INTRODUCTION
Rationale
In Vietnam, the increasing globalization and economic integration have made learning English essential, as it permeates various aspects of life, including politics, economy, culture, and education English serves as a vital tool for accessing global knowledge and participating in the developed world, making it a key criterion for securing good job positions after university graduation Consequently, the importance of English in schools and universities has grown, with curricula continuously updated to address the country's needs for regional and international integration English teachers employ innovative teaching methods to motivate students, fostering independent learning and enhancing their communication skills.
At the College of Arts, Hue University (HCA), students face challenges in mastering the English language due to limited proficiency in the four basic skills As the demand for English proficiency rises, students recognize its importance as a vital tool for engaging with modern technologies and societal changes, particularly in the arts In response, both students and English teachers are striving to improve language skills through effective teaching methods It is crucial to design an English syllabus that meets learners' needs, requiring lecturers to analyze and understand these needs thoroughly Implementing effective teaching strategies will not only enhance students' language abilities but also boost their motivation to learn English at the university level.
Task-based Language Learning is an effective teaching method that has garnered attention from researchers such as Krashen, Nunan, Skehan, Brown, and Frost This approach enables learners to acquire a foreign language more easily by concentrating on completing tasks rather than focusing solely on language mechanics It encourages learners to express their thoughts in various situations, enhancing their ability to communicate effectively in the target language.
Engaging in classroom tasks significantly enhances inspiration and motivation for art students, fostering their desire for independent and active learning These students are particularly enthusiastic about tasks that relate to everyday life, especially when using a foreign language According to Krashen (1987), such tasks facilitate language generation and provide opportunities for language acquisition By shifting the focus away from strict grammar and structures, teachers can help students develop practical English skills While teachers should enrich students' language use when necessary, it is crucial to allow students to use English in a manner similar to their everyday language interactions Consequently, incorporating tasks in the classroom simplifies the language acquisition process.
Students at HCA have shown a lack of engagement in English speaking classes due to various motivational challenges Workshops and seminars conducted by international organizations revealed that while students actively share their ideas in academic settings, they struggle to do the same in English classes This observation has prompted researchers to explore effective teaching methods that encourage active participation in English learning The research highlights that enhancing speaking skills can significantly motivate students, as they seek to articulate their thoughts in English rather than relying solely on their artwork for expression With the growing importance of English proficiency in the job market, educators are committed to implementing effective teaching strategies that enhance students' English skills for both academic success and everyday communication.
After years of learning and working with English, my primary goal has been to enhance my speaking skills Proficiency in speaking is fundamental, as it serves as the foundation for improving other language skills such as listening, writing, and reading In reality, without the ability to speak or read English, achieving overall language proficiency becomes nearly impossible.
This research focuses on the implementation of a task-based approach to enhance English speaking skills among students It aims to explore how this method can foster new motivation for learning English, particularly in speaking The researcher provides a sample task-based lesson plan designed for teaching speaking skills at HCA, with the expectation that it will motivate students, improve their English knowledge, enhance their speaking abilities, and effectively support the development of other English skills.
- Investigate the application of Task-based approach in learning and teaching the English speaking skill at HCA
- Explore the advantages and disadvantages of Task-based approach in teaching and learning the English speaking skill at HCA
- Provide some suggestions for designing appropriate Task-based lesson plans for students at HCA
This study focuses on the application of the Task-based approach in teaching and learning English speaking skills at HCA It examines the strengths and weaknesses of this approach as perceived by both teachers and students Additionally, the research aims to identify strategies for developing effective Task-based lesson plans that enhance motivation in learning English speaking skills among HCA students.
1) What are teachers‟ and students‟ attitudes towards the use of Task-based approach to teaching and learning the English speaking skill at College of Arts, Hue University?
2) What are advantages and disadvantages of the application of Task-based approach in teaching and learning the English speaking skill at College of Arts, Hue University?
3) What factors should be considered to design an appropriate Task-based lesson plan to motivate students to learn English speaking skill at College of Arts, Hue University?
This study aims to enhance understanding of Western researchers' perceptions and beliefs regarding Task-based learning, ultimately facilitating the effective application of the Task-based approach in English language teaching and learning.
The findings of this study emphasize the significance of the Task-based approach for both students and English teachers at HCA This approach enhances English teaching and learning, particularly benefiting arts major students by improving their English learning outcomes.
The thesis consists of five chapters
This Chapter presents the practice of learning English at HCA It presents the rationale, the aims, the research questions and the scope of the research
This chapter outlines essential definitions related to the research and reviews prior studies on Task-based Language Teaching, highlighting its characteristics, principles, advantages, and disadvantages Additionally, it discusses various characteristics and types of tasks involved in this teaching approach.
This chapter outlines the research methods utilized in the thesis, employing both quantitative and qualitative approaches It explains the rationale behind the selection of these methods and details the research subjects, as well as the procedures for data collection and analysis.
In this Chapter, main results and data collected from questionnaires, interviews and class observation are reported, discussed, and examined in relation with the research questions
This chapter outlines the research development, highlighting its limitations while offering pedagogical implications for implementing Task-based Language Teaching to enhance student motivation in learning English, particularly speaking skills at HCA Additionally, it proposes future research directions in this field.
Research Questions
1) What are teachers‟ and students‟ attitudes towards the use of Task-based approach to teaching and learning the English speaking skill at College of Arts, Hue University?
2) What are advantages and disadvantages of the application of Task-based approach in teaching and learning the English speaking skill at College of Arts, Hue University?
3) What factors should be considered to design an appropriate Task-based lesson plan to motivate students to learn English speaking skill at College of Arts, Hue University?
Significance of the Study
This study aims to enhance understanding of Western researchers' perceptions and beliefs regarding Task-based learning, ultimately facilitating the effective implementation of the Task-based approach in English language teaching and learning.
The study highlights the significance of the Task-based approach for both students and English teachers at HCA, emphasizing its role in enhancing English teaching and learning outcomes This approach is particularly beneficial for arts major students, leading to improved results in their English language acquisition.
Organization of the Thesis
The thesis consists of five chapters
This Chapter presents the practice of learning English at HCA It presents the rationale, the aims, the research questions and the scope of the research
This chapter outlines essential definitions of key terms relevant to the research, reviews prior studies on Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), and explores its characteristics, principles, advantages, and disadvantages Additionally, it highlights various types of tasks and their distinctive features.
This chapter outlines the research methods utilized in the thesis, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative approaches It explains the rationale behind selecting these research methods and details the subjects involved in the study Furthermore, the chapter describes the procedures for data collection and analysis, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the research process.
In this Chapter, main results and data collected from questionnaires, interviews and class observation are reported, discussed, and examined in relation with the research questions
This chapter outlines the research development, highlights its limitations, and discusses the pedagogical implications of Task-based Language Teaching for enhancing student motivation in English learning, particularly in speaking skills at HCA Additionally, it proposes future research directions in this field.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definitions of Key Terms
2.1.1 Task-based Language Learning (TBLL)
Task-based Language Learning (TBLL) has garnered significant interest since 1987, with various definitions emerging in scholarly studies Breen (1987) defines TBLL as a structured language learning approach with specific objectives, relevant content, defined procedures, and diverse outcomes for participants Krahne (1987) further emphasizes that task-based instruction can encompass an entire language teaching curriculum, as it promotes language acquisition by offering extensive comprehensible input.
Task-Based Language Learning (TBLL) enhances communication skills by engaging learners in various meaningful tasks within structured classroom settings According to Willis (1996), TBLL effectively merges the principles of communicative language teaching with a systematic emphasis on language form, fostering a comprehensive learning experience.
378) With the cognitive view, Skehan (1996) proposes that TBLL gives learners tasks to implement that when involving in these tasks, the learners will be driven
In a student-centered teaching approach, learners are encouraged to progress at their own pace and focus on their individual interests, allowing them to effectively process and restructure their interlanguage This method shifts away from a rigid developmental sequence, promoting learner autonomy and freedom in the educational experience.
Task-based syllabuses are a specific implementation of communicative language teaching, as noted by Nunan (2001), who emphasizes the importance of conducting a needs analysis to identify the target tasks learners will need for real-world application Similarly, Brown (2001) describes the Task-based Teaching Approach as one that centers on tasks, framing the learning process around communicative activities that align with curricular objectives.
Task-based Learning, as highlighted by 2007, provides a valuable alternative for language teachers by leveraging students' strengths and keeping them actively engaged in various classroom tasks.
2.1.2 Principles of Task-based Language Learning (TBLL)
Willis (1996) highlights the core principles of Task-Based Language Learning (TBLL), stressing the significance of establishing clear goals for tasks to ensure learners understand their expected outcomes In contrast, Ellis (2003, p.5) offers a different perspective on the effectiveness of task-based approaches in language acquisition.
Learners often engage in tasks without solely focusing on meaning, balancing their roles as language users and learners While tasks encourage learners to prioritize message conveyance, they also permit some attention to language forms During task performance, learners may occasionally shift their focus to form, reflecting their dual role Ultimately, the degree to which a learner engages as a language user or learner, and their attention to message versus code, varies rather than being strictly defined.
Skehan (1998, p.95) also suggests 5 principles for Task-based Instruction as follows:
- There should be exposure to worthwhile and authentic language
- There should be use of language
- Tasks should motivate learners to engage in language use
- There should be a focus on language at some points in a task cycle
- The focus on language should be more and less prominent at different times Moreover, Hatip (2005, p.2) suggests general principles of Task-based Learning:
- Task-based Learning is based on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching
- Tasks that involve real communication are essential for language learning
- Learners learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully while engaged in the activities and tasks
- The focus is on process rather than product
- Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process
- Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty
Two researchers Hu Wen-Zhi & Fu Xong-Gang (2007, p.38) suggest some principles of Task-based Learning as follows:
- The authenticity principle: The linguistic data that learners work with are authentic
The task dependency principle illustrates how a sequence of tasks within a lesson or unit acts as a pedagogical ladder, facilitating learners' progression This structured approach empowers students to achieve a higher level of communicative performance, enhancing their overall learning experience.
Learning by doing empowers students to reach their full potential by engaging them in task-based authentic learning environments In these settings, students actively use language through various communicative tasks, allowing them to comprehend, manipulate, and produce language effectively.
2.1.3 Characteristics of Task-based Language Learning
Krahne advocates for Task-based instruction as highly beneficial for learners of various ages and backgrounds, addressing key issues in language acquisition, including the transfer problem, through engaging and authentic tasks He identifies three positive characteristics of the Task-based approach that enhance its effectiveness in language learning (Krahne, 1987, p.98).
- Task-based Learning addresses the crucial problem in language teaching, which is the transfer problem, directly by using active and real tasks as learning activities
Task-based Learning emphasizes that the ability to complete instructional tasks directly correlates with language proficiency, suggesting that functional language skills should naturally develop from the learning experience.
- Task-based Learning instruction can be the vehicle for instruction in other types of content or knowledge as it addresses language acquisition
According to Stone (1988), Task-based activities are defined by three key criteria Firstly, they have a specific goal that necessitates the use of the target language, but this goal is not solely focused on language itself Secondly, these activities leverage the unique capabilities of a language lab to foster a learning environment that cannot be replicated in a traditional classroom setting Lastly, Task-based activities engage students in a manner that intrinsically motivates them, reduces their affective filter, and fosters a strong desire to excel.
Nunan (1989) defines Task-Based Language Learning (TBLL) as a comprehensive approach that emphasizes the importance of tasks in the language learning process, positioning them as essential to achieving curricular objectives He highlights key characteristics of the task-based approach, which focuses on communicative tasks that facilitate effective language acquisition.
- An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target Language
- The introduction of authentic teaching materials into the learning situation
- The provision of opportunities for learners to focus not only on language but also on the learning process itself
- An enhancement of the learner‟s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning
- An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom (Nunan,1989, p.1)
Beside the characteristics of TBLL proposed by many researchers, Skehan
(1998, p.95) presents some of the main features of TBLL:
- There is some communication problem to solve
- There is some sort of relationship to comparable real world activities
- Task completion has some priority
- The assessment is done in terms of outcomes
Additionally, Task-based Language Teaching has many purposes Willis
1 to give learners confidence in trying out whatever language they know;
2 to give learners experience of spontaneous interaction;
3 to give learners the chance to benefit from noticing how others express similar meanings;
4 to give learners chances for negotiating turns to speak;
5 to engage learners in using language purposefully and cooperatively;
6 to make learners participate in a complete interaction, not just one-off sentences;
7 to give learners chances to try out communication strategies; and
8 to develop learners‟ confidence that they can achieve communicative goals.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Task-based Language Learning
2.2.1 Advantages of Task-based language learning
In the process of studying task, Tim Bowen (n.d.) points out the main advantages of TBLL
Language serves a genuine purpose, emphasizing the importance of real communication When learners prepare reports for their class, they focus on the overall language form rather than just one aspect, unlike the PPP model, which transitions from accuracy to fluency In contrast, Task-based language teaching aims to integrate all four skills, promoting a balance between fluency and accuracy This approach offers a diverse range of tasks—such as reading, listening, problem-solving, role-plays, and questionnaires—providing flexibility and fostering motivation among learners.
Krahne (1987) emphasizes that allowing learners to use any language during tasks helps them concentrate on the meaning of their messages, simulating real-life communication and integrating authentic experiences into the classroom Similarly, Frost (2005) highlights that Task-Based Language Learning (TBLL) fosters a cooperative atmosphere, encouraging participant initiation from the beginning This approach creates a supportive, non-threatening environment where learners can actively engage in their educational journey.
2.2.2 Disadvantages of Task-based Language Learning
Task-based language learning (TBLL) presents several disadvantages, as highlighted by Krahne (1987), who notes that its success hinges on students' individual and group responsibility, making it challenging to implement in cases of student disengagement Additionally, evaluating TBLL can be problematic due to its divergence from traditional assessment methods Skehan (1996) points out that time constraints may lead learners to rely on familiar language, compromising accuracy and limiting language development Hatip (2005) emphasizes that the challenges of TBLL are more about implementation than effectiveness, requiring teachers to be creative and proactive If educators are confined to traditional teaching roles or lack the necessary resources, the application of TBLL may become unfeasible, especially as it often demands materials beyond standard textbooks.
Communicative Language Teaching
Littlewood (1981) describes task-based teaching as a specific method to implement communicative language teaching, aiming to create a classroom environment similar to real-life language use This approach enhances students' communication skills by utilizing the grammatical structures of the language He emphasizes the importance of considering various skills essential for effective Communicative Language Teaching.
- The learner must attain as high a degree as possible of linguistic competence
He must develop skill in manipulating the linguistic system to use it spontaneously and flexibly in order to express his intended message
- The learners must distinguish between the forms he has mastered as part of his linguistic competence and the communicative functions which they perform
- The learners must develop skills and strategies for using language to communicate meaning as effectively as possible in concrete situations
- The learner must become aware of the social meaning of language forms (p 6)
Moreover, Ellis (2003) points out that the overall purpose of a Task-based approach is to create opportunities for language learning and skill development through collaborative knowledge building.
Definition of Tasks
Along with the definitions of Task-based Language Learning of many researchers, a number of definitions of Tasks have also been presented Nunan
In his 1989 work, Nunan distinguishes between "tasks," "exercises," and "activities," defining a task as classroom work that engages learners in understanding, manipulating, producing, or interacting in the target language, with a primary focus on meaning rather than form He emphasizes that tasks reflect communicative language use, where learners prioritize meaning over linguistic structure Nunan notes that tasks are communicative acts without a strict focus on a single grammatical structure and result in non-linguistic outcomes In contrast, exercises focus narrowly on specific language elements with linguistic outcomes, while activities share characteristics of both tasks and exercises, having a limited focus on one or two language items but yielding communicative outcomes.
According to Skehan (1996), a task is defined as an activity where meaning is of utmost importance, it relates to the real world, emphasizes the completion of the task, and evaluates performance based on the outcome.
According to Willis (1996), tasks are activities where learners use the target language for communication to achieve specific outcomes In contrast, Williams and Burden (1997) describe a task as any activity that learners participate in to enhance their language learning process.
When studying Task-based Learning, Willis (1996) defines Tasks within 6 types:
1) Listing: Learners have many opportunities to create a lot of talks to explain theirs ideas by brainstorming and fact-finding
2) Ordering and sorting: Learners can use many approaches as sequencing, ranking, categorizing, classifying to finish a certain goal
3) Comparing: Learners can match information, find similarities and differences
4) Problem solving: In this type, learners are required to have ability to analyze real or hypothetical situation, have reason and make decision to solve the problem
5) Sharing personal experiences: Learners are encouraged to share their experiences with other class members by narrating, describing, exploring and explaining attitudes, opinions, reactions
6) Creative tasks: Learners will work in pairs or in groups to finish the work creatively This type has many stages that include the tasks mentioned above: Brainstorming, fact-finding, ordering and sorting, comparing, problem solving, etc. (p.56-57)
Nunan (2001) differentiates between real-world or target tasks, which are communicative acts performed outside the classroom, and pedagogical tasks, conducted within the classroom He further categorizes pedagogical tasks into those with a rehearsal rationale and those with a pedagogical rationale, defining each element distinctly.
- Real-world or target task: A communicative act we achieve through language in the world outside the classroom
Pedagogical tasks are classroom activities designed to engage learners in understanding, manipulating, producing, or interacting with language, with a primary focus on meaning rather than form These tasks lead to non-linguistic outcomes and can be categorized into two types: rehearsal tasks, which practice language skills, and activation tasks, which encourage the use of language in meaningful contexts.
- Rehearsal task: A piece of classroom work in which learners rehearse, in class, a communicative act they will carry out outside of the class
Activation tasks are classroom activities that focus on communicative interaction, specifically aimed at stimulating the acquisition process rather than preparing learners for real-world communication outside the classroom.
When researching about Task-based Learning, Littlewood (1981) states some Characteristics of Tasks as of the following points:
Tasks are activities in which students work purposefully towards an objective
The objective may be one that they have set for themselves or one which has been set by the teacher
Tasks may be carried out individually or (more often) in groups
Tasks may be carried out in competition with others or (more often) in collaboration
The outcome may be something concrete (e.g a report or presentation) or something intangible (e.g agreement or the solution to a problem) (p.7)
Task-based Lesson Plans
2.5.1 Generality of Task-based Lesson Plan
While there is no official definition of a Task-based Lesson Plan from either Western or Vietnamese researchers, English teachers can utilize the Willis model from 1996 This model outlines three main categories, starting with the Pre-task phase.
This article introduces the topic and task, emphasizing the importance of brainstorming and familiarizing oneself with useful vocabulary and phrases It highlights the preparation phase, which may include listening to native speakers to enhance understanding and execution of the task The focus is on the Task Cycle, which is essential for effective learning and application.
This cycle has three essential phrases:
Learners engage in a communication task in pairs or groups, utilizing their existing language skills to achieve a real outcome This task aligns with the six main types proposed by Willis, emphasizing goal-oriented activities During this phase, the teacher monitors the students, encouraging them to communicate in the target language without correcting errors, focusing instead on spontaneity and fluency.
After completing their tasks, students focus on organizing and accurately reporting their outcomes, with the teacher assisting in correcting any errors during this phase.
In a classroom setting, various groups present their findings to the entire class, while other students listen attentively to compare results or conduct their own surveys The teacher may rephrase the content shared by the groups without correcting the language used, focusing on enhancing language skills.
+ Analysis: Learners focus on form and ask questions about language features + Practice: The teacher conducts activities based on the analysis work or examples from the text or transcript (p.56-57)
2.5.2 Characteristics of Task-based Lesson Plans
The Task-based approach has transformed traditional language learning by shifting from direct instruction to fostering active, task-oriented learners (Tran, 2011, p.21) This method encourages students to engage critically with tasks, allowing them to analyze and summarize their learning experiences To effectively implement this approach, teachers must design tasks that align with the learners' proficiency levels, ensuring a supportive and conducive learning environment.
2.5.3 Principles of Task-based lesson plans
In designing effective Task-based Lesson Plans, Tran (2011) emphasizes the importance of focusing on learners, which distinguishes this approach from traditional methods Teachers should act as facilitators, providing opportunities for students to engage actively with the target language in realistic contexts, thereby enhancing their communication skills Additionally, tasks must be grounded in real-life scenarios, utilizing language and situations familiar to learners, while also being appropriately challenging to maintain interest and confidence Tasks that are too easy can lead to boredom, while overly difficult tasks may intimidate students Finally, incorporating interesting and varied tasks is crucial, as they encourage learner initiative and engagement, preventing the monotony associated with repetitive activities.
Previous Studies
In recent years, Task-based Language Learning (TBLL) has emerged as a significant methodology in language education, demonstrating its effectiveness across various countries Nunan (1989) defines a task as classroom work focused on meaningful communication rather than linguistic form Harmer (1991) emphasizes that the focus should be on the learning tasks rather than just the language input Campbell & Kryszewska (1992) highlight that tasks enable learners to use specific language structures while revising broader language concepts, activating their existing knowledge Additionally, Willis (1996) states that tasks involve using the target language for communicative purposes to achieve specific outcomes Overall, TBLL fosters a practical and engaging learning environment that enhances language acquisition.
In 1998, it was demonstrated that learners engaged in Task-based instruction complete specific tasks in the classroom, promoting naturalistic language acquisition This approach is favored over others as it prioritizes meaning over form, enhancing the learning experience.
In Vietnam, researchers have explored the Task-based approach to enhance language teaching for various purposes Duong (2004) investigated this approach to adapt the English course book for construction engineering at Phu Yen College Similarly, Nguyen (2009) examined the application of the Task-based approach in teaching speaking at upper secondary schools in Ninh Thuan province to improve oral tasks in new English textbooks Additionally, Tran (2011) focused on designing Task-based sample lesson plans for business English aimed at ESP students at Duy Tan University in Da Nang, ensuring the current materials are effectively utilized.
Recent research by both Western and Vietnamese scholars highlights the positive impact of the Task-based approach on teaching and learning Studies consistently indicate that this method is among the most effective for language instruction, as it allows learners to engage with English in a manner similar to their everyday communication By generating their own language through tasks, students create opportunities for language acquisition Active participation is crucial for effective learning, prompting this research to explore how the Task-based approach can enhance motivation for developing English speaking skills at the College of Arts, Hue University.
The next Chapter is the presentation of methodology.
METHODOLOGY
Research Methodology
The study employed both quantitative and qualitative methods to enhance reliability, with the quantitative approach allowing for the collection of extensive data from a large participant pool McNeill (1985) highlights that this method enables the acquisition of substantial statistical data quickly It focuses on assessing and analyzing interviewee responses to specific questions, yielding objective insights while minimizing researcher bias.
Quantitative research aims to quantify problems and assess their prevalence, providing projectable results for larger populations It relies on statistical analysis of subjects' responses, which are then generalized to broader contexts This approach focuses on measuring social reality, seeking to establish numerical data Quantitative researchers perceive the world as an objective reality, emphasizing the importance of rigid guidelines in data collection and analysis.
In addition to quantitative methods, a qualitative approach was employed to gather and analyze participant information, enhancing the questionnaire with detailed insights This method allows researchers to obtain more reliable data from specific individuals, focusing on their perceptions and experiences, as noted by Cresswell (1994) Johnson & Saville-Troike (1992) and Newman (2000) highlight that qualitative research is essential for exploring beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and interactions Recently, the qualitative approach has been increasingly studied and effectively applied in significant scientific research, with Denzin and Lincoln (2005) describing it as a situated activity that connects the observer to the world.
Qualitative researchers focus on understanding phenomena within their natural contexts, interpreting the meanings that individuals assign to their experiences (Merriam, 2009) According to Mhango (2011), the primary goal of qualitative research is to present a nuanced perspective of a situation through comprehensive and well-articulated reports, showcasing the researcher's skill in illustrating the corresponding phenomena This approach is particularly valued for its richness and depth in exploration and description.
However, qualitative method could meet the difficulty in generalizing qualitative information and providing consistent conclusions Some viewpoints of participants could go far from researcher‟s expectation.
Participants
The study involved 150 first to third-year students from four departments at HCA: Fine Arts, Painting, Printmaking, Art Pedagogy, and Sculpture Additionally, the researcher distributed questionnaires to current English teachers at HCA, including 10 General English and ESP teachers, both active and retired, to gather objective feedback on the application of Task-based learning A minimum of 10 stable responses was required to facilitate the quantitative analysis for the research.
The study involved ten teachers, comprising six General English (GE) instructors and three English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teachers from the HUCFL, along with one ESP teacher from HCA At HUCFL, two teachers are responsible for GE at HCA, while one teaches ESP The majority of the nine HUCFL teachers are female (eight), with one male, and their ages range from 37 to 50, while the HCA teacher is 39 All participants hold Master's degrees, and their teaching experience spans from five to twenty-five years, indicating a high level of expertise among the educators.
A survey involving 150 students from first to third year at HCA reveals insights into their English language learning experiences The participants, hailing from diverse urban, rural, and remote areas in Central Vietnam, predominantly began studying English in grade 6 and continued through university Despite this background, many students exhibit low English proficiency upon entering university The sample includes 80 first and second-year students and 70 third-year students, with a gender distribution of 52 males and 98 females, primarily aged between 19 and 28, and 80% falling within the 19-22 age range The students were randomly selected to complete questionnaires, with first and second-year students receiving 30 periods of General English instruction per term using the "New Cutting Edge Pre-Intermediate" textbook, while third-year students engage in 45 periods of English for Specific Purposes (ESP).
Instruments of Data Collection
This research utilized questionnaires and interviews with teachers and students to gather essential data Additionally, observations were conducted to verify the authenticity of the information obtained and to provide a comprehensive understanding of the consistency and discrepancies between the quantitative and qualitative data, as well as the current teaching and learning practices in classrooms.
The study utilized questionnaires to gather both quantitative and qualitative data, as they are an effective tool for collecting diverse responses efficiently This method allows researchers to obtain a substantial number of responses within a limited timeframe, enhancing the overall data collection process.
The study primarily utilized close-ended questions to ensure clarity and ease of response for participants, as noted by Newman (2000) These questions were meticulously crafted to provide comprehensive options for subjects Additionally, open-ended questions were incorporated to capture crucial information that might be overlooked, allowing experienced teachers and engaged students to share insights beyond the fixed categories established by the researcher (Newman, 2000).
The questionnaire, detailed in Appendix 1, comprised 16 questions divided into two sections The first section aimed to collect background information from teacher participants, while the second section included 10 questions designed to investigate the implementation of the Task-based approach in teaching English speaking skills The initial two questions assessed the application of this approach, followed by two questions that explored teachers' perceptions of Task-based learning in their speaking classes Questions 5 and 6 addressed teachers' awareness of the advantages and disadvantages of Task-based learning, and the final four questions sought to identify factors that could aid in creating effective Task-based lesson plans for teaching English speaking skills at HCA.
The questionnaires for the teachers were written in both Vietnamese and English with present tense although some of teachers are no longer teaching at HCA
The questionnaire for students was structured into two main sections, comprising a total of 13 questions The first section gathered background information, while the second included 10 questions aimed at assessing students' perceptions of learning English speaking through tasks This section explored both the benefits and challenges students face in their English speaking journey Additionally, the final part sought to understand students' opinions on factors that enhance the relevance and effectiveness of lesson plans, focusing on their attitudes towards Task-based learning The questions aimed to identify the genuine needs for task-based English learning and students' preferred learning styles to create engaging lesson plans that motivate them to improve their English speaking skills.
The questionnaire for students was translated into Vietnamese to help the respondents understand the questions more clearly and give more reliable answers (see Appendix 2)
The interviews aimed to enhance questionnaire data and delve into participants' insights regarding the Task-based approach in teaching and learning English speaking skills Semi-structured interviews were employed to facilitate focused, conversational, and interactive communication, allowing for a more in-depth exploration of the topic According to Nunan (1992, p.195), this method supports a flexible yet structured framework for gathering valuable information.
In face-to-face interviews, participants were able to share their experiences, with the environment facilitating immediate clarification Semi-structured interviews were conducted with three teachers and four students, each lasting 20 to 30 minutes at convenient locations The researcher took notes to document the data, and the interviews were conducted in Vietnamese to ensure participants felt comfortable expressing their opinions To maintain confidentiality, participants' real names were coded and referred to as T1, T2, T3 for teachers and S1, S2, S3, S4 for students in this study.
The interviews aimed to gather insights from four selected students and three teachers regarding Task-based learning, assessing the current state of task-based language teaching This research will enhance the design of Task-based lesson plans, ultimately motivating students to learn English The discussions revealed both the immediate benefits and challenges of implementing the Task-based approach in teaching English speaking skills at HCA, providing valuable information for more effective future applications.
Interviewing is essential for gaining deep insights into individuals' feelings, perceptions, values, and their interpretations of the world and past events that cannot be replicated (Wilkinson & Bhandarkar, 1999) In this study, interviews with teachers and students were conducted to enhance the data gathered from questionnaires, providing further explanations, clarifications, and valuable insights through direct interaction between the researcher and the interviewees.
A semi-structured interview was conducted using open-ended questions to explore the implementation of the Task-based approach in teaching and learning English speaking skills The study involved three teachers specializing in General English (GE) and English for Specific Purposes (ESP) at HCA, along with four students from the first to third year of the institution.
The interviews conducted for the study lasted approximately 20 to 30 minutes and were scheduled at convenient times for both teachers and students on campus Aimed at gaining an in-depth understanding of attitudes towards the Task-based approach in speaking classes, each interview was guided by a carefully prepared set of questions, particularly tailored for students To ensure clarity, introductory explanations of the Task-based approach were provided Due to some recording errors, detailed notes were taken during all interviews for subsequent analysis.
The interviews, conducted in Vietnamese to create a comfortable environment for teachers and students to freely share their thoughts on the Task-based approach, were later translated into English for analysis.
Observing real classroom dynamics is crucial, as it uncovers unique characteristics of both groups and individuals that might remain hidden through other methods This technique provides valuable insights into the educational environment.
Direct observation is often considered a more reliable method (Bell, 1993, p.109) and proves to be beneficial in demonstrating the structure of lessons through various activities, including group work, individual tasks, role-playing, and discussions (Lewy, 1977, p.163) This technique enables educators to gather valuable insights from the classroom environment.
The observation sheet for the study was structured into five distinct sections, each tailored to the research focus The first section addressed classroom conditions, including seating space, desk arrangement, class size, and available facilities The subsequent sections evaluated the activities of both teachers and students, particularly in relation to the implementation of a task-based approach during lessons The final two sections focused on classroom evaluation and the teaching strategies employed by the instructor.
Procedure of Data Collection
The data collection process involved three key steps: a comprehensive literature review to gather essential information, the formulation of objectives and research questions to guide the study, and the collection of data through questionnaires, classroom observations, and interviews with teachers and students.
In a research study at HCA, ten English teachers and 150 students participated by completing questionnaires essential for the study's success Prior to distribution, the researcher emphasized the importance of the information collected for research purposes A total of 150 questionnaires were given to first to third-year students, with feedback collected the following day, along with additional copies to facilitate selection of the most informative responses For teachers, some questionnaires were distributed on campus while others were sent via email, allowing respondents to complete them at their convenience All feedback was gathered within a few days.
Following the distribution of questionnaires, classroom observations of the speaking classes were conducted using a designed checklist to gather additional information The researcher faced challenges in executing these observations due to the limited time allocated for English courses, where speaking skills are often integrated with other skills Consequently, the researcher reached out to teachers to explain the specific purpose of the observations, leading to the arrangement of suitable times for class observation.
The study examined teacher-student interactions during speaking classes, comparing those that utilized a Task-based approach with those that did not Additionally, it considered classroom facilities, the demographics of the student population, and the activities of both teachers and students.
The study involved interviews with three teachers, utilizing a semi-structured format comprising six questions These questions focused on the teachers' attitudes toward the Task-based approach, their insights into the advantages and disadvantages of implementing this approach in speaking classes, and their suggestions for creating effective Task-based lesson plans aimed at enhancing speaking skills at HCA.
Four students from their first to third year were interviewed to explore their experiences and perceptions of learning to speak English The interviews aimed to gather insightful feedback on how to enhance speaking skills in the classroom To ensure relevant responses, the researcher provided the interviewees with a structured introduction.
Each interview lasted from 30 to 40 minutes and was written in notes.
Data Analysis
The research involved quantitative analysis of data collected from questionnaires completed by 10 teachers and 150 students, utilizing statistical frequency and percentage, which were illustrated through various tables and figures Additionally, qualitative analysis was enhanced by incorporating supplementary ideas from the questionnaires, as well as insights gained from classroom observations and interviews.
This analysis examines the implementation of Task-based learning in English speaking education, highlighting its benefits and drawbacks for both students and teachers Additionally, it explores key factors that contribute to an effective Task-based lesson plan aimed at enhancing student motivation in learning to speak English.
In summary, both quantitative and qualitative methods were applied to the analysis of the data to make the results of the study more precise, objective and reliable
The researcher employed a mixed-methods approach, utilizing 10 questionnaires for teachers, 150 for students, 2 classroom observations, and 7 participant interviews to gather and analyze data meticulously, ensuring the reliability and trustworthiness of the study's results.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The Advantages and Disadvantages of the Application of Task-based
This article explores the advantages and disadvantages of Task-based learning in speaking classes, highlighting teachers' perspectives in the first section The second section focuses on students' opinions regarding the benefits and challenges of learning to speak through tasks Finally, the article concludes with a summary of the researchers' findings on the effectiveness of the Task-based approach in enhancing English speaking skills at HCA.
4.2.1 Teachers’ Views on the Advantages and Disadvantages of the Application of Task-based Approach in Teaching Speaking Skill
4.2.1.1 Teachers’ Thoughts about the Advantages of Task-based Learning in Speaking Classes
Figure 4.8 Teachers’ thoughts about advantages of Task-based learning in speaking classes
Task-based learning in speaking classes offers several advantages, as highlighted by teachers' feedback A significant majority, 80%, agree that this approach enhances students' accuracy and fluency in oral tasks Additionally, 70% believe it improves students' capacity to acquire language, although some argue that this requires more diverse talents and learning methods All teachers (100%) support the notion that task-based learning promotes a learner-centered environment Furthermore, 80% note that it makes speaking lessons less mechanical and allows for greater teaching flexibility While 70% feel that it boosts students' interest and motivation, 60% acknowledge the benefit of real-life communication practice, despite some concerns about the limitations of textbook tasks Lastly, opinions are divided on the creation of a collaborative learning environment, with 50% agreeing and 50% disagreeing, as they believe group and pair work are inherent in any teaching method.
4.2.1.2 Teachers’ Thoughts about the Disadvantages of Task-based Learning in Speaking Classes
This question was designed to get teachers‟ opinions of the disadvantages of Task-based learning in speaking classes Different perspectives are listed in figure 4.9
Figure 4.9 Teachers’ thoughts about disadvantages of Task-based learning in speaking classes
The primary disadvantage identified by all teachers (100%) was the difficulty in finding suitable authentic teaching materials for Task-based learning, which is essential beyond traditional textbooks Additionally, 90% of teachers noted challenges in managing large classes, as the high student count hindered balanced English proficiency Task-based instruction relies on student responsibility and cooperation, and when these qualities are lacking, implementation becomes challenging Furthermore, 70% of teachers believed that the evaluation process impacts Task-based learning's effectiveness, as traditional tests may not adequately measure its outcomes Time management issues were reported by 60% of teachers, while half (50%) highlighted a lack of teaching aids as a disadvantage Only 10% faced challenges in understanding Task-based learning, and none reported difficulties in conducting tasks for students.
In a recent interview, T1 emphasized that task-based learning necessitates resources beyond traditional textbooks, as they often lack authentic tasks Teachers must seek out suitable authentic materials that align with the language learning objectives of college students T3 noted that to encourage student engagement in speaking tasks, educators frequently recommend authentic activities outside the textbook, which can be challenging for those lacking specialized knowledge in the arts.
The evaluation process poses challenges, as I lack sufficient time to assess all pairs or groups and invite each of them to present their tasks to the class.
Task-based learning has several disadvantages that can affect its implementation It is crucial for teachers to carefully consider these drawbacks to effectively apply the Task-based approach in their classrooms.
4.2.2 Students’ Perceptions on the Advantages and Obstacles in Learning Speaking English with Tasks
4.2.2.1 Students’ Opinions about the Advantages in Learning Speaking English with Tasks
The questions were designed to ask students‟ thoughts about the advantages they might have in learning speaking English with tasks The result from 150
Table 4.1 Students’ opinions about advantages in learning speaking English with tasks
Have more chances to practice the language 150 100%
Create a comfortable learning environment for every student to share ideas 142 94.7%
Have many helpful/interesting speaking topics for applying to the realistic environment in daily life especially art environment
Have active role in learning speaking English 134 89.3%
Gap knowledge and exchange helpful information from others 127 84.7%
According to the data presented in Table 4.1, 100% of students believed that task-based learning significantly enhances opportunities for practicing speaking skills Notably, 94.7% of the 150 students surveyed felt that tasks foster a comfortable environment for idea sharing Additionally, 89.3% of students regarded active participation in task-based learning as a beneficial aspect of improving their speaking abilities Furthermore, 84.7% of students expressed that engaging in speaking tasks allowed them to bridge knowledge gaps and exchange valuable information with peers.
4.2.2.2 Obstacles in Learning Speaking English from Students’ thoughts
The aim of this multiple question was to get information from students on the obstacles in learning speaking English Different perspectives are listed in table 4.2 in the priorities order
Table 4.2 Obstacles in learning speaking English from students’ thoughts
Lack of supply of vocabulary, language structure and functions from the teacher 150 100%
Lack of time for practice speaking 139 92.7%
Lack of teacher‟s adequate instruction 127 84.7%
Being too shy to present in front of class 127 84.7% Some tasks go beyond students‟ communicative competence 118 78.7%
A recent survey revealed that 100% of students identified a lack of vocabulary, language structure, and functions provided by their teacher as the primary obstacle to their English speaking proficiency Additionally, 92.7% of the 150 students surveyed acknowledged other significant challenges in their journey to improve their spoken English skills.
Many students face significant challenges in developing their English speaking skills, primarily due to a lack of time for practice and insufficient teacher instruction, with 84.7% of students reporting these issues Additionally, the same percentage of students indicated that shyness contributes to their difficulties in speaking, as they often fear making mistakes due to their limited proficiency This fear undermines their confidence and motivation to participate in class discussions Furthermore, 78.7% of students struggle with speaking tasks that exceed their communicative competence, highlighting the need for adequate vocabulary and instruction As one student noted, complicated language structures hinder their performance, while another emphasized that speaking tasks should be engaging and relevant to their art studies to encourage participation and idea sharing.
Students often face significant challenges in developing their speaking skills, primarily due to limited English proficiency, insufficient background knowledge, and low motivation Additionally, a lack of support from teachers exacerbates these issues, as some tasks may not align with the students' language competence To address these obstacles, educators should provide adequate language structures, functions, and vocabulary, ensuring that students are well-equipped with the necessary knowledge Furthermore, teachers should adapt speaking texts and tasks to better suit their students' proficiency levels and specialized knowledge.
Factors need to be considered to design an appropriate Task-based Lesson
This section is divided into two parts: the first explores teachers' perspectives on the key factors for creating effective Task-based lesson plans that enhance student motivation in learning speaking skills The second part examines students' views on the elements that contribute to more effective learning of speaking skills.
4.3.1 Teachers’ Perceptions of Factors need to be considered to design an Appropriate Task-based Lesson Plan to motivate Students in Learning English Speaking Skill
4.3.1.1 Teachers’ Opinions on Factors to have an Effective Task-based Lesson Plan
This section focuses on the factors that the teachers should be done to get an effective Task-based lesson plan The answers of the respondents are shown in figure 4.8
C: Create tasks beyond the text book to attract students‟ interest
E: Add more art themes to attract students to do well the tasks
F: Support of vocabulary, language structure and function
Figure 4.10 Teachers’ opinions on factors to have an effective
All teachers (100%) emphasized the necessity of providing comprehensive input, including vocabulary and language structure, to facilitate student understanding A significant 90% of teachers offered clear instructions to help students grasp the required tasks more easily Additionally, 70% believed that flexible time management is crucial for adequately supplying knowledge and aiding in evaluations Over half (60%) of the educators advocated for a work arrangement that incorporates individual, pair, and group activities to foster a collaborative learning environment They also noted that integrating more art themes is essential for enhancing student engagement in speaking tasks Furthermore, 40% of teachers frequently designed tasks beyond the textbook to pique students' interest In interviews, T2 highlighted the importance of clear instructions and key vocabulary due to students' limited English proficiency, while T3, an ESP teacher, noted that students at HCA come from five main majors, reinforcing the need for tailored teaching strategies.
Painting, Sculpture, Art Pedagogy and Printmaking, so, ESP teachers should consider the themes which can be suitable and familiar with all art majors”
4.3.1.2 Types of Tasks were often used to enhance the Effectiveness in Speaking Classes
Figure 4.11 Types of tasks were often used to enhance the effectiveness in speaking classes
This section highlights the tasks teachers frequently employ to enhance the effectiveness of speaking classes, as illustrated in figure 4.11, which ranks these tasks from most to least effective All teachers (100%) reported using role play, while 90% found games to be effective in motivating students to engage in speaking activities Additionally, 70% of teachers utilized discussions as a primary task for teaching speaking skills, and 60% incorporated information gap activities Only 30% of teachers created customized tasks to suit the lesson and students' levels, whereas problem-solving and interviews were rarely used, with only 20% of teachers implementing them These latter tasks were noted to be challenging due to class size, as T3 remarked, “Role play and games are effective ways to motivate students to take part in tasks; discussion is sometimes used but it is not effective because of the large size of the class.”
4.3.1.3 The Teachers’ Opinions on Speaking Tasks in the Current Material
Figure 4.12 The teachers opinions on speaking tasks in the current material
The inquiry aimed to gather insights on speaking tasks within current materials to create an effective Task-based lesson plan for HCA students According to Figure 4.12, 40% of General English (GE) teachers believed that the speaking tasks were primarily for reviewing grammar and structure from lessons, providing an easy method for students to reinforce key concepts In contrast, two GE teachers expressed concerns that these tasks were not suitable for art students' proficiency levels Additionally, 40% of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teachers also found the speaking tasks inadequate, noting that they often had to design their own tasks to align with the main content taught in class, as the textbook offered limited speaking opportunities.
4.3.1.4 Teachers’ Perceptions of the Necessary Chance in some Factors in Speaking Classes
Table 4.3 Factors should be changed in speaking classes
Teachers’ opinions Number of respondents (No./10)
A survey was conducted to gather teachers' opinions on factors influencing the effectiveness of teaching speaking skills, as shown in Table 4.3 The findings revealed that a significant majority of teachers (90%) believe that teaching materials need to be updated to better suit the specific majors of HCA students Additionally, 70% of the teachers, amounting to 7 individuals, expressed that extending the course duration is essential for providing comprehensive knowledge to students Conversely, only 40% of the teachers, or 4 individuals, felt that changes to teaching facilities are necessary to enhance the teaching process.
The current textbook lacks everyday conversation and includes themes related to science quizzes that are generally unsuitable for Vietnamese students, particularly those studying art, due to their limited experience with these topics As a result, students struggle to complete their tasks Therefore, it is essential to develop teaching materials that are relevant to art majors to engage students and encourage their enthusiastic participation in learning activities.
Most teachers acknowledge the significance of various factors that can enhance the effectiveness of Task-based lesson plans in developing speaking skills By considering these factors, educators can foster more positive attitudes and motivations among students toward improving their listening skills.
4.3.2 Students’ Opinions of Factors which can make them learn Speaking Skill more effectively
4.3.2.1 Students’ Options in Favorite Topics on Fine Arts Textbook
The purpose of this multiple-choice survey is to identify the favorite topics among HCA students, providing inspiration for idea sharing To create an effective lesson plan that meets students' learning needs, it is essential to include topics related to arts and specialization.
A: Fine arts and painting B: The elements of painting
C: Materials for painting D: Techniques in painting
Figure 4.13 Students’ options in favorite topics on Fine Arts textbook
A recent survey revealed that all Fine Arts students (100%) expressed a keen interest in topics related to Fine Arts and painting techniques A significant majority, 94% (141 students), enjoyed discussing the elements of painting, while 91.3% (137 students) showed a preference for materials used in painting Drawing emerged as a favorite subject for 79.3% (119 students), and over half of the students (59.3%, or 89 students) indicated their interest in design topics In contrast, only 24% (36 out of 150 students) preferred still life painting, and the topic of sculpture attracted a mere 6.7% (10 students) from the Sculpture department.
4.3.2.2 Students’ Opinions on Themes which should be added in Speaking Classes
This survey aims to gather students' opinions on themes that could enhance engagement and performance in speaking classes for art students, with various options presented in Figure 4.14.
A: Famous masterpieces B: Biography of famous artists
C: Introduction about the owner‟s artwork D: Drawing process
E: Creation process F: Brainstorming – Getting inspiration
Figure 4.14 Students’ opinions on themes which should be added in speaking classes
This figure represents that all of 150 students (100%) were interested in topic of introduction of the owner‟s artwork A great number of the students occupying
A significant 94% of students, totaling 138 individuals, favored the drawing process and brainstorming as their preferred themes According to Figure 4.17, the topic of famous masterpieces also captivated 68.7% of students, equating to 103 participants Furthermore, 46.7% of students from the Applied Art department, or 70 students, expressed enjoyment in discussing the creation process In contrast, only 18.7% of the total, comprising 28 out of 150 students, showed interest in the biographies of famous artists.
4.3.2.3 Students’ Preferences for Ways of Assessment in Speaking Classes
Role play Oral presentation Discussion
Figure 4.15 Students’ preferences for ways of assessment in speaking classes
According to Figure 4.15, a significant majority of students, 58.7% (88 students), preferred role play as their favorite method of teacher evaluation for speaking skills in class Additionally, 14% (21 students) found oral presentations to be an appropriate assessment for those with strong English proficiency Furthermore, 27.3% of students, totaling 41 out of 150, enjoyed participating in discussions to evaluate their speaking abilities.
4.3.2.4 Students’ Options of Learning Ways in Speaking Classes
Individual Pair work Group work
Figure 4.16 Students’ options of learning ways in speaking classes
A significant majority of students, 84.7% (127 students), preferred learning to speak English in groups, highlighting the benefits of collaboration and increased confidence in sharing ideas In contrast, only 10.7% (16 students) favored working in pairs, while a mere 4.6% (7 students) chose individual learning as their preferred method for developing speaking skills.
4.3.2.5 Students’ Favorite Sub-Skills in Learning English Speaking Skill
Figure 4.17 Students’ favorite sub-skills in learning English speaking skill
As can be seen from figure 4.17, most of the students accounting for 64%
A total of 96 students engaged in learning listening alongside speaking, while 30% of the students, or 45 individuals, preferred combining speaking with reading In contrast, only 9 out of 150 students, representing 6%, selected writing as a sub-skill for enhancing their speaking abilities.
In the interview, when being asked about factors which can facilitate the speaking learning process of students, S2 stated,
Many students experience a lack of confidence when presenting ideas in class due to limited vocabulary and a basic understanding of English grammar and sentence structure To address this issue, it's essential to introduce new vocabulary and language structures Additionally, teachers should assign speaking tasks that align with students' proficiency levels, ensuring that the tasks are appropriately challenging without being overwhelming.
Some Suggestions for designing Task-based Lesson plan to motivate
To design an effective Task-based lesson plan for HCA students focused on enhancing their speaking skills, it is essential to consider key factors that motivate learners Incorporating engaging speaking tasks within the lesson plan can significantly boost student participation and interest in language learning.
- Task-based lesson plans should meet learners‟ needs Therefore, the design of a task-based syllabus preferably starts with an analysis of the learners‟ needs
- Focusing on learners to make learners become active in learning process to have their own development
- Tasks should be authentic and interesting and involve learners‟ experience Also, tasks should be as close as possible to the learner‟s English background
- Designing tasks properly with learners‟ language proficiency level to attract learners‟ interest and encourage them to learn
- Providing learners with basic language proficiency, clear instruction for facilitating the learning process of learners
- The teacher needs to carry out a feedback to realize how successful the task was and to take into account some suggestions to improve the tasks
- Classifying the material for the class appropriately
With the above suggestions, the researcher would like to present an sample task-based lesson plan to adapt the present context of learning speaking skills at HCA (see Appendix 6)
This chapter summarizes the findings and discussions of the study, revealing that both teachers and students generally hold positive attitudes towards the Task-based approach in language teaching However, the limited language proficiency of many art students has hindered the widespread application of this approach, particularly in teaching speaking skills The survey indicates that the Task-based approach should be more widely implemented in speaking classes, especially for English for Specific Purposes (ESP), as students possess sufficient language proficiency to engage with tasks effectively The chapter also explores the advantages and disadvantages of Task-based learning to enhance its strengths and mitigate its weaknesses in teaching spoken English Additionally, it discusses factors that can influence the effectiveness of Task-based lesson plans for HCA students The findings and discussions align with the research questions posed, and a summary of the major findings, along with implications for teachers and students, will be provided in the next chapter.