Introduction
Rationale
Tests are the most widely used assessment method in global educational systems, particularly at the tertiary level, where they significantly impact student grades Their importance extends beyond academic settings, influencing critical decisions related to university applications, certifications, and personal assessments (Mohammed & Abidin, 2011) Over a thirty-year analysis of language testing, Cohen (2006) identifies five key concerns: test difficulty, reliability, intercorrelation of subtests, the relationship between tests and other variables, and the effects of different testing methods Additionally, Cohen emphasizes the behavioral attributes of test-takers during the testing process.
Research indicates a significant gap in understanding the mental processes of test-takers during assessments (Cohen, 2006) While previous studies have focused on the strategies employed by respondents to navigate language tests for various purposes—such as validating test formats and examining the influence of learner characteristics—there is a notable lack of attention to learners' perspectives on these strategies Additionally, findings by Rogers and Harley (1999) highlight the importance of test-taking strategies, which empower learners to effectively utilize the characteristics and formats of assessments.
2 of a test to boost their performance on a test Therefore, more studies in test-taking strategies to assist students in identifying the strategies and their benefits seem significant
At the University of Foreign Languages, Hue University (HUFL), second-year students are required to develop their listening skills as part of the four essential language competencies: listening, reading, speaking, and writing Achieving level 4/6 in the VSTEP (Vietnamese Standardized Test of English Proficiency) is the goal for these students, emphasizing the importance of effective listening in their language learning journey.
Standardized Test of English Proficiency), which is equivalent to level B2 in the Common
The European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) establishes essential standards for language proficiency In the second semester, the listening course for second-year English majors serves as a crucial foundation, preparing students for the VSTEP listening test Achieving levels 5 or 6 in this test is a mandatory requirement for graduation for English majors at this university.
In my early years of teaching at the university level, many students have expressed that although their L2 listening skills meet the test requirements, they often struggle with actual listening tests This raises the question of whether students understand the critical elements of their listening process that contribute to their answers (Cohen, 2006, p.89) Identifying these elements could be crucial in addressing the gap between their listening abilities and test performance.
This research, titled "Test-taking Strategies for Listening Tests by Second-Year English Majors at University of Foreign Languages, Hue University," is driven by various motivating factors that underscore its significance.
Research Objectives
- explore the perceptions of second-year English majored students at HUFL towards the effectiveness of employing test-taking strategies in their listening tests
- identify the reportedly used test-taking strategies by second-year English majored students at HUFL.
Research questions
The study is set out to answer the following research questions:
1 What are HUFL second-year English-majored students‟ perceptions about the effectiveness of test-taking strategy use in their listening tests?
2 What test-taking strategies are reportedly employed by HUFL second-year English- majored students to do listening tests?
Scope of the Study
This study focuses on evaluating the effectiveness of test-taking strategies from the perspectives of second-year English major students, specifically identifying the strategies they frequently employ during listening tests It is important to note that this research does not address other areas of English listening skills, such as self-study methods or teaching techniques.
Research Significance
This study explores the under-researched area of test-taking strategies specifically for listening tests, aiming to enhance the understanding of how test-takers utilize listening strategies By contributing valuable insights from the perspectives of test-takers, this research seeks to enrich existing literature and serve as a helpful resource for language learners preparing for listening assessments.
English teachers are guiding their students through listening tests, addressing a notable gap in existing literature regarding test-taking strategies This article highlights the pedagogical implications of employing effective test-taking strategies for English majors at HUFL, suggesting potential areas for future exploration in this field.
Structure of the Study
The research comprises five chapters, namely introduction, literature review, methodology, findings and discussion, and conclusion
1 Chapter 1 introduces the background, the rationale, the objectives, the research questions, the scope, the significance of the study, and the structure of the study
2 Chapter 2 presents the literature review relevant to the research, mainly focusing on the related studies to test-taking strategies
3 Chapter 3 provides the research methodology, including information about research participants, data collection, and data analysis
4 Chapter 4 displays the findings and discussion of the study
5 Chapter 5 presents the summary of research findings, the implications for English teaching and learning, the study's limitations, and the suggestions for further research
Literature Review
Introduction
This chapter explores the concept of strategy, specifically focusing on test-taking strategies within language learning It introduces key taxonomies of language learning strategies, particularly emphasizing listening strategies Additionally, the chapter reviews relevant studies that connect test-taking strategies with language skills, with an emphasis on enhancing listening abilities Finally, it presents the rationale for undertaking this thesis.
Strategies and Test-taking Strategies
Over the past fifty years, second language instruction has evolved from a focus on teaching methods to an emphasis on understanding learning processes This shift has led to a significant increase in research dedicated to exploring how students learn languages.
Strategies play a crucial role in the learning process during transitional phases, significantly impacting the achievement of learning objectives Various researchers have differing interpretations of what constitutes effective strategies.
According to Brown (1984), strategies are specific procedures and methods used to approach tasks and achieve goals, involving cognitive processes for managing information They are seen as individualized tactics employed for problem-solving related to second language input and output, varying from person to person.
According to Brown (1984), second language learning strategies encompass various actions, behaviors, and techniques that students utilize to enhance their language performance Oxford and Ehrman (1998) elaborated on this definition, while Oxford (1990) described these strategies as targeted actions that learners adopt to facilitate a more enjoyable, efficient, self-directed, and effective learning experience, ultimately making the skills more transferable to new contexts.
6 situation" (p.8) Oxford (1990) refers strategies to some alternative terminologies used within the educational field in general, such as "learning skills, learning-to-learn skills, thinking skills, and problem-solving skills" (p 2)
Anderson (2005) defined strategies as the "conscious action" (p.757) that students employ to improve their language learning performance He elaborated on the conscious processes of learners, suggesting that these can be either observable behaviors or purely psychological occurrences This perspective aligns with the views of Oxford and Ehrman, highlighting the complexity of language learning strategies.
(1998) definition of strategies, Anderson (2005) put great emphasis on the strategies as
"collection" rather than isolated actions
Despite two decades of expertise on learner strategies, Macaro (2001) noted a lack of consensus on the understanding of these strategies due to their complex overlap with other related concepts, as previously suggested by Steven McDonough (1995) Macaro identified overlapping terms such as "language skills, language processes, mechanisms to compensate for lack of language, and action plans" (p.18).
Macaro (2001) presents a contrasting perspective by defining strategies as alternative methods that learners use to overcome challenges in language learning, particularly when they face limitations in their language knowledge.
Over a fifteen-year span, Cohen (1992) highlighted a significant trend in language testing studies focused on the cognitive process approach This period has seen increasing attention on the strategies that respondents employ during language assessments, particularly in relation to test-taking strategies.
Test-taking strategies are the "test-taking process which the respondents have selected and which they are conscious of, at least to some degree" (Cohen, 1992, p 102) Cohen
In 2011, the concept of test takers' conscious processes in managing language challenges and item response requirements during exams was further developed This includes a continuum of conscious attention levels when selecting strategies, ranging from general awareness to high focus Test-taking strategies are thus viewed as metacognitive approaches that individuals intentionally use to guide and regulate their cognitive strategies for improved test performance.
Test-taking strategies are essential for test-takers as they prepare for language assessments, focusing on three key phases: before, during, and after the test These strategies aim to improve test quality and provide valuable insights to learners, instructors, and administrators about the effectiveness of the assessment tools being used.
(Cohen, 2011) These strategies can have certain impacts on test validity and reliability
Test-taking strategies vary significantly based on different testing formats, as noted by Rupp et al (2006) These strategies do not necessarily reflect a test-taker's true understanding of the material; for example, in multiple-choice reading assessments, learners may employ strategies that allow them to answer correctly without fully grasping the reading passage (Assiri & Alodhahi, 2018).
Test-taking strategies fundamentally involve consciousness and goal orientation The term "strategies," derived from the ancient Greek word "stratēgia," emphasizes intentionality Schmidt (1990) notes that consciousness can be perceived through various senses and is often ambiguously defined Due to this terminological ambiguity and differing interpretations, cognitive psychology presents several contrasting views on the concept.
In the realm of second language learning, Schmidt (1990) presents eight perspectives on consciousness, categorizing it into three key clarifications: consciousness as awareness, consciousness as intention, and consciousness as knowledge.
Oxford (1990) posits that current strategy practices are seen as deliberate actions, yet instinctual drives during strategy implementation can lead to unthinking and uncritical behavior Similarly, Cohen (2006) highlights the ongoing debate about the role of consciousness in shaping test-taking strategies, questioning how aware learners must be of their language behaviors for them to be classified as strategies This ambiguity around the necessary level of consciousness raises concerns about the definition of strategies Oxford (1990) introduces "problem orientation" as a key aspect of language strategies, which are perceived as tools for problem-solving, task completion, and achieving objectives.
Fraidan and Al-Khalaf (2012) identify facilitation and problem-solving as key components of effective test-taking strategies Facilitation involves strategies that streamline the process, allowing it to occur smoothly, while problem-solving addresses challenges that arise during the test.
Taxonomies of Language Learning Strategies
In contemporary literature, language learning strategies differ based on language test types, skills, and tasks Amer (2007) highlighted two key taxonomies: Cohen's (1998) and the one by Bachman and Palmer (1996) Cohen (2011) defined test-taking strategies as an "umbrella" term that encompasses three main categories, focusing on either the learning or the use of language.
- “language learner strategies – strategies that draw from the basic skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing, as well as the related skills of vocabulary learning, grammar, and translation
- test-management strategies – strategies for responding meaningfully to the test items and tasks
- test-wiseness strategies – strategies for using knowledge of test formats and other peripheral information to answer test items without going through the expected linguistic and cognitive processes” (p 305)
In connection with second language learner strategies, Cohen (1998) split strategies into two branches: language learning and language use strategies Language learning
10 strategies refer to both conscious and semi-conscious thoughts and behaviors employed by learners with identified purposes to enhance the comprehension of the target language
Language learning strategies have three main goals: identifying essential language materials, maintaining consistent engagement with these materials, and linking them to memory Essentially, these strategies involve the processes of recognizing, categorizing, and retaining linguistic information.
Language use strategies encompass four key subcategories, each with distinct objectives Firstly, retrieval strategies aid in recalling language information from both long-term and short-term memory Secondly, rehearsal strategies are utilized to practice the structures of the target language The third category, communication strategies, focuses on effectively conveying information in a meaningful way to the audience Lastly, cover strategies aim to present language proficiency in a manner that appears natural and confident, avoiding any perception of being unprepared or awkward.
Bachman and Palmer (1996) introduced an approach to learning strategies that incorporates metacognitive components, equating strategies with strategic competence, which refers to higher-order executive processes that manage cognitive functions in language use and other activities They emphasized that language use is influenced by learners' topical knowledge, emotional schemas, and their knowledge areas, enabling effective generation and decoding of discourse This perspective is particularly relevant in the context of language testing.
Palmer (1996) proposed three primary areas of metacognitive strategy, including goal-setting, assessment, and planning These strategies facilitate laying the foundation for designing and advancing interactive test tasks
Goal setting is a crucial first step in the process, as it involves defining the specific tasks to be accomplished In this phase, students assess the available test tasks and choose how many of them they will complete.
Assessment strategies encompass three key domains: first, evaluating the attributes of the test task to determine its feasibility and the essential components needed for successful completion; second, assessing the availability of relevant knowledge required to complete the test task; and third, analyzing the potential responses to the test task.
Effective planning strategies involve the application of language knowledge, topical knowledge, and affective schemata to successfully address test tasks Key features of these strategies include selecting relevant components from prior knowledge, organizing these components for effective task response, and identifying the most suitable elements to meet the requirements of the test tasks.
Amer (2007) contended that the taxonomies of language strategies proposed by Cohen and Palmer, as well as Bachman, are primarily theoretical and lack empirical support In light of this perspective, this research references Oxford's (1990) taxonomy of language learning strategies as a foundational framework.
Oxford (1990) defined strategies aimed at achieving communicative competence, highlighting a comprehensive system that encompasses both receptive and productive skills According to Oxford's classification, these strategies are divided into two primary subcategories: direct and indirect strategies, with direct strategies involving the active use of the target language.
12 necessitate mental processing of the language Three major groups of direct strategies are memory, cognitive, and compensation
Memory strategies play a crucial role in language learning by aiding in the categorization and visualization of new information, which is essential for effective storage and retrieval These strategies help learners organize, associate, and review vocabulary, addressing the challenges of memorizing extensive word lists necessary for fluency Despite their importance, research indicates that many students seldom utilize these strategies According to Oxford (1990), this may be due to students reaching a level beyond elementary proficiency or a lack of awareness regarding their use of memory strategies.
Cognitive strategies, such as repetition, analysis, and summarization, play a crucial role in language learning These diverse techniques are united by a common goal: to help learners effectively manipulate and transform the target language.
Compensation strategies facilitate learners to comprehend or produce new language regardless of knowledge constraints related to language components and language skills
Guessing, also known as inference, involves deducing the meanings of unknown words through linguistic and nonlinguistic cues This strategy, categorized as one of two compensation techniques, allows proficient language learners to make "educated guesses" when encountering unfamiliar expressions (Oxford, 1990, p 47).
Indirect strategies facilitate language learning by supporting the process without directly incorporating the target language These strategies are considered effective across the four essential language skills: listening, reading, speaking, and writing They can be categorized into three distinct subgroups, each contributing to a comprehensive approach to language acquisition.
Metacognitive strategies play a crucial role in enhancing learners' focus and coordination in the learning process by extending beyond traditional cognitive methods As defined by Oxford (1990), these strategies enable learners to actively manage their learning experiences, particularly in the context of new language expressions, rules, and social customs When consciously employed, metacognitive strategies can mitigate distractions and improve concentration by fostering connections with previously acquired knowledge.
Affective strategies address emotional factors like emotions, attitudes, motivations, and values, with self-esteem being a crucial component that affects language learning performance Learners with low self-esteem may struggle with motivation and language skills, such as listening comprehension In contrast, self-encouragement strategies can boost motivation, while anxiety-reducing techniques like self-kindness and mindful breathing help alleviate anxiety Additionally, social strategies promote empathy, allowing learners to understand others' perspectives and enhance cultural awareness, ultimately improving their emotional and social skills in language learning.
Classification of language learning strategies (adapted from Oxford, 1990, p 17)
2.4 Test-taking Strategies and Language Skills
Test-taking Strategy and the Listening Skill
Cohen and Dürnyei (2002) introduced a classification method for strategies based on skill areas, emphasizing listening strategies within the four essential skill categories These categories encompass receptive skills, such as listening and reading, alongside productive skills, which include speaking and writing.
“educated guesses” proposed by Cohen and Dửrnyei (2002) overlapped with what Oxford
(1990) interpreted in terms of guessing in compensation strategies
Table 2.1 illustrates some listening strategies introduced by Cohen and Dửrnyei (2002) in two phases of listening
Listening test-taking strategies (adapted from Cohen & Dửrnyei, 2002)
Strategies to become more familiar with the sounds in the new language:
- Looking for associations between the sound of a word or phrase in the new language and the sound of a familiar word
- Imitating the way native speakers talk
Strategies for better understanding the new language in conversation
Before listening to the language:
- Deciding to pay special attention to specific language aspects, for example, the way the speaker pronounces certain sounds
When listening in the language:
- Listening for word and sentence stress to see what natives emphasize when they speak
- Practising „skim listening‟ by paying attention to some parts and ignoring others
If some or most of what someone says in the language is not understood:
- Making educated guesses and inferences about the topic based on what has already been said
- Looking to the speaker‟s gestures and general body language as a clue to meaning
According to Wilson (2008), high proficiency level listeners utilize three main strategies: cognitive, metacognitive, and social-affective Cognitive strategies involve immediate listening tasks, such as making predictions before listening Metacognitive strategies focus on long-term improvements, like repeatedly listening to English podcasts to boost skills Social-affective strategies emphasize interpersonal coordination and emotional aspects of learning Wilson also highlighted the importance of prediction in listening tests, noting that identifying the right words for gap-filling or taking notes on key information is crucial.
Listening Tests at HUFL
Listening is a mandatory course for second-year students, alongside reading, speaking, and writing The listening test aligns with level four of the Vietnamese Standardized Test of English Proficiency and has a total duration of 40 minutes using printed answer sheets Comprising three main parts, the test includes 25 questions that vary in difficulty from basic to advanced.
Formats of the listening test for second-year students at University of Foreign Languages,
Hue University (adapted from Unit Description of Listening 3 course)
Question types and difficulty level
Topic: familiar topics related to daily life
- Listening for main ideas, specific information, explicit meanings
- Listening for grasping the implication of the conversation
- Multiple choices with four options (A, B, C, or D)
Part 2 - 01 long conversation / monologue (3-4 minutes)
- Topics: Science, society, language, culture, education, travel, sports, career, etc
- Listening for understanding the attitudes and deducing implications of the speaker
- Multiple choices with three options (A, B, or C)
- Gap-filling with no more than three words is sometimes combined
- Topics: education, psychology, social science
- Listen for main ideas or important specific information
- Listening for making inferences and summarizing information
- Multiple choices with four options (A, B, C, or D)
The listening test primarily consists of multiple-choice questions, with the exception of part two, which features gap-filling questions Each question is worth 0.4 marks, culminating in a total possible score of 10 marks for the test.
22 for reading the question is included in the listening audio Additionally, five minutes is provided for students to transfer responses into their answer sheets.
Previous Studies
Research on listening test-taking strategies is less extensive compared to reading, writing, and speaking Previous studies have primarily focused on three key areas: effective strategies used by students during listening tests, the relationship between these strategies and test performance, and students' perceptions of listening strategies While various taxonomies have been referenced, two studies by Fini (2016) and Bulushi et al (2018) identified four overlapping categories: metacognitive, cognitive, social, and affective strategies Most of the earlier research utilized questionnaires as their main data collection tool.
Razmalia & Gani, 2017;), accompanied by pre and post-listening tests
In a study by Fini (2016), the listening strategies of sixty Iranian female learners were analyzed within a multimedia context A standardized test assessed the students' proficiency levels, while questionnaires focused on metacognitive, cognitive, and social-affective strategies were administered during pre-test and post-test phases The findings indicated that metacognitive strategies were the most frequently used, followed by social-affective strategies.
Razmalia and Gani (2017) conducted a study on thirty-one tertiary students, identifying key strategies proposed by Phillips (2001) Their analysis revealed that the most commonly used strategy was listening for expressions of uncertainty and suggestion However, the findings indicated that these strategies were not effective in improving students' performance.
A study by Bulushi et al (2018) investigated the relationship between test-taking strategies and the performance of Omani high school students in listening comprehension tests Utilizing a listening comprehension test and a questionnaire, the research assessed how these strategies influenced students' performance and their attitudes towards their use The findings indicated a significant correlation between the use of strategies and improved performance in listening comprehension Additionally, the study highlighted that various strategies were beneficial for tackling listening tests, with cognitive strategies being more frequently employed than metacognitive and affective strategies across all phases of the tests.
A study by Ngo (2015) explored the listening strategies employed by thirty second-year EFL students at a Vietnamese university, utilizing a mixed-method approach that included questionnaires and in-depth interviews Grounded in a theoretical framework based on strategy taxonomies from Goh, O'Malley and Chamot, and Vandergrift, the research categorized strategies into metacognitive, cognitive, and social-affective types The findings indicated that social/affective strategies were the most frequently used by learners, followed by metacognitive and cognitive strategies.
Likewise, Tran's (2016) research examined the use of learning strategies, however, in preparation for the standardized test: TOEIC listening test with 110 participants from non-
English majored students to find out the obstacles they encounter in listening both in general
24 and in preparation for the TOEIC listening test particularly Also, Tran (2016) was concerned with figuring out the learning strategies that participants employed to practice for their
The TOEIC listening test is essential for students aiming to enhance their language skills Tran (2016) conducted research using questionnaires and interviews to collect valuable data Additionally, classroom observations with structured sheets were implemented to gain objective insights into current language learning strategies from both instructors' and students' perspectives The study's learning strategy taxonomy was informed by O'Neill's framework, providing a comprehensive understanding of effective learning methods.
Malley and Chamot (1990) identified metacognitive, cognitive, and social-affective strategies in their research In contrast to Ngo's (2014) findings, which indicated that learners utilized cognitive strategies less frequently, this study found that cognitive strategies were the most commonly employed listening strategies among participants.
Gaps in the Literature
Prior research has primarily focused on students' test-taking strategies and their impact on language improvement across reading, listening, writing, and speaking skills In the Vietnamese context, studies have largely examined learning strategies related to listening skills (Ngo, 2015 & Tran, 2016), but have overlooked the specific strategies used during listening tests This study aims to identify the perceptions of second-year English major students regarding the use of test-taking strategies and to determine which strategies are most frequently employed in their listening assessments.
Summary
This chapter presented an overview of what strategies and test-taking strategies mean from several perspectives The taxonomies of language learning strategies were also
25 displayed Several strategy-related studies were also reviewed to identify the gaps in the literature The next chapter will present the research methodology
Methodology
Introduction
This chapter initially displays the methods of collecting data with some interpretations The brief information related to the participants is also provided
Subsequently, data collection instruments by means of questionnaires and interviews are presented The chapter concludes with the data collection procedure and analysis of the data.
Research Approach
This study utilized a mixed-method approach, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative methods, to effectively gather data on the use of test-taking strategies This approach was deemed relevant for several key reasons.
Quantitative approaches are used to collect numerical data, ensuring statistical descriptions and objectivity (McMillan & Schumacher, 1993) By applying these techniques, the frequency of specific variables can be measured, revealing insights into perceptions and the common use of test-taking strategies.
Excluding qualitative methods, which incorporate diverse individual perspectives and focus on understanding participants' experiences (Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2012), limits the ability to uncover the true purposes of this research in identifying listening test-taking strategies This omission fails to capture the "richness and complexity of behavior" (McMillan & Schumacher, 1993, p 43) exhibited by learners.
Utilizing a mixed-method approach enhances the reliability and depth of understanding regarding listening test-taking strategies, as it offers insights that a single method cannot achieve (Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2012) This combination of methods not only reduces subjectivity but also highlights the unique characteristics of participants when they apply strategies during listening tests.
Participants
Several methods can be employed to determine the sample size This research chose a simplified formula for proportions proposed by Yamane (1967) Yamane‟s (1967) formula to calculate sample sizes was as following:
𝑛 = 1+𝑁 𝑒 𝑁 2 Where n is the sample size, N is the population size, and e is the level of precision
When this formula is applied with e= 0,05, the sample size is 242
The study involved 242 second-year English majors at HUFL, aged 19 to 21, with an average of twelve years of English learning experience All participants had completed their Listening 3 course and were in their second semester Selection criteria did not include factors like age, ethnicity, or gender These students utilized the NorthStar 4 coursebook (Vietnam edition) published by Pearson for developing their listening and speaking skills.
Convenience sampling, defined as selecting readily available cases for research (Ary et al., 2010), is often seen as more biased and less generalizable than probability sampling Despite these limitations, it is frequently used in developmental science due to its cost-effectiveness and common acceptance in the field (Jager et al., 2017).
Data Collection Instruments
Data-collecting instruments implemented in this research were questionnaire and interview
Questionnaires are a widely used method in social science research due to their cost-effectiveness and the ability to tailor questions for specific objectives They are especially effective when involving a large number of participants and items, making them a valuable tool for gathering data efficiently.
28 questionnaires is beneficial in terms of "obtaining demographic information and data that can be categorized easily" (McMillan & Schumacher, 1993, p 243)
This study utilized a comprehensive questionnaire divided into three sections to address two research questions related to students' listening tests The first section aimed to collect background information about the students, while the second focused on their perceptions of test-taking strategies The third section, adapted from Bulushi et al (2018) and based on Oxford (1990), specifically explored the strategies employed by students during tests A Likert scale was employed for responses, ranging from strongly agree (SA) to strongly disagree (SD).
A semi-structured interview was conducted, following the questionnaire, to gather insights into students' awareness and utilization of test-taking strategies during listening tests.
Interviews, while similar to questionnaires, differ significantly due to their inherent human interaction They serve as a valuable complement to questionnaires, which may fall short in capturing the full range of participants' perspectives McMillan and Schumacher (1993) highlight that in-person interviews allow for the observation of both verbal and non-verbal cues, particularly on topics related to personal qualities or feelings, thereby enhancing participant engagement and motivation.
The interview questions in this study were divided into three main sections, with the initial part aimed at building rapport between the researcher and the interviewees to minimize discomfort and encourage honest responses Additionally, leading questions were incorporated to facilitate open communication.
The study involved 29 participants and focused on three key areas: first, assessing students' awareness of test-taking strategies in listening tests; second, identifying the specific strategies frequently employed by the participants; and third, understanding the overall perspectives of the students regarding these strategies.
Data Collection Procedure
A pilot study was conducted with ten randomly selected second-year students to identify potential issues in the planned methodology This small-scale research involved eight students completing a questionnaire and two participating in interviews The students were asked about their experiences with the questionnaire and interview to assess the clarity of the instructions and questions.
The study utilized a two-step questionnaire design, initially employing open-ended questions with a small group of ten students to elicit detailed responses Following this, closed-ended questions were crafted based on the insights gained and distributed to all participants The questionnaire completion time was approximately thirty minutes, and to ensure reliable responses, it was administered immediately after the participants completed their listening tests.
Ten participants who had previously completed the questionnaire were randomly selected for individual interviews conducted on a voluntary basis To minimize the influence among participants, these interviews were held separately, and both the questionnaire and interviews were conducted in English.
Following the collection of essential information through questionnaires and interviews, data analysis and description were conducted The findings were then illustrated using charts, tables, and figures, accompanied by insightful comments and discussions.
Data Analysis
This study utilized both quantitative and qualitative methods, employing SPSS version 20 to analyze questionnaire data The focus was on two key areas: students' perceptions of test-taking strategies in listening tests and the most commonly used strategies during these assessments.
The face-to-face interview was recorded and transcribed for accuracy, followed by thematic analysis that identified two main themes: students' perceptions of test-taking strategies in listening tests and the specific strategies they employed Each audio recording was transcribed, with note-taking conducted through coded responses summarizing interview answers These codes were then reviewed and categorized into the identified themes, with the results presented alongside the analyzed questionnaire findings.
Research Reliability and Validity
The interview was audio-recorded and transcribed to ensure accuracy and prevent data loss Each response from the face-to-face interview underwent critical analysis, utilizing thematic analysis to identify two main themes: students' perceptions of test-taking strategies in listening tests and the specific strategies they employed during these assessments.
The reliability of the questionnaire was assessed using Cronbach's Alpha, excluding the first part that collected learners' background information The results showed a Cronbach Alpha value of 0.774 for part two and 0.936 for part three, indicating strong reliability for these sections.
3, respectively, these results indicated the items had high internal consistency
An expert in the field evaluated the questionnaire and interview questions to ensure their appropriateness for measuring the intended constructs and to confirm that they accurately represent the behavior domain.
To ensure the validity of the study, a pilot test was conducted with a group of ten students, which is essential for identifying potential flaws in the research instruments and highlighting areas that may need adjustment (Gani et al., 2020).
Summary
This chapter outlines the research design and the mixed-method approach utilized in the study, detailing participant information and the data collection instruments, including questionnaires and interviews The subsequent chapter will present the findings.
Findings and Discussion
Introduction
This chapter outlines the quantitative and qualitative findings of the study, addressing the two primary research questions It begins by showcasing sophomore students' perceptions of listening test-taking strategies through questionnaire and interview data Following this, the frequency of these strategies will be illustrated with tables and detailed interpretations Finally, the research findings will be analyzed in relation to the literature discussed in Chapter 2 and compared with relevant previous studies.
Second-year English Majored Students‟ Awareness of Employing Listening Test-taking
The quantitative data collected from the questionnaire were analyzed using SPSS The second section of the questionnaire included four statements, where participants selected their level of agreement on a five-point scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree Prior to the analysis, the reliability coefficient for this section was assessed, as shown in Table 4.1.
Cronbach's Alpha Number of Items
Table 4.1 reveals that Cronbach's Alpha of all measurement items is 0.774, which indicates the items have high internal consistency
Table 4.2, comprising four items, demonstrates the degree of impact test-taking strategies have on students while taking their listening tests
Students’ perception of employing listening test-taking strategies
Statement (n$2) Minimum Maximum Mean SD
1 Employing test-taking strategies for
English listening tests is necessary to achieve a good score/mark
2 Employing test-taking strategies for
English listening tests helps me better understand what I am listening to
3 Employing test-taking strategies for
English listening tests helps me more concentrate while taking the listening tests
4 Employing test-taking strategies for
English listening tests helps me to reduce anxiety while taking the listening tests
Table 4.2 reveals that the average mean score for this cluster is nearly 4, indicating strong support among participants for the positive impact of listening test-taking strategies on performance, comprehension, concentration, and anxiety management Specifically, Items 1 and 2 received mean scores of 4.08 and 4.01, respectively, highlighting that the majority of students recognize the benefits of utilizing these strategies.
Listening tests are essential for enhancing test performance and improving comprehension of the content Participants find that employing effective listening test-taking strategies significantly aids in maintaining focus (M= 3.95), although these strategies are less effective in reducing anxiety levels.
To assess students' awareness of test-taking strategies, two key interview questions were posed: "Do you believe that using test-taking strategies is essential?" and "What effects do test-taking strategies have on your listening tests?" Eight participants shared their personal insights regarding these topics.
Listening test-taking strategies are crucial for success, as they enable students to effectively follow the audio and determine accurate responses By utilizing these strategies, students can significantly enhance their confidence during listening assessments.
“It is 80 out of 100 percent necessary for my using listening strategies.” Student B
Utilizing effective listening strategies offers significant benefits, particularly in enhancing concentration and boosting confidence In my opinion, the importance of implementing these listening test-taking strategies is rated at 80 out of 100%.
“Employing these strategies is efficient to remain a stable mood, which in turn dominantly affects the tests‟ result.” Students D
“Strategies combined with my English level of proficiency result in an expected outcome of listening tests.” Student E
“Personally speaking, using listening strategies is significantly important
90/100 is the level I evaluate the contribution of employing strategies to my listening tests.” Student F
“Strategies also have an enormous impact on my concentration, anxiety, and confidence.” Student H
The majority of interviewed participants conceive of the positive impacts employing strategies has on their listening tests generally; this result is consistent with the finding
A questionnaire revealed a high average score (M=3.95), indicating that students agree on the positive impact of utilizing listening test-taking strategies Many students noted that these strategies helped improve their psychological well-being by boosting confidence, reducing anxiety, stabilizing mood, and enhancing concentration.
Some students found that using specific strategies helped them better understand audio content, leading to improved listening test results However, these improvements often depend on additional factors, such as the students' proficiency levels and emotional states One participant noted that while test-taking strategies are useful, the outcomes of listening tests are likely influenced more by students' language competence than by the strategies themselves.
A student highlighted the importance of maintaining an active brain status through effective strategies, suggesting that a prepared mind allows for effortless access to information She expressed concern that without these strategies, she would feel overwhelmed and devastated due to a passive mindset.
The Frequency of Test-taking Strategy Use by Second-year English Majored Students to
The reliability coefficient of part three, including thirty-six questions from the questionnaire, was measured as illustrated in Table 4.3
Cronbach's Alpha Number of Items
Table 4.3 unveils that Cronbach's Alpha of all thirty-six items is 0.936, which indicates the items have high internal consistency
Table 4.4 indicates the descriptive statistics concerning six groups of strategies adopted from Oxford (1990)
The mean score of listening test-taking strategies
Cluster N Mininum Maximum Mean SD
Table 4.4 indicates that the average mean score for all six strategy categories exceeds 3.55, showing a clear preference among students for using these strategies in listening tests Metacognitive strategies lead with the highest mean score of 3.88, closely followed by cognitive strategies at 3.79 Both memory and compensation strategies are utilized equally, each with a mean score of 3.66 While the affective strategies are the least frequently employed, their mean score remains above 3.5, indicating that most students occasionally incorporate these strategies as well.
4.3.1.2 The Results of each Type of Test-taking Strategy
The descriptive statistics for memory strategies were categorized into two main groups: pre-listening memory strategies, encompassing items 1 to 3, and while-listening memory strategies, which include items 14 and 17 The findings for these memory strategies are presented in Tables 4.5 and 4.6.
The result of pre-listening memory strategies is presented in Table 4.5
Memory strategies Minimum Maximum Mean SD
1 Before listening I write down the synonym of the keywords while reading the listening test questions
2 Before listening I visualize to recall the meaning of the words while reading the listening test questions
3 Before listening I recall how the words are pronounced while reading the listening test questions
Table 4.5 indicates that students typically utilize memory strategies during the pre-listening stage, with mean scores for all three types exceeding 3 Notably, the strategies of visualization and auditory imagery receive greater emphasis than the keyword note-taking strategy.
Table 4.6 reveals the frequency of employing strategies while students are taking the listening tests
Memory strategies Minimum Maximum Mean SD
14 While listening I cross out options that I think do not fit 1 5 3.75 976
17 While listening I use my visualization
Table 4.6 reveals that the average mean score for pre-listening memory strategies is similar to those employed during listening, indicating that students frequently use memory-related techniques while listening Notably, a significant number of students support the exclusion of unreasonable responses (M=3.75) and the creation of mental images during the listening phase.
The data collected from the questionnaire were analyzed with regard to cognitive strategies both before and while listening, as demonstrated in table 4.7 and table 4.8
The statistical results of cognitive strategies (items 4 and 6) employed prior to students‟ listening tests were shown in table 4.7
4 Before listening I translate the listening test instructions into
6 Before listening I highlight the key words of the listening tests by underlining or circling
Data shows that the average score for students using cognitive strategies before listening is around 4 (3.97), suggesting a strong agreement among students Notably, highlighting strategies are favored over translating into their native language.
Items 15,16, 18,19, 20,21,23 addressed participants‟ utilizations of while-listening cognitive strategies The results regarding this cluster are exhibited in Table 4.8
Cognitive strategies Minimum Maximum Mean SD
15 While listening I pay attention to repeated words
16 While listening I consider intonations/word stress
18 While listening I relate new words with words that I know
19 While listening I associate my prior knowledge/ experience with what I listen
20 While listening I summarize the information
21 While listening I translate what I heard
23 While listening I take note on the test paper
The findings presented in Table 4.8 reveal that participants regularly utilize all strategies, with an average mean score of 3.74 Notably, item 23 achieved the highest mean score of 3.96, indicating strong agreement among participants on the effectiveness of note-taking strategies In contrast, the translation strategy received a lower mean score.
3.55) is the strategy students pay least attention to during the listening process
Table 4.9 and Table 4.10 illustrate the frequently-used level of compensation strategies by students in pre-and-during-listening phases
5 Before listening I use grammatical structures to guess the meaning of the listening test questions
7 Before listening I notice the conjunctions in the listening test questions/ items
8 Before listening I analyze the prefix/suffix of words in the listening test questions/ items
As reflected in Table 4.9, the mean score of three items 5,7, and 8 (3.54, 3.75, and
3.48 respectively) in the cluster of pre-listening compensation strategies show no clear-cut distinction The most preferred strategy is paying attention to the conjunctions before listening, with a mean score of 3.37
During-listening compensation strategies, namely item 22, 25,29, and 30, are illustrated in Table 4.10
Compensation strategies Minimum Maximum Mean SD
22 While listening I analyze conjunctions/ prefixes/ suffixes
25 While listening I skip unknown words
29 While listening I guess word meanings based on context
30 While listening I guess word meanings based on speakers‟ intonation
Table 4.10 reveals that the average mean score for compensation strategies used during the listening phase is slightly elevated at 3.71 across the entire cluster group Notably, lexical prediction strategies emerge as the most utilized, boasting a mean score of 4.09, indicating a significant reliance on vocabulary guessing among students.
Students frequently utilize the strategy of predicting words based on the speaker's intonation, with an average rating of 3.75 This approach is closely followed by the strategy of ignoring unidentified words while listening, which has a mean score of 3.69.
All clusters of metacognitive strategies during three phases, namely pre, while, and after listening, are presented in three following tables
Metacognitive strategies Minimum Maximum Mean SD
9 Before listening I think of some words related to the listening test topic
10 Before listening I identify the purpose of each listening part before listening
The mean score of the two strategies in Table 4.11 surpasses the neutral mean (value
=3), which discloses that most participants agree with brainstorming words and determine the listening tasks' objective before listening
The results of while listening metacognitive strategies, including items 24,26, and 27 are shown in Table 4.12
Metacognitive strategies Minimum Maximum Mean SD
24 While listening I highly pay attention 1 5 4.29 933
26 While listening I predict the incoming content based on former information
27 While listening I compare what I listen to and what I know about the topic
Table 4.12 reveals that the primary strategy employed during listening tests is full concentration, achieving a mean score of 4.29 Additionally, content prediction and content comparison strategies are also utilized during the while-listening phase, with mean scores of 3.78 and 3.66, respectively.
Metacognitive strategies Minimum Maximum Mean SD
33 After listening I re-read the listening test questions
34 After listening I review all the answers to ensure that each question is answered correctly and completely
35 After listening I check the content and grammar of each answer
36 After listening I identify the problems that are experienced with the listening test
Table 4.13 indicates that among the four strategies analyzed, thorough reviews received the highest average score of 4.10 Additionally, most students demonstrate equal focus on rereading test items and identifying issues encountered during listening tests.
11 Before listening I breathe deeply before starting the listening test
12 Before listening I smile before starting the listening test
13 Before listening I encourage myself by thinking I can do it before starting the listening test
Table 4.14 shows that students have an average mean score of 3.49, indicating a frequent use of affective strategies such as deep breathing and self-encouragement In contrast, smiling as a strategy in this context appears to be less common, with a mean score of 2.95.
Affective strategies Minimum Maximum Mean SD
28 While listening if there are questions that I am not sure about, I calmly choose the answer and move to the next question
Table 4.15 shows that the mean value of 3.73 for item 28 suggests that during the listening process, the majority of students maintain composure when faced with uncertain options and proceed to the next question.
Social strategies Minimum Maximum Mean SD
31 While listening I use my knowledge of other cultures
32 While listening I notice speakers‟ feeling via their intonation
As can be witnessed from Table 4.16, most students pay attention to background knowledge concerning culture and speakers‟ emotions while taking listening tests with the mean 3.51 and 3.74, respectively
When asked about their strategies for listening tests, participants shared various approaches they utilize Student A highlighted the importance of specific techniques in enhancing their listening comprehension and performance during these assessments.
To enhance listening comprehension, I emphasize identifying keywords in questions prior to listening, allowing me to capture relevant answers from the audio Additionally, it's crucial to review all listening questions beforehand; failing to do so may result in missing essential information for the tests I seldom connect the listening content with mental imagery.
Discussion of the Research Findings
This study explored students' awareness and frequent use of listening test-taking strategies, revealing that most participants view these strategies positively in relation to test performance, listening comprehension, concentration, and anxiety The findings align with Mohammadi and Abidin (2012), indicating that participants experienced increased relaxation, effective prediction, and improved time management during tests.
Interview responses indicate that employing strategies in listening tests plays a constructive role in management and reading test enhancement All students interviewed, regardless of their proficiency levels, emphasized that the use of test-taking strategies significantly influences their performance in listening tests.
Students reported that using test-taking strategies had the most significant impact on their test performance compared to comprehension, concentration, and anxiety This finding aligns with previous research that explores the connection between strategy use in language skills and test outcomes.
Research by Pourdana (2012) and Lee (2018) reveals significant correlations between the use of strategies and reading outcomes Similarly, Ardhy (2018) and Bagheri and Fazel (2011) found that employing strategies positively influences learners' speaking and writing skills Additionally, Bulushi et al (2018) demonstrated that test-taking strategies significantly impact listening comprehension However, Razmalia and Gani (2017) reported no established relationship between listening strategy use and outcomes, suggesting that the seventeen strategies proposed by Phillips (2001) may not be effective for listening assessments.
The current study reveals that the use of test-taking strategies had a greater effect on students' performance, understanding, and concentration during listening tests than on reducing anxiety Interview data supports this finding, as only one participant noted that these strategies helped alleviate anxiety, while the other seven did not recognize any positive impact on anxiety levels This may be attributed to the low mean score associated with the use of affective strategies among the six clusters analyzed, suggesting that infrequent use of such strategies contributes to their limited effectiveness in managing anxiety.
A study involving 51 affective strategies related to psychological approaches in listening tests revealed that most students struggled to reduce anxiety through these strategies Previous research (Mohammadi et al., 2013; Noormohamadi, 2009) indicated a negative correlation between the use of language learning strategies and student anxiety Additionally, Mohammadi and Abidin (2012) found that employing test-taking strategies could lead to relaxation However, there is a lack of studies exploring the correlation between test-taking strategy use and student anxiety, highlighting the need for further research in this area.
The study reveals that metacognitive strategies received the highest mean score among six clusters, indicating students' strong preference for using these strategies Additionally, students identified common strategies they employ, such as clarifying the purposes of listening tests, which fall under the metacognitive category These findings are consistent with earlier research (Fini, 2016; Zhang &).
In a study by Zhang (2013), it was found that metacognitive strategies were the most commonly used in reading and listening tests However, Bulushi et al (2018) expanded on Oxford's (1990) taxonomy of strategies, revealing that cognitive strategies were the most frequently employed during all three stages of listening tests.
(2018) are not apparently identical with this study, the second place out of six groups of cognitive strategies in this study suggested multiple uses of these strategies Otherwise, Ngo
In 2015, it was discovered that social and affective strategies were the most commonly used, followed by metacognitive and cognitive strategies Additionally, the frequency of strategy adoption varied based on how these strategies were operationalized For example, Razmalia and Gani (2017) utilized different approaches in their research.
52 strategies proposed by Phillips (2001), and their findings revealed that the strategy "listening for expressions of uncertainty and suggestion" gained the highest use among participants
Among the 36 strategies evaluated, the strategy of highlighting keywords in listening tests (strategy 6) received the highest mean score, indicating that students focus on identifying critical information during the pre-listening phase Additionally, interviews with participants supported the frequent application of this strategy.
Before listening tests, many students emphasize key terms and essential information, aligning with Bulushi et al (2018), who noted that "repeated words in the listening test" received significant attention (M= 4.7) This approach highlights the cognitive strategies employed by students, as suggested by God, indicating a preference for focusing on critical elements during assessments.
(2002), is that the more students focus on specific information in the initial stage, the more advantageous it is during the listening test
A significant finding from the interview is the use of translation as a strategy, with participants expressing contrasting opinions on its application in listening tests Questionnaire results indicate that translation, both prior to and during listening, has a mean score exceeding 3.55, highlighting its substantial use According to Singh et al (2021), students noted that employing the translation strategy enhanced their understanding of the tests, as evidenced by their verbal reports.
Bagheri and Fazel (2011) found that students valued translation strategies in writing tests, regardless of their language skills However, some participants opposed the use of Vietnamese in listening tests, believing that direct comprehension in English is more effective than translation.
Summary
This chapter highlights the key findings from both the questionnaire and interview, followed by a discussion of these results The upcoming chapter will summarize these essential findings and offer pedagogical implications, along with suggestions for future research.