Introduction
Rationale of the study
English has emerged as a global lingua franca, primarily used by non-native speakers, leading to the development of distinct varieties such as Indian and Singaporean English This evolution highlights that English is no longer confined to the norms of native speakers from the Anglosphere, but has adopted new characteristics that reflect its diverse global usage.
English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) plays a significant role in higher education, as institutions aim to enhance their global appeal and rankings by providing an increasing number of programs taught in English to attract international students.
English-Medium Instruction (EMI) classrooms typically consist of students from varied cultural and linguistic backgrounds, where English is not their first language and functions as a lingua franca (ELF) These programs are appealing to parents who believe that enrolling their children will improve their foreign language skills in tandem with content knowledge, thanks to regular and immersive exposure to English materials and instruction.
In such complex academic settings where all participants operate on diverse kinds of
“Englishes”, they are met with the challenges to manage differences in communication and negotiate constantly to co-construct meaning, especially on the lecturers’ part In other words, to
To facilitate mutual understanding and effectively convey knowledge, instructors must implement specific pragmatic strategies and discourse practices (Bjorkman, 2010) This can occur both subconsciously, through the repetition of key phrases or the use of elicitation questions to assess student comprehension, and purposefully, as lecturers actively modify their speech to better suit their students' needs.
On the students’ side, they also have to make effort in order to achieve mutual intelligibility by adjusting their speech, or in other words, employing pragmatic techniques
However, much research has been focused on phonology and morpho-syntax, and there is a lack of empirical descriptions of ELF pragmatics (Taguchi & Ishihara, 2018) Similarly,
Seidlhofer (2011) highlighted the need for more research on the analysis of pragmatics in English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), noting its underrepresentation In response, this study investigates how foreign lecturers and Vietnamese students utilize pragmatic strategies to achieve their communicative and professional goals in academic contexts The research focuses on audio-recorded undergraduate lectures, analyzing discourse to identify common pragmatic patterns, including repetition and phrasing, among others.
Research Objectives
Based on the aforementioned purpose, the study aims to address the following questions:
Question 1: What kinds of pragmatic strategies are employed by ELF participants in academic lectures?
Question 2: How often are pragmatic strategies used among ELF lecturers and learners?
Significance of the study
This research addresses a significant gap in the literature on English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) pragmatics, particularly in academic settings, which have received less attention compared to other contexts like business and casual conversations While studies on ELF communication exist in some Asian countries, such as Lee (2013) and Kaur (2011), there is a notable lack of research focused on Vietnam With the increasing internationalization of higher education institutions in Vietnam, this study aims to illuminate the complexities of ELF pragmatics in academic environments It will provide valuable insights for English Medium Instruction (EMI) teachers and students about essential linguistic strategies for effective communication in the classroom Additionally, by analyzing real interactions in EMI settings, the research offers critical implications for language-in-education policymakers and university administrators regarding the necessary language support and preparation for implementing international EMI programs.
This research significantly contributes to the development of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) in Vietnam, highlighting the current reliance on native speaker norms in English education Vietnamese students often prepare for EMI programs by taking standardized tests like IELTS and TOEFL, which reinforce these native speaker standards Consequently, exposure to diverse English varieties is limited, as students primarily encounter British and American English Additionally, Oda (2019) points out that many English teachers tend to uphold the belief in the superiority of native speakers.
The importance of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) in international higher education institutions (HEIs) is often overlooked, as language competence is frequently deemed unimportant in English Medium Instruction (EMI) and viewed merely as a tool for teaching (Jenkins, 2009) This oversight can hinder student interactions in EMI classrooms, which are inherently ELF environments Therefore, this research aims to raise awareness of ELF and its characteristics within EMI contexts, ultimately better preparing Vietnamese students for effective communication in future ELF settings.
Structure of the thesis
This article is structured into five key sections, beginning with an Introduction that outlines the motivation and necessity for the study, along with an overview of its structure The subsequent chapter reviews and analyzes the current literature on English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) pragmatics, highlighting the identified research gap.
The Methodology section outlines the techniques and processes employed to gather and analyze classroom data Subsequently, the findings were examined in depth using the framework established in section three Finally, the researcher articulated conclusions and proposed implications for future research on English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) pragmatics.
Literature Review
English as a Lingua Franca
The term "Lingua Franca" originated in the 1200s when Arabic-speaking traders created a common language to communicate with Europeans, known as "Franks," who did not speak Arabic This language was designed for interaction among speakers of different languages and had no native speakers (Adler, 1977) Similarly, English today functions as a global "English as a Lingua Franca" (ELF), serving as a contact language for individuals who do not share a common native language or culture, effectively acting as a bridge for international communication (Firth, 1996, p.240).
The early understanding of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) focused primarily on non-native speakers (NNS) from diverse linguistic backgrounds, often excluding native speakers (NS) from this community Initial research, such as that by Mauranen, suggested that ELF serves as a vehicular language solely for those without a shared native language However, recent studies have challenged this perspective, asserting that native speakers are integral to ELF interactions, as they contribute significantly to international communication.
The investigation of native speaker (NS) presence in English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) is essential, as highlighted by Suviniitty (2012) This perspective emphasizes that ELF encompasses English used across all of Kachru’s concentric circles, reflecting its use in various international contexts and involving both native speakers and non-native speakers (NNS) Seidlhofer supports this inclusive view of ELF.
In the realm of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), scholars like Seidlhofer (2013) and Kecskes (2019) argue for the inclusion of native speakers (NS) alongside non-native speakers (NNS) in ELF interactions, challenging the notion that ELF is merely a pidgin form used within NNS communities Seidlhofer emphasizes that NS, while not the majority in ELF contexts, play a significant role in intercultural communication The VOICE database supports this by documenting NS interactions, reinforcing their relevance in ELF studies Ute (2010) highlights the necessity of including monolingual L1 English speakers in ELF discussions, ultimately asserting that both NS and NNS are valid participants in ELF communication.
The nature of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) is characterized by three key features (Kecskes, 2019) Firstly, ELF speakers come from diverse linguacultural backgrounds and communicate in a shared language that is not their native tongue Secondly, ELF lacks a standardized form, making it challenging to define through fixed norms or rules Kecskes noted that ELF speakers often create their own norms during brief interactions Additionally, Solin and Hynninen (2018) emphasized the importance of recognizing the creativity of individual ELF users over adherence to native speaker norms in specific contexts This highlights that ELF users often form temporary communities based on their unique communication styles.
7 speech through various discourse strategies to accommodate each other These features of ELF are also present in academic settings
The increasing prevalence of English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) is closely linked to the emergence of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), reflecting the global nature of these trends (Kecskes, 2019) This diverse environment within higher education institutions provides researchers with a unique opportunity to explore the complexities surrounding the use of global English in academic settings.
Despite the growing body of literature on English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) communication, research on ELF as an educational medium remains limited, reflecting its increasing significance in educational contexts Investigations into ELF in educational discourse are still in the early stages, highlighting a gap in research despite the numerous language-related challenges encountered by teachers and students in English Medium Instruction (EMI) at the tertiary level.
Due to the usually inadequate and disparate level of English proficiency within a class, ELF students often grapple with lecture comprehension and communication (Macaro et al.,
A study by Airey et al (2017) highlighted that Swedish science students with inadequate English proficiency struggled to follow lessons and complete tasks, even when they understood the content This indicates a need for additional support from English Medium Instruction (EMI) lecturers in areas such as language use and learner support to ensure lectures are comprehensible (Gundermann, 2014) However, awareness of this need is lacking among some instructors, as evidenced by Griffiths and Beretta's (1991) research, which found that six L2 EMI teachers made minimal adjustments when teaching English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) learners.
8 ranged from NS, high-proficiency L2 English users to low L2 English proficiency group This is understandable, as the main job of EMI instructors is to deliver disciplinary knowledge in
Many English lecturers are not formally trained in language teaching or applied linguistics, which can lead to a lack of understanding regarding the challenges faced by L2 learners (Flowerdew, 1994; Siegel, 2020) This issue is especially prevalent among native speaker (NS) lecturers A study by Jenkins (2014) involving 34 international students at a UK university highlighted that these students often encounter difficulties in their learning experiences.
NS lecturers much harder to understand compared to the NNS ones, primarily due to the NS lecturers’ lack of intercultural awareness
In ELF academic lectures, it is essential for both lecturers and students to develop skills for negotiating meaning and accommodating each other as part of pragmatic strategies Despite the importance of this need, awareness among academic communities and language professionals has been slow to develop (Mauranen, 2012) Consequently, there should be an increased focus on researching the pragmatic strategies employed in ELF lectures, particularly regarding how EMI instructors facilitate information transfer and foster rapport within their classrooms.
Pragmatics of English as a Lingua Franca
2.2.1 Definition and features of ELF pragmatics
As mentioned earlier, ELF communication can best be regarded as a special type of intercultural communication, and thus the pragmatics of ELF involves interactants negotiating
In the realm of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), code-switching, code-mixing, and discourse strategies play a crucial role in the negotiation of forms and meanings (House, 2010) Walkinshaw (2022) highlights three key strands that define ELF pragmatics, drawing on Taguchi and Ishihara’s (2018) comprehensive analysis of 27 publications.
9 on ELF pragmatics, namely: (1) speech acts, (2) the joint effort to mutual understanding, and (3) language creativity
ELF users collaboratively shape the illocutionary force through dynamic speech act sequences that adapt to specific contexts and speaker resources Unlike conventional speech acts, ELF communication emerges organically during turn-taking, emphasizing the need for clear and comprehensible exchanges This highlights that ELF speech acts prioritize negotiation over rigid appropriateness rules, which should be assessed based on immediate situational contexts While much research has focused on interactional competence, ELF speech act analysis emphasizes the perlocutionary effects and shared interaction goals Studies by Schnurr and Zayts illustrate how participants shift from refusal to acceptance in response to persistent requests, showcasing the goal-oriented nature of ELF interactions Additionally, Naoko and Nariko (2018) found that ELF participants work together to negotiate face and power relations for mutual solutions Interestingly, negative speech acts, such as complaints or disagreements, are often tolerated and not viewed as inappropriately direct.
ELF pragmatic competence involves collaborative efforts to achieve mutual understanding using various communicative strategies and discourse devices These resources focus on adaptation, problem-solving, and affiliation, which have been thoroughly examined in research.
Research on English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) highlights the importance of discourse markers, such as "you know" and "I think," in facilitating intersubjectivity and connectivity among learners at a German university (House, 2013) General expressions, like "stuff like that," help organize conversations and maintain social harmony (Metsa-Ketela, 2016) Studies show that these discourse-level strategies enable ELF users to sustain conversational flow, with misunderstandings primarily arising from ambiguity rather than grammatical errors (Naoko & Nariko, 2018; Kaur, 2011) To address communication challenges, ELF speakers employ self-repair and self-correction techniques Additionally, Hynninen (2011) found that ELF interactants engage in collaborative repair, working together to establish common ground in their discussions.
ELF pragmatics showcases the creativity of ELF speakers in developing unique language devices and formulaic expressions that often diverge from native speakers' fixed idioms (Kecskes, 2019) By blending their first language with English, they create a hybrid language that effectively communicates in various contexts This adaptive strategy compensates for their limited exposure to English's idiomatic expressions, enabling them to respond to conversational demands despite the pressure Kecskes emphasizes that this innovative use of language should be viewed positively, reflecting a creative output rather than a deficiency in English proficiency The perceived unnaturalness from a native speaker's viewpoint arises from shared background knowledge and non-standard phrasing, rather than a lack of conceptual understanding Kecskes illustrates this with coined phrases like "rest the sleeping lion" and "illuminate cigarette," which serve as temporary communicative extensions.
The English language system allows for creative expressions, even if they may not be conventional ELF speakers often employ metaphorical phrases like "skip from my thoughts," "preserve my face," or "take a school," showcasing their innovative use of language.
In ELF pragmatics, a key characteristic is the effort to establish solidarity and rapport among participants, which helps create intimacy and reduce social gaps within the group Research indicates that speakers employ various politeness strategies, such as humor, teasing, and self-denigration, to foster connection and minimize perceived arrogance Furthermore, ELF speakers negotiate their norms of appropriateness to align with the local context and the linguistic abilities of their interlocutors, enhancing positive self-image and managing face threats This rapport management is evident in ELF interactions, where speakers adjust their communication styles and may engage in code-switching to utilize a common language as a resource Ultimately, ELF users from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds form a unique community of practice, effectively negotiating their English to achieve communicative goals and maintain intimacy in their relationships.
ELF pragmatics emphasizes the ability of speakers to navigate English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) interactions, characterized by specific strategies aimed at effective communication It is crucial to differentiate ELF pragmatic strategies from interlanguage pragmatic strategies, which relate to how language learners acquire the skills to perform speech acts in a second language Interlanguage pragmatics focuses on non-native speakers, often referred to as learners, and investigates their development of pragmatic competence in a second language context.
Interlanguage pragmatics often views participants as deficient speakers of their native language, which does not accurately represent English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) interactions To truly understand ELF pragmatics, it is essential to adopt a different paradigm that focuses on ELF pragmatic strategies rather than interlanguage pragmatic strategies This shift in perspective allows for a more accurate analysis of ELF interactions.
In summary, Naoko and Nariko (2018, p.88) assert that pragmatics in ELF is about
Calibrating and adjusting one’s pramalinguistic and sociopragmatic resources, along with other linguistic and semiotic tools, to suit the interlocutor and context is essential for achieving effective communication Researchers agree that ELF pragmatics embodies creativity and adaptability in intercultural communication.
Recent years have seen a surge in research on English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) pragmatics, driven by an increase in published works and dissertations on the topic (Kaur, 2022) These studies focus on various strategies that promote hybridity, fluidity, and variability in ELF communication while also aiming to minimize misunderstandings (Cogo, 2012, p 289).
In 2014, a leading researcher identified that empirical studies on English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) pragmatics have concentrated on strategies aimed at preventing misunderstandings These strategies include the use of explicitness, comprehension checks, and clarification (as noted by Mauranen in 2006 and 2007, and Kirkpatrick in 2007), as well as pre-emptive strategies highlighted by Cogo in 2009 and Kaur in 2010 and 2011 Additionally, there is an emphasis on proactive measures to foster mutual understanding among speakers.
(Ollinger, 2012) Table 2.1 (extracted from Bjorkman’s 2014 article on her analysis of polyadic ELF speech) synthesizes key research in ELF pragmatics:
Table 2.1 Reported strategies and other pragmatic phenomena in some ELF studies (Bjorkman,
Studies Strategies or other pragmatic phenomena reported Setting/data
Business phone interactions from a Danish company
Firth (1997) A general interactional analysis of CS including pauses and other markers, repairs, formulations and control checks
Business phone interactions from a Danish company
Supportive laughter Student corridor talk in
Confirmation checks Interactive repair Self-repair Clarifications Repetitions Co-construction
Academic talk (seminar sessions and one conference discussion) from Finland
Spell out the word Repeat the phrase
Be explicit Paraphrase Avoid local/idiomatic referents
Lexical anticipation Lexical suggestion Lexical correction Don’t give up
Request repetition Request clarification Let it pass
Listen to the message Participant paraphrase Participant prompt
Discussions of English language teachers from ASEAN countries
Repetition Accommodation office in an Austrian student exchange organization Penz (2008) Comment on terms and concepts
Comment on details of task Comment on discourse structure Comment on discourse content Comment on intent
Multi-cultural English- medium seminars at the European center for modern languages
Cogo (2009) Repetition and code-switching Discussions of teachers of modern foreign languages in an institution of higher education
Bjứrge (2010) Backchanelling Simulated student negotiations from an English for Specific
Repetition Paraphrase Requests for confirmation of understanding Requests for clarification
International Master’s students in Kuala Lumpur
(2011, 2013) Comment on terms and concepts
Comment on details of task Comment on discourse structure and content
Teacher and student talk from a technical university in Sweden
Comment on intent Comment on common ground Comment on signaling importance Backchanneling repair (self and other) (the first five strategies were adopted from Penz, 2008) Matsumoto
(2011) Sequences of repairs of pronunciation Simulated student interactions at a US university
Move 1: Indication of understanding difficulty (Listener-initiated)
Move 2: Re-establishing of understanding (Speaker- initiated)
Move 3: Confirmation of re- established understanding (Listener-initiated)
Firth (1996) identified that participants in English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) communication often adhere to the "let-it-pass" and "make-it-normal" principles when encountering non-standard language features They initially overlook unfamiliar words or phrases to maintain the flow of conversation, intentionally ignoring awkward syntax, phrasing, or pronunciation to preserve face and ensure dialogue continuity This tolerance for linguistic anomalies persists as long as the meaning is decipherable, leading participants to assume an implicit understanding of each other's intentions.
I B so I told him not to u::h send the:: cheese after the- (.) the blowing (.) in
4 we don't want the order after the cheese is u::h (.) blowing
6 B so I don't know what we can uh do with the order now (.) What do you
7 think we should uh do with this is all blo:wing Mister Hansen
9 H I'm not uh (0.7) blowing uh what uh, what is this u::h too big or what?
11 B no the cheese is bad Mister Hansen
13 it is like (.) fermenting in the customs' cool rooms
16 H we::ll you know you don't have to uh do uh anything because it's not
In a conversation, B used the unfamiliar term "blowing" in the phrase "cheese is blowing," which H did not understand Rather than seeking clarification immediately, H chose to remain silent initially and later responded with "I see, yes." It was only when the confusion began to disrupt the flow of the discussion that H finally asked for the meaning of the unusual word.
Meierkord (1996, 2000), when examining small talks between non-native students from
A study involving 17 non-native English speakers revealed that misunderstandings in communication were less common than previously thought When misunderstandings did arise, they often remained unresolved, typically addressed by shifting topics rather than through negotiation The use of politeness strategies, including routine phrases, back channels like "mhm" and "yeah," and various conversational gambits, was prominent Additionally, many speakers employed phrases such as "you know" and "I mean" to foster cooperation and engage their listeners However, students tended to stick to "safe" topics that allowed for brief and superficial discussions, largely due to their limited vocabulary.
The notion of “floor” and “turn-taking” are also later investigated by Cogo (2007) who observed that there was a high frequency of overlapping talk, although it was cooperative rather
Methodology
Context of the study
The research was conducted within a joint Business Administration program at the Liberal University in Hue, focusing on pragmatic strategies in an eight-week Strategic Management course held on Monday and Friday mornings The course is taught by an American professor with a decade of experience in the international oil industry in the Philippines and over 20 years of teaching across America, Indonesia, and Switzerland, highlighting his extensive expertise in English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) interactions The class comprises 27 students, including 20 males and 7 females, primarily in their third year, with no English certificate required for entry as stated on the university program's website.
Galloway (2022) highlights that students in English Medium Instruction (EMI) classes often possess varying levels of English proficiency, as many universities do not require English as a prerequisite for admission This trend is prevalent in Vietnam, where numerous universities maintain low language requirements (Nguyen et al., 2017).
According to the CEFR framework, English proficiency levels for students typically range from A1 to B1 Although some students can engage in basic communication, most tend to speak and participate in lessons only when prompted At the time of the research, there was a noticeable absence of language support programs for these students.
The lectures were conducted interactively, requiring students to read materials uploaded on the Canvas website prior to class Each lesson began with the lecturer addressing challenging concepts from the readings, followed by group work on the Readiness Assignment and Team Task, which occupied two-thirds of the class time At the end of the session, the lecturer revisited the questions with the students This interactive approach contrasts with EMI monologues that limit students' opportunities for meaning negotiation and understanding, highlighting the nature of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF).
Data
The study analyzed six audio-recorded lectures, amounting to 18 hours of naturally-occurring speech, focusing solely on interactions involving the lecturer English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) is characterized by communication between speakers of different native languages (Seidlhofer et al., 2008) However, when students interacted without the lecturer, they often reverted to Vietnamese, moving away from the principles of ELF.
In the presence of their American lecturer, students were motivated to engage in English, leading to ELF interactions During teamwork activities, typically involving four to five groups, only discussions monitored by the lecturer were audio-recorded to ensure the collection of ELF speech I observed from the back of the classroom, occasionally moving to minimize disruption, as this study utilizes a corpus-based approach focused on spoken pragmatic strategies without a formal observation protocol Instead, I noted significant pragmatic events while adopting a partially involved researcher participant role (Gans, 1982).
I began the manual transcription of recorded audios, adhering to established conventions that capture details like pauses, overlapping speech, laughter, and hesitation markers, which requires significant effort (Pallotti, 2007) Whenever I encountered uncertainties in the recordings, I referred to site documents and teaching resources available on Canvas (see Appendix 4 for a sample) After completing the transcription, I meticulously checked it three times to ensure that no crucial pragmatic instances were overlooked, resulting in a corpus of approximately 15,000 words Subsequently, I categorized each pragmatic strategy by assigning relevant codes to the identified strategies within the corpus.
Data analysis
The analysis contains three main phrases:
In the initial phase, the transcription was thoroughly reviewed to pinpoint the pragmatic strategies employed in each lesson Subsequently, in the second phase, the identified pragmatic strategies were quantified.
The data was manually coded and organized based on Cogo and House's (2017) taxonomy, chosen for its relevance as discussed in the following section This inductive approach mirrors Watterson's analysis of the ELF corpus (2008) Throughout the coding process, some techniques were eliminated while others were combined (Schreier, 2012) Each sub-category of pragmatic strategies was then thoroughly analyzed, supported by clear examples that illustrate their functions, with the comprehensive findings detailed in the next chapter.
Research on ELF (English as a Lingua Franca) pragmatic phenomena has primarily focused on specific strategies rather than a holistic view of all ELF pragmatic devices While some earlier studies explored interlanguage in L2 communication through Communication Strategies (CS) within the SLA paradigm, researchers like Bjorkman argue against using these frameworks for analyzing ELF speech, as they were designed for language teaching and view speakers as deficient learners Additionally, many common pragmatic features in ELF are excluded from SLA paradigms, and certain SLA pragmatic devices are infrequently utilized in ELF communities Thus, it is essential to study CSs in lingua franca interactions independently from SLA norms.
In 2014, Bjorkman observed a lack of pragmatic taxonomies for natural English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) interactions, particularly in academic spoken discourse To address this gap, she developed a Communication Strategies (CS) framework derived from 15 hours of research data collected from group interactions.
36 sessions at a Sweden university After grouping the pragmatic strategies, she divided them into self-initiated and other-initiated, as in Table 3.1
Table 3.1 The communication strategies used in the data presented in a framework (Bjorkman,
CSs observed in the data
Self-initiated CSs Other-initiated CSs
Comprehension check Questions or question repeats
Word placement Co-creation of the message/ anticipation
The current research on pragmatic strategies in academic English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) lectures finds Bjorkman's framework inadequate It primarily focuses on student interactions during group work, excluding native speakers, which fails to capture the collaborative nature of ELF lectures involving both teachers and students Additionally, there are significant overlaps in Bjorkman’s proposed paradigm, and it notably overlooks key multilingual resources such as code-switching and translanguaging that are characteristic of ELF contexts.
This study selectively adopts the recent ELF paradigm developed by Cogo and House in 2018, as they are prominent researchers in ELF pragmatics with extensive publications in this field Their ELF communication framework has also been integrated into the Handbook of ENRICH (English as a Lingua Franca Practices for Inclusive).
Multilingual Classrooms) in 2021, funded by the European Commission That is to say, Cogo
37 and House’s framework is well-founded, highly credible and appropriate for ELF classroom analysis
Table 3.2 Cogo and House (2018) taxonomy of pragmatic strategies
ELF pragmatic aspects Strategies examples
Phrasing Self-initiated repair Co-construction of utterances Comprehension checks Confirmation checks
In addition to the three identified groups of pragmatics—Negotiation of Meaning, Interactional Elements, and Multilingual Resources—new themes have emerged from the data Drawing from existing literature, these themes can be categorized into Negotiating Cultural References, as highlighted by Hua (2015) and Kecskes (2019).
Cultural references are elements tied to a country's culture, including places, historical events, and ideas Throughout the course, the lecturer effectively utilized references to Vietnamese culture to engage students and enhance the relatability of complex theories For example, to clarify a challenging concept, he strategically incorporated elements of Vietnamese culture, making the material more accessible and engaging for the students.
‘multiple stream model’, he took ‘GO’ supermarket which is a local place in Hue, as an example
In analyzing the SWOT model, the lecturer encouraged students to conduct a SWOT analysis of their university, demonstrating his pragmatic ability to bridge cultural differences and enhance comprehension among students However, this approach has not been widely explored.
38 been recorded in ELF pragmatic strategies, at least to my knowledge Hua (2015) and Kecskes
In 2019, the discussion on cultural frames of reference in English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) interactions highlighted the importance of speakers' awareness of cultural differences This awareness enables ELF speakers to effectively utilize their intercultural schemas to navigate and negotiate their interactions Additionally, the concept of compliment sequences, as explored by Jenks in 2013, further illustrates the dynamics of communication in ELF contexts.
This phenomenon involves interlocutors giving compliments, particularly regarding language proficiency In the current study, the lecturer employed different types of compliments to foster student engagement This aligns with the concept of "don't give up" as discussed by Kirkpatrick (2007).
Unlike Firth's (1996) let-it-pass strategy, Kirkpatrick's approach emphasizes the persistent effort to communicate effectively When faced with comprehension issues, ELF interlocutors actively engage rather than remain silent, often restating the problematic message and employing various techniques to achieve mutual understanding.
Ethical considerations and trustworthiness of the research
Data collection was conducted with the informed consent of all participants, who agreed to the consent form (see Appendices 1 & 2) Approval from the university administrator and program director was obtained for my involvement in the classroom and data gathering I provided both the lecturer and students with a participation information sheet detailing my research background and addressed any questions or concerns they had in person Ensuring their comfort with my presence before recording was a priority, and for ethical considerations, the names of the university and lecturer have been kept confidential.
39 anonymous, whereas students are given pseudonyms The audio recordings, transcripts, and field notes are all kept confidential to ensure the anonymity of all parties
To ensure the credibility of the research findings, audio recordings were meticulously reviewed multiple times, with an average of one hour spent transcribing every ten minutes of discourse, capturing details such as laughter and hesitation A transcription sample of one hour was double-checked by a colleague conducting similar research in Da Nang city, enhancing the validity of the transcribed data Data grouping was performed three times to accurately categorize each instance of pragmatics under the correct strategy All audio recordings, observation notes, transcriptions, and related documents are securely stored on my computer and personal Google Drive, ensuring that interpretations and conclusions can be traced back to the original sources for any inquiries.
This chapter summarizes the analysis of a 15,000-word natural ELF corpus derived from classroom recordings, leading to a qualitative examination of the pragmatic strategies identified, which will be detailed in the following chapter.
Findings and Discussion
The range and frequency of pragmatic strategies in ELF academic lectures
Based on Cogo and House’s taxonomy, the 15000-word corpus has been intensively examined in search of instances of each strategy (see Chapter 3, p.47) Results are displayed in Table 4.1
Table 4.1 The range and frequency of pragmatic strategies in ELF academic lectures
The analysis reveals that the variety and frequency of pragmatic strategies employed by BA students significantly lag behind those utilized by their lecturer Specifically, the lecturer demonstrated a broader range of these strategies, highlighting a notable disparity in their application within the classroom setting.
The lecturer possesses 688 pragmatic items, significantly surpassing his students by more than tenfold This disparity can be attributed to two key factors: his extensive experience in English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) environments over the past 30 years, which enhances his ability to acquire and utilize pragmatic strategies effectively, and the students' limited speaking time and lower English proficiency, resulting in fewer recorded instances of their pragmatic strategies.
During the 18 hours of classroom data, both the lecturer and students utilized repetition, phrasing, self-initiated repairs, and co-construction of utterances to negotiate meaning collaboratively Comprehension and confirmation checks were predominantly observed with the lecturer, highlighting the responsibility of educators to ensure student understanding To foster rapport, the professor incorporated various compliment sequences, references to Vietnamese cultural elements, and efforts to effectively communicate messages In contrast, student participants frequently engaged in code-switching and translanguaging, leveraging their bilingual English-Vietnamese skills Additionally, while the lecturer employed discourse markers extensively, backchannels were used less frequently, with the teacher using them 10 times and students only twice.
Table 4.1 reveals the lecturer's consistent efforts to enhance students' understanding and engagement through various techniques, emphasizing his commitment to maintaining an interactive learning environment.
In a study of 42 direction classes, the predominant strategy employed by lecturers is the use of discourse markers to effectively guide students' attention to key lesson points Comprehension checks also play a significant role, aligning with previous research by Suviniitty (2012) and Gotti (2014), which highlighted the frequent use of this technique by lecturers Suviniitty's findings indicate that Finnish lecturers in English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) contexts utilized more interactional elements compared to their native language lessons, a trend mirrored among non-native speakers in Gotti's research This suggests that ELF lecturers are more attuned to employing interactional discourse Additionally, repetition and phrasing are notable techniques, with phrasing leading to an increase in self-initiated repairs While confirmation checks are infrequently used, backchannels and cultural elements, though limited, are crucial for building rapport with students Interestingly, despite being a native speaker, the lecturer incorporated code-switching to Vietnamese on seven occasions, contrasting with Jenkin's (2014) observations of native speakers in the UK who often struggled with clarity and cultural references in their teaching.
Most students effectively self-repaired their speech and utilized repetition and phrasing to engage in classroom interactions There were 16 instances of successful utterance completion, demonstrating effective communication between the lecturer and the students.
43 participants resorted to their Vietnamese language repertoire (15 cases) to express their messages
The absence of ELF idiomatic expressions in the corpus suggests that the American lecturer, with his extensive experience in ELF environments, particularly in East Asia, skillfully avoided problematic language Research indicates that ELF speakers often simplify their language and refrain from using complex idioms to accommodate others In contrast, native speakers may use idiomatic expressions without considering their interlocutors' familiarity with such language However, this study reveals that the lecturer consciously adapted his language to better connect with his non-native students, demonstrating advanced pragmatic skills This indicates that in academic contexts, ELF lecturers can effectively modify their language to enhance communication Meanwhile, the students' lack of idiomatic expressions may stem from insufficient English proficiency, as idiomatic competence is typically found among non-native speakers with higher language skills.
Students at band levels A2-B1 can communicate using simple words and sentences while managing content comprehension To reduce cognitive load, the use of ELF idiomatic expressions is minimized.
Analysis of pragmatic strategies in ELF academic lectures
Of the four identified groups of ELF pragmatic strategies in Table 4.1, with more than
This study will analyze 650 instances specifically focusing on the category of Negotiation of Meaning for two primary reasons Firstly, a comprehensive analysis of all pragmatic strategies is unfeasible due to time and space constraints More critically, negotiation is a key component of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) interactions, particularly in institutional contexts, where meaning construction is prioritized over interactional elements, as highlighted by Cogo & House (2017) and Bjorkman (2014) The goal is for students to effectively understand lecture content Secondly, concentrating on this specific set of pragmatic skills will enable a deeper exploration of the topic within the study's framework.
This section will provide an in-depth analysis of the sub-categories within the Negotiation for meaning group, focusing on their motivations, such as establishing solidarity and enhancing intelligibility Notable examples from my corpus will illustrate these points The analysis will take into account the local context, including preceding and subsequent conversational turns, to determine the interactional significance of each technique It is important to recognize that some techniques may not have distinct functions, as illustrated by instances of repetition.
45 can serve all of the listed roles In that sense, the chosen extracts below should be seen as the most representative of each motivation of use
Repetition, including rephrasing, is a significant strategy utilized by English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) users, as highlighted in previous studies (Lichtkoppler, 2007; Kaur, 2012; Matsumoto, 2018) Its primary functions include emphasizing key information, demonstrating alignment and synchronicity, providing speakers with additional processing time, and soliciting clarification (Kaur, 2012) In this study, repetition is predominantly used by lecturers to highlight essential ideas and foster convergence with students Notably, the lecturer also employs repetition to encourage students, an aspect that has been underexplored in existing ELF literature.
4.2.1.1 Repetition to highlight key information
There are two main forms: keyword repetition (Extracts 1 and 2) and parallel phrasing (Extracts
1 L: Ehm, let me show you this example The whole point of viral marketing is
2 you have zero advertise advertizing budget xxx you want your customers
3 to spread words out about the product So let me give you an example that
4 was 10 years ago [search Google]
5 […] People send their friends that lead to their website, right? One friend to
6 another friend to another friend, so we can spread the products by word
7 of mouth Zero advertizing, zero advertizing model […] This is an
1 L: So, this is a good example ehm, for this interdependence business model
2 This interdependence model is very important in technical product […]
3 So, this is the 4 types of revenue streams, and I think the most important
In Extract 1, the lecturer was trying to exemplify one of the marketing tactics to the students He repeated twice the phrases viral marketing (lines 1 & 8), and spread words (lines 3
The lecturer effectively emphasizes key concepts of viral marketing through strategic repetition, highlighting important points three times for zero advertising This technique, known as 'prominence-providing' repetition, aids in reinforcing the material in students' memories and demonstrates the lecturer's skill in directing their attention to essential information.
In Extract 2, the lecturer emphasizes the significance of the "interdependence model" before elaborating on its concepts He reinforces his message by reiterating key terms, guiding students back to the core idea (Johnstone et al., 1996) This repetition of abstract phrases aids students in grasping concepts that may be unfamiliar to them.
1 L: […] If you have 4, [draw on board] 1,2,3,4,5,6 6 people you can call If
2 you have 5, I’m not gonna draw this, you have 10 I think it’s (.) 10, yes
3 And if you have n people, the equation would be n [writes n (n+1)/2 on
5 […] the more customers you have, the more valuable your products
7 […] the greater the number of buyers, sellers, or users, the greater the
8 network effect—and the greater the value created by the offering
1 L: I need you to put the information of the first competitor into the first
2 column, the second column competitor number 2, the third number 3
3 Finance, marketing, everything that you know about the competitor
In the examples provided, L effectively utilized repeated grammatical structures to establish a rhythmic pattern (Tannen, 1987) Notably, in a brief excerpt (Extract 3), L employed parallel comparison structures extensively to elucidate the concept of network effect Recognizing that the traditional textbook definition may be unclear, L consistently sought to clarify this idea for his students through relatable examples and parallel phrasing, such as "If you have and the more, the greater." Tannen (1987) notes that these similar structures and intonations enhance comprehension.
Rhythm and repetition in communication enhance aesthetics and deepen understanding for recipients In Extract 4, L effectively reused structures to guide students on task execution, demonstrating that listing as a form of repetition helps students follow the speech and grasp new concepts more clearly (Kaur, 2012).
4.2.1.2 Repetition to show alignment and confirmation
The primary function of repetition in lectures involves both lecturers and students reiterating each other's points, demonstrating strong mutual collaboration that enhances rhythm and synchronicity This aligns with findings from Lee (2013) and Bjorkman (2014), which highlight how participants in English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) contexts engage in other-repetition to foster convergence and improve clarity in communication.
1 L: If you need any 5 or 10 minutes for the quiz, or if you have any questions,
2 now is the time to ask Any questions? ehm how long do you need to
In this study, a prevalent pattern is observed where the lecturer reiterates students' previous responses before elaborating or providing feedback For instance, when several students responded with "10 minutes," the lecturer acknowledged their answers by repeating "10 minutes" and then expressed clear acceptance by stating, "That's okay."
1 L: [talking about competition in the firework industry] ehm could you guess if
2 the competition in this case will be low or high or medium?
3 Tam: I think eh the competition is high eh eh (.) because there’s no (.) bằng sáng
4 chế là chi hè? {What is the English word for bằng sáng chế?}=
6 Tam: er no patent There’s no patent, patent eh
8 Tam: There’s no patent protection
The extract highlights effective communication among students through code-switching and repetition while discussing competition factors in the firework industry The professor initially summarized key elements, including patents, which aided the discussion When Tam struggled to find the Vietnamese equivalent for "patent," Dung promptly provided the translation, which Tam then incorporated into her response Following this, Nhan contributed the complete term "patent protection," further enriching the collaborative effort in the classroom.
7), Tam repeated the suggested phrase without any hesitation This kind of repetition, occurring after a language problem has been resolved can boost consensus and solidary among all interlocutors (Cogo, 2009)
The following examples are the most powerful evidence of L’s effort to not only align with but also reassure and encourage his students
1 L: [asked which can be potential enterers to the firework industry]
3 L: Er I don’t know I mean maybe they want to, but maybe, maybe
1 L: [stopped at one group’s handout and pointed at their answer] So this is this
2 is an important player, so this is definitely one important player
3 My question is, do you consider them your buyers?
In Extract 7, Duyen, a typically shy student who seldom participates in class discussions, presented an unexpected yet valid argument, which the Professor chose not to dismiss.
To foster confidence and support among interlocutors, speakers often employ pragmatic strategies, such as shifting from uncertainty to reassurance For instance, instead of responding with “I don’t know,” one speaker opted for “maybe” to encourage a more positive interaction This approach not only preserves face but also enhances the willingness of others to participate Similarly, another speaker affirmed the correctness of the group's choice by emphasizing their importance, stating, “an important player…definitely one important player,” before transitioning to a new question Such behaviors demonstrate a desire to maintain affiliation and support within the conversation.
In addition, there are cases where L pre-empted possible mishearing, non-hearing or negligence among students, and repeated his prior instructions:
1 L: In the Chinese firework industry, are there any barriers to entry? (.) Again
2 the question is, are there any barriers to entry? What do you think?
1 L: Ngoc, do you want me to upload these onto Canva so that you can review
3 Ngoc: Thầy nói chi rứa {What did he say?} [to other students]=
4 L: =Would you like me to upload these files to Canvas?
In Extract 9, the lecturer asked students about the challenges new manufacturers face when entering the firework industry, but initially received no response After a brief pause, he repeated the question and prompted them with “What do you think?” to encourage participation.
2) to invite students to participate In Extract 10, the lecturer had just finished checking the assignments and noting down several suggestions in the Word document Seeing Ngoc manually taking notes, he offered to upload the edited files to Canvas so that his students could review the key points again at home However, Ngoc might have been busy note-taking, so she did not hear
During a lecture, a student initially struggled to ask a question in English and resorted to speaking Vietnamese for assistance Despite not understanding the language, the lecturer was able to infer the student's issue and restated his suggestion in a way that addressed the problem effectively.