect of translation lies in its emphasis on written language, which is generally believed to give little or almost no time to oral skills practice This belief obviously results from the effects of the Grammar-Translation Method During its golden era, written translation tasks dominated foreign language classrooms, leaving no room for communication Correspondingly, when talking about translation, few people link it to oral language even though it can actually be performed orally (Vermes, 2010) In 2006, Carreres displayed his viewpoint on this shortcoming, considering translation as an “artificial exercise” (p.5) that merely focuses on reading and writing skills but neglects communicative activities Kupske (2015), when providing in-depth analysis of GTM, mentioned translation as “the key of this method” which always puts written language on top of the list of priorities and leaves almost no space for listening and speaking (p.55) Zhao (2015) also stated that using pedagogical translation for a long time can have negative impacts on ESP (English for Special Purposes) learners‟ speaking skills This is because translation tasks require students to read, think and then write down the product In such process, almost no communicative acts are conducted

At the third point, under several authors‟ eyes, translation is regarded as an

“unnatural, artifact and stilted activity” (Korosec, 2013, p.66) In GTM, students used to translate fabricated and out-of-context sentences invented by language teachers which are not the same as those in real conversations outside the classroom This phenomenon, especially to educators who think that the process of learning a foreign language should resemble that of the mother tongue, limits students‟ FL acquisition When summarizing the main reasons for the fall of pedagogical translation in language teaching pedagogy, Malmkjaer (1998) classified translation as an unnatural activity More specifically, Sankey (1991) argued that translation tasks cannot boost the natural process of learning a foreign language as they are not connected to that of the mother tongue Along similar lines, Carresres (2006) put forward the viewpoint that translation exercises are worthless, with no similarities to what happens in the real world since language learners usually translate from their first language to the target one but do not operate conversely

Fourthly, pedagogical translation is believed to prevent students from thinking in the foreign language, through which restricts such language proficiency Obviously, the use of translation in language classroom requires the presence of both the first and the target language Thus this interference of the mother tongue may affect how students view things in the foreign language In accordance with Malmkjaer (1998), translation when used as a teaching tool makes students think and manifest their ideas in their native language, not the foreign one This results in the habit of thinking, organizing opinions in the mother tongue and translating them into the target language Therefore, language learners may have difficulties in improving their natural communicative reactions in actual situations Nation (2014), when discussing about one learning activity called “word cards” in the book “What do you need to know to learn a foreign language?” also admitted that there exist viewpoints opposing the use of this acitivity since it tends to encourage thinking in the native language instead of the foreign one In line with the above arguments, Korosec (2013) wrote that translation is believed to cause the learners to “view the language through the prism of their mother tongue”, through which limits their opportunities to have thoughts in the second language (p.69)

Last but not least, there exist arguments against the adequacy of translation as a teaching tool at initial learning stages Famous authors supporting this point of view believe that pedagogical translation is not suitable for language learners at beginner‟s level since such teaching tool requires reasonably significant proficiency

of the target language, which cannot be obtained without great time and efforts As one of the first authors to oppose the use of pedagogical translation in early periods

of the teaching process, Marsh (1987) argued that translation is not a desirable task for beginners Heltai (1996) even went further when stating that intermediate learners of a foreign language are not capable of dealing with the translation work at the true meaning of the text To him, the translation here is but a decoding and coding process in which most learners work with the semantic meaning of the term but fail to transfer its implication This is also the distinctive feature of learners‟ translation, which differs greatly from the work of professional translators In 2011,

Mogahed reasserted such angle in his article “To use or not to use translation in language teaching” In his words, students need to go further than beginner‟s level, becoming quite proficient in the foreign language in order to complete the translation tasks productively Korosec (2013), when talking over the objections towards translation, believed that pedagogical translation seems to be at its best usefulness when employed at the advanced stage of teaching and learning a foreign language On the contrary, if used at early stages, it involves “many uncertainties and insufficiencies” (p.70)

2.5.2 Arguments for translation

“Like nature, the L1 creeps back in, however many times you throw it out with a pitchfork” (Cook, 2001, p.405)

In spite of several claims against the use of translation in foreign language pedagogy, a lot of studies show that pedagogical translation can be “a great aid to

FL teaching” (Fernandez-Guerra, 2014, p.154) Under the eyes of many researchers and educators, the role of translation in FL classroom is undeniable and needs promoting Boshrabadi (2014) once claimed that the loud protests against the use of translation in foreign language teaching result from “a limited view of translation on the part of teacher” (p.384) Furthermore, according to Malmkjaer (1998), such objections to translation can be antagonized because of the lack of sufficient experimental research Thus in this section I would like to present some angles of famous authors and educators advocating translation in language teaching Specifically, these viewpoints will be displayed as counter-arguments to those stated in the previous section, with the same order of presentation

For openers, the standpoint of authors who oppose the use of translation because of its involvement in L1 interference such as Bloomfield (1933), Leffa (2012), Pan and Pan (2012) and Heltai (1989) has been put into questions and encountered adverse opinions The key to the issue lies in the question: “Does the presence of L1 in L2 teaching process really restricts students‟ SLA (Second Language Acquisition) or not?” To several researchers, in fact, the use of L1 in Fl classroom is not

interference but an assisting factor towards foreign language teaching and learning Cook (2001) believed that if translation activities are employed appropriately in FL classrooms, it can be a significant reinforcement for second language teaching and learning According to Titford (1985), while learning a foreign language, learners

do employ their first language as a supportive tool by silent translating a text, through which enhances their SLA Atkinson (1987) focused on the function of L1 that enables students to learn from each other In his opinion, the use of L1 can help language learners check their understanding of teacher‟s instructions as well as what other students said Furthermore, learners can also get better in organizing thoughts and picking appropriate words to express their ideas Regarding teacher‟s part, Mallol (2003) pointed out that if teacher uses L1 to transfer the meaning of L2, give instructions, explain grammar points or manage the class, students can better understand the content and gradually know how to use the mother tongue to assist their learning In addition, it is believed that the native language can be used together with the foreign one for better teaching efficacy Nation (2003), in his study on the role of L1 in Asian EFL (English as a Foreign Language) context, mentioned the necessity for a “balanced approach” (p.7) which not only maximizes the use of L2 but ensures the role of L1 as well Boshrabadi (2014) also argued that

FL teachers can employ both L1 and L2 as a “complementary and supportive stimulus” (p.385)

The second wave of attack on the use of pedagogical translation springs from the opinion that this teaching tool only focuses on reading and writing but provides no chances for listening and speaking practice Thus it is not a communicative activity

In fact, some studies have showed the contrary Vermes (2010), in a sort of argument, stated that translation can be carried out in an unwritten way and can also

counter-be used as a tool to develop learner‟s spoken language fluency In line with Vermes‟s standpoint, Leonardi (2011) believed that as a potential teaching tool, translation actually “presupposes the use of both oral and written skills” (p.19) To her, such tool can be used not only to develop language learners‟ communicative competence but to improve listening, speaking, reading and writing skills as well In

2014, Al-Amri and Abdul-Raof reasserted such argument when stating that translation can be incorporated into the teaching of other four skills as a supportive activity Such strategy can be of great value since it does fortify both language teaching and learning Additionally, Ross (2000) considered translation as the fifth skill which stimulates communication beside the existing four As she stated, in the process of translating, interaction and cooperation between teachers and students are necessary Furthermore, students are also supposed to discuss about the translation topic, through which their speaking skills are improved For these reasons, it can be

a useful teaching tool to enhance learners‟ communicative competence

Thirdly, although some aforementioned authors such as Korosec (2013), Malmkjaer (1998), Sankey (1991) and Carresres (2006) view pedagogical translation as an unnatural and artifact activity which does not reflect how things happen in real life, there are many counter-arguments for this angle As Duff (1989) asserted

“translation happens everywhere, all the time, so why not in the classroom?” (p.6)

As a matter of fact, even in foreign language learning, translation indeed happens as natural process When encountering a new language, people naturally link it with their first language and afterwards, automatically translate the text into that familiar language in mind (Leonardi, 2010) Deller and Rinvolucri (2002) once compared the native language with “the womb from which the second language is born” (p.4)

to reveal the fact that L1 cannot be completely separated from the process of SLA More specifically, Cook (2007) stated that there is always a place for L1 in L2 learners Also, all the knowledge of the new language is connected with that of the old one, despite the desire of language teachers Thus the mental act of translating a text to the mother tongue occurs evidently On the other hand, the argument that translation is a fake process faces with great objections as well According to Malmkjaer (1998), the key to the issue lies in how translation is implemented in FL classrooms He contended that if pedagogical translation activities are designed similarly enough to real-life translation, it can bring unexpected benefits like several other methods of foreign language teaching On the same standpoint, Ferreira (1999) wrote that “properly situated translation task can be as natural as any other

classroom activity” (p.361) In 2013, Korosec reclaimed such remark by stating that translation is a “real-life communicative activity” that can be employed in FL classrooms (p.66) Additionally, she argued that such objections against translation are only reasonable in the case of translating isolated sentences in artificial situations

At the fourth point, the voice against translation because it makes learners think in their mother tongue is still in hearted controversy To many researchers, the idea that FL learners are able to have complete thoughts in the target language is in great doubts In accordance with Cook (2007), it is impossible for students to stay away from the influence of their mother tongue because L1 is already carved on their minds, through which affects how they see things In fact, it is natural for language learners to draw upon their native language when learning a new one By this way, they can make comparisons between those two and get better use of both languages Lantolf and Thorne (2006) also shed some light on the issue by the argument that

“ late acquisition of languages beyond the first are laid down on the psychological foundation organized through the meanings internalized in one‟s first language; that is,

we may speak more than one language but we have only one inner speech What this means then is that our thinking processes are fundamentally carried out through the support (i.e mediation) provided by our first language” (p 110)

Evidently, the native language governs one‟s inner thoughts, however many foreign languages he/she has learnt after the first More specifically, in the article “Thinking

in English or translating fast”, Cardoso (2013) pointed out that when learning a foreign language at an older age, one do not think in such language but build up “a super fast ability to translate it” (p.34) So smoothly does this process happen that the mistaken thought that one can think in a foreign language arises

Finally, it is believed that pedagogical translation should not be used at early stages

of foreign language teaching since this strategy requires learners with good proficiency in L2 As reactions for such viewpoint, divergent arguments has been developed and got a lot of advocates For instance, Husain‟s findings (1995)

showed the opposite He wrote that translation is much more suitable for language learners at low and intermediate proficiency than those at higher levels According

to the author, translation strategies can improve English proficiency altogether and the higher level the students are at, the fewer benefits they gain from translation Along similar lines, Romanelli (2006) also supported the use of translation for students at beginner‟s level As he observed, beginners, with their limited knowledge and experience, may face great difficulties in their first encounter with a strange language, especially in monolingual class of L2 Thus translation should be the reinforcement for them to overcome such challenge Newmark (1991) even went further by revealing the usefulness of translation at almost all stages of language teaching His arguments on the issue are briefly summarized as below:

1 At initial stages: translation is a “brief time-saver”, which limits the chances

of wrongly guessing the meaning of words by learners (p.61)

2 At elementary stages: translation to L2 helps to manage and fortify basic grammar and vocabulary

3 At middle stages: translation back to L1 is useful for learners to handle errors and enrich their vocabulary

4 At advanced or final stage: translation is seen as the fifth skill which

“promotes communication and understanding between strangers” (p.62) Leonardi (2011) also dignified the value of translation as a pedagogical tool by contending that it can be “successfully employed at any level of proficiency and in any educational context” (p.22) He believed that translation is a useful teaching tool that can give efficient assistance and improvement to four language skills

For the abovementioned reasons, it is widely believed that translation deserves a place in FL classrooms as a useful teaching tool A large number of foreign language teachers and educators worldwide are in favor of using such potential teaching aid

2.6 English teaching and pedagogical translation in Vietnam

2.6.1 Some traits of English teaching and learning in Vietnam

Formerly, it is believed that teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in Vietnam, like that in most East Asian countries, is characterized by teacher-centered, book-centered and Grammar-Translation methods (Liu & Littlewood, 1997) In FL class, teacher is seen as the administrator and the only knowledge-provider This is obviously displayed in Le‟s remark (2001):

Central to pedagogical practices in Vietnam is the traditional view of the student relationship This view supports teacher-centred methods and a structured curriculum The teacher is supposed to be the only provider of knowledge and therefore is highly respected by the students, students' parents, and the society as a whole What the teacher or the textbook says is unquestionably standard norms (p.35)

teacher-In such teacher-centered method, language learners just listen to teacher‟s explanations or models then repeat and copy down Reading together with writing tasks are popular whereas interaction in class is limited and little time is reserved for oral skills As Le (2013) put it, under impacts of the traditional method (GTM), students are provided with so many grammar rules, reading tasks and vocabulary, which limits their speaking and listening skills

Le (2001) also acknowledged a sorrowful reality that certificates are put before competence in foreign language pedagogy in Vietnam A lot of teachers just care about the pass rate of their students in examinations but pay little attention to the effective teaching Evidently, as Hoang (1999) stated, “students may achieve the highest scores in the exams but fail to show their excellence in real life performance” (p.79)

Regarding students‟ part, they employ passive learning strategies in class and hesitate to communicate Since the teacher is the controller, students have to follow all his instructions and orders with respect This is well displayed in the popular motto hung in almost all classrooms: “Tien hoc le, hau hoc van” (Study manners

first then read and write) Such phenomenon, in accordance with Le (2001), may be mostly due to the effects of Confucianism He once argued that:

Influenced by Confucianism, students feel rude if they interrupt, question, or argue with their teacher Language activities such as role-plays, problem-solving tasks, or information gap activities are strange to their culture of learning When they fail to understand something, they are not daring enough to ask for clarification in public for fear of losing face They are not proactive enough to initiate interaction (p.36)

In the context of globalization, this deep cultural impact is indeed a roadblock in the path of foreign language teaching renovation since such passive learning style contributes almost nothing to learner‟s communicative competence Fortunately, things have changed, giving signs of bright prospects

For one thing, the MOET (Ministry of Education and Training) has recognized the essential role of English communicative competence and taken measures to improve English teaching In 2008, the National Foreign Language 2020, a 12-year-project with the emphasis on English was launched with the purpose “to renovate thoroughly the tasks of teaching and learning foreign language within national education system, to implement a new program on teaching and learning foreign language at every school levels and training degrees” (Socialist Republic of Vietnam, Decision no.1400) Correspondingly, as stated by Nguyen and Nguyen (2016), teaching EFL in Vietnam has changed over “communicative-focused instruction” (p.283) in the past few decades CLT has been a focus in FL teaching in Vietnam

For another thing, a number of studies have been conducted on the implementation

of communicative approach in Vietnamese context Le (2001) emphasized the role

of cultural factors in language teaching by his argument “a culturally-adapted communicative approach can work well in Vietnamese classrooms” (p.38) He also pointed out some difficulties towards the use of CLT in language classrooms including teachers‟ low English proficiency, large-size-class, the shortage of teaching time and of facilities and limitations in support Focusing on grammar

teaching, Khuong (2015) suggested a new way of teaching English grammar, in which 3Ps stages (presentation, practice, production) maintained but “grammar items can be taught concurrently with context through communicative tasks” (p.75) Besides, Nguyen and Nguyen (2016) found that the use of CSs (Communicative Strategies) in language classroom can be of great values such as enhancing learners‟ awareness of CSs, improving their communication efficacy and giving them confidence during oral interaction

2.6.2 Pedagogical translation in English teaching in Vietnam

As a potential teaching tool, translation has been employed in EFL classes since this language was introduced into Vietnamese education Unfortunately, the number of research involving this kind of teaching aid is rather inconsiderable Nonetheless, there are also some studies carried out as attempts to clarify the use of translation in

FL pedagogy in Vietnam Given Pham‟s remarks (2005), translation is used as assistance to English teaching in Vietnam “as a means of instruction, as a testing device, and as an optional skill in the language teacher training program, rather than

as an independent discipline” (p.29) On her standpoint, pedagogical translation, though can be conducted for learners at any level of English proficiency, is not used

to enhance Vietnamese students‟ communicative competence Actually, even in many classes at universities where students majored in English are trained, teachers sometimes depends on translation and Vietnamese to give lessons Moreover, in her research, Pham (2005) also mentioned the employment of translation as a sub-major

in the training programs for “a BA in English Philology, English Language and Literature, or Applied Linguistics” (p.30) In such programs, students are provided with basic knowledge, principles and skills of translation, which can be much helpful not only to their English acquisition but to their future job as well, if they choose to be a translator or an interpreter Regarding the usefulness of translation, Bui and Nguyen (2014) also achieved some valuable findings In their research on the use of Vietnamese in EFL classes, they argued that translation can be a great supportive tool since translation from English into Vietnamese helps with saving