Introduction
Rationale of the study
English is the preferred international language for many Vietnamese students, as highlighted by Ton & Pham (2010) However, Vietnam's status as a non-English speaking country presents challenges in teaching and learning the language, as the learning context significantly impacts success in acquiring a second language Students in non-English speaking environments often lack opportunities for authentic language use, remaining primarily immersed in their native language outside the classroom To address this issue, educators have conducted studies focusing on how ESL/EFL teachers and learners navigate these challenges Richards (2014) emphasizes that successful language acquisition involves both classroom activities and external language experiences.
Previous research primarily focused on classroom-based teaching and learning of ESL/EFL, exploring whether such environments foster effective language acquisition This emphasis led to the development of syllabuses, teaching techniques, and materials aimed at enhancing in-class learning experiences Consequently, textbooks and classroom resources became vital tools for delivering content and instruction, providing practical feedback and facilitating authentic communication in the language learning process.
2 language use In addition, language instructions in the classroom were used to facilitate school- based learning around the curriculum or to train students for different exams (Richards, 2014)
The traditional classroom-based approach to ESL/EFL learning has faced criticism for restricting learners to a limited environment Historical challenges such as large class sizes hinder authentic communication, while time constraints offer minimal in-class instruction hours each week Additionally, issues like inadequate teaching materials, teachers' limited English proficiency, and a focus on standardized testing further exacerbate the situation.
‘affordances’ inside the classroom are quite constrained, consisting of a restricted range of discourse and literary practices
The approach to teaching and learning ESL/EFL has evolved, emphasizing real-world language use beyond the classroom Hyland (2004) asserts that language acquisition should extend to learners' homes and communities The rise of the Internet and various digital platforms offers abundant resources for practical language use, making learning more immersive and interactive compared to traditional textbooks (Jones & Hafner, 2011; Lankshear & Knobel, 1997) Through these tools, English learners can engage in conversations with peers or native speakers via chat rooms, watch English-language media with subtitles, and explore gaming sites that promote language use, enhancing their learning experience.
3 language learning aspects are available for download and use at any time and anywhere
In non-English speaking countries such as Vietnam, where exposure to English primarily occurs in the classroom, the concept of Language Learning Beyond the Classroom (LLBC) offers an effective approach to address the limitations of traditional classroom learning LLBC represents an emerging area for new research opportunities, highlighting its significance in enhancing language acquisition and learner engagement.
In light of the increasing variety of resources and opportunities for language learning beyond the classroom (LLBC), the study titled "Language Learning Beyond the Classroom: Resources and Activities by English-Majored Students at University of Foreign Languages, Hue University" aims to investigate the LLBC resources and activities most commonly utilized by English majors at HU-UFL The research will also assess the students' perceptions regarding the effectiveness of these resources and their actual usage in enhancing their language learning experience.
Aims of the study
This study investigates the current state of LLBC among EFL tertiary students in Vietnam during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic The findings provide valuable insights for both EFL students and teachers, highlighting how LLBC resources and activities can be effectively leveraged to enhance English language learning.
To achieve the above-mentioned goals, the study seeks answers to the following questions:
Question 1: What are the LLBC resources and activities frequently used by English-majored students at HU-UFL?
Question 2: How do English-majored students at HU-UFL perceive the utility of such LLBC resources and activities?
Question 3: In what ways do they actually use these LLBC resources and activities to improve their English proficiency?
Significance of the study
In today's rapidly evolving information and communication technology landscape, the expansion of LLBC resources offers unparalleled learning opportunities for ESL/EFL learners To fully leverage these resources, learners must take greater control of their education while still receiving essential support from their teachers Consequently, ESL/EFL educators must transition to a facilitative role, acknowledging that language acquisition can occur in diverse environments beyond the classroom This study aims to enhance teachers' understanding of various LLBC resources and activities, along with their benefits and limitations By doing so, educators can effectively guide students on how to integrate LLBC resources as valuable supplements to traditional classroom instruction.
Scope of the study
This study, conducted at HU-UFL, highlights the university's emerging reputation for producing qualified EFL teachers and learners However, the limited in-class language learning time is increasingly insufficient to meet the growing expectations for English-majored graduates To address this, English majors must adopt a flexible approach to their learning by leveraging LLBC resources and activities to improve their English proficiency Therefore, it is essential for English faculty members to guide students on the effective use of these contemporary LLBC resources and activities to ensure a high-quality education.
This study aims to gather qualitative data on the LLBC resources and activities commonly utilized by students, as well as their perceptions of how these resources and activities contribute to enhancing their English proficiency.
Qualitative data will reveal how learners utilize LLBC resources and activities to improve their English proficiency, aligning with the rising standards expected of English graduates.
Structure of the study
This study is organized into five chapters with the main contents as follows:
Chapter 1: Introduction offers the basic concepts of the study, including the rationale of the study, the aims of the study, the significance of the study, the scope of the study as well as the overall structure of the study
Chapter 2: Literature Review comprises 4 main components The first part gives a brief introduction into LLBC The second section offers the definition and categorization of LLBC resources and activities The third constituent presents a review of previous studies into the field of LLBC, thereby identifying the gap for this study The last segment provides the theoretical framework for the study
Chapter 3: Methodology describes the methodology used in this study, consisting of research design, research instruments, research participants, data collection, data analysis, and evaluative criteria of the study
Chapter 4: Findings and Discussion presents the findings of the study, together with the discussion of significant results directly related to the research aims It comprises 5 main parts, the first four sections of which provide results in relation to subjects’ characteristics, the frequency of LLBC resources and activities use, the perceived utility of LLBC resources and activities, as well as the actual utilization of LLBC resources and activities The last segment discusses the issues raised in the research questions, thereby giving explanations applicable to the findings
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Implications summarizes the results of the study, offers implications for EFL students and teachers, deals with the limitations of the study and gives recommendations for further studies
Summary of the chapter
This chapter introduces the study by exploring the theoretical and contextual rationale for researching LLBC resources and activities in the current landscape of university education in contemporary Vietnam It outlines the objectives and significance of the study, and concludes with an overview of the thesis structure Overall, this chapter establishes essential background information to support the subsequent chapters.
Literature Review
Introduction to LLBC
Contemporary studies on learning have primarily focused on classroom dynamics, but Barron (2006) introduced the concept of "learning ecology," which encompasses various contexts and resources where learning occurs He defines learning ecology as the combination of physical and virtual spaces that facilitate learning opportunities This includes both institutional learning ecologies—comprising resources, people, and tools—and personal learning ecologies, which are unique to individual experiences and interact dynamically with those of others Sefton-Green (2006) supports this perspective, emphasizing the importance of recognizing out-of-school learning environments to enhance the overall education system He advocates for educators to broaden their understanding of learning by considering the "wider ecology of learning," which includes activities both inside and outside the classroom.
Benson (2008) emphasized that classroom learning is just one aspect of language engagement, with research indicating that learners often credit their language success to active participation in resources and activities beyond the classroom (Lamb, 2002; Nunan, 1991; Pickard, 1996) This has led educators to advocate for more research to explore how diverse resources and environments can improve learners' understanding and sense-making in language acquisition (Greenhow et al., 2009).
LLBC, broadly defined by Benson (2011) as including any sort of activities that lead to language learning in the contexts outside the classroom, entails learners’ deliberate and
The concept of "independent interaction" with social and technological resources empowers learners to self-direct their education (p 127) The influential work "Language Learning Beyond the Classroom" by Nunan and Richards (2015) highlights the significance of autonomous learning, offering valuable insights into the exploration and enhancement of language learning beyond traditional settings.
LLBC resources and activities
In her study on English learning strategies of Vietnamese tertiary students, Nguyen
(2013) put forward the Regulating category based on the Meta-cognitive category in Oxford’s
In her 1996 work on English Learning Strategies, Wen identified a well-known Strategy Inventory for Language Learning, focusing on the Management category She proposed various strategies for leveraging diverse resources to enhance learning opportunities in the target language Specifically, she highlighted six key types of learning resources accessible to EFL learners in Vietnam.
1 Academic print materials (textbooks, reference books, lesson notes)
2 Non-academic print materials (newspapers, journals, novels, stories)
3 Traditional broadcast materials (shows/movies on TV, radio programs)
4 Recorded materials (audio/video tapes, CDs)
5 Online/computer-based materials (e-books/journals, software, webcast)
6 Monolingual (English-English)/Bilingual (English-Vietnamese) dictionary
Resources can be effectively utilized for LLBC, but the key factor is how EFL learners leverage these resources to enhance their learning opportunities in LLBC activities Additionally, the swift advancement of educational materials and applications for mobile devices, such as smartphones and tablets, has led to the incorporation of mobile-based materials into the learning process.
Online/computer-based materials to suit with the current situation in Vietnam
Benson (2011) defines Lifelong Learning Beyond the Classroom (LLBC) as learning that occurs outside traditional classroom settings, encompassing self-instruction, naturalistic learning, and self-directed naturalistic learning His classification of LLBC activities is detailed in Table 2.1.
Learners deliberately plan to improve the target language and search out resources to help them do this
Using self-study grammar books to improve their grammar
Learners learn mainly unintentionally through communication and interaction with the target language group
Engaging in discussions with English speaking classmates or colleagues
Self-directed naturalistic language learning
Learners create or seek out a language learning situation but may not focus directly on learning the language while they are in that situation
Subscribing to an English newspaper everyday with the underlying aim of improving their vocabulary but may read it mainly for the news without undertaking any specific learning activities
Note This table is adapted from Benson (2011) categorization of out-of-class learning
Based on Benson’s categories as shown in Table 2.1, the following section will identify types of LLBC activities in greater detail
Previous studies indicate that learners actively seek opportunities to use English outside the classroom, influenced by factors such as interests, environments, learning styles, and proficiency levels (MacLeod & Larsson, 2011; Pickard, 1996; Shen et al., 2005; Suh et al., 1999) These activities include engaging with authentic L2 materials like English newspapers, novels, and advertisements, as well as listening to music, radio, and conversations EFL learners enhance their English proficiency through various LLBC activities, with high-ranking practices including listening to the radio, watching English programs, and independent study in libraries (Pearson, 2004; Pickard, 1996; Suh et al., 1999) Learning through technology plays a significant role in this process.
Technology plays a crucial role in enhancing language learning, as highlighted by Thorne (2009) and Zhao (2007), and is increasingly recognized as a vital component of the learning environment (Benson, 2006; Greenhow et al., 2009; Sefton-Green, 2006) Although disparities in access and usage persist (Sanchez et al., 2011), a new generation of students, particularly in both developing and developed nations, is increasingly integrating technology into their everyday activities for diverse purposes (Moyle et al.).
2012), one of which is language learning through technology, or the use of new technology as support in the process of teaching and learning L2 (Nomass, 2013) Therefore, EFL language
11 learners seeking opportunities to improve their English proficiency outside the classroom, in turn, can benefit from learning through technology such as CD-players, tape-recorders, computers, broadcasting, etc
CD-player devices, designed for playing audio CD-ROMs, are effective tools for enhancing listening comprehension skills They allow ELL learners to preserve lectures and listening tests for later review, offering significant advantages over traditional methods Additionally, integrating computers into the learning process enables EFL students to acquire more knowledge and improve their listening abilities, particularly through computer-based listening tests that are essential for strengthening comprehension skills (Hoven, 1999).
Reading is a crucial skill for EFL learners, heavily influenced by their vocabulary and background knowledge (Constantinescu, 2007) All language experiences play a significant role in enhancing reading abilities (Ybarra, 2003) The integration of technology can boost learners' interest while ensuring text readability Computer-based reading instruction fosters better interaction with texts, meets individual needs, and promotes independence, allowing students to access texts they might otherwise struggle with (Case & Truscott, 1999) Online learning offers EFL students various technological tools, such as Computer Reading-Based Programs, Multimedia Software, Internet Browsers, Electronic Dictionaries, and Reading CD-ROMs Additionally, they can enhance their literacy skills through specially designed computer games and applications that focus on improving English grammar, vocabulary, spelling, and phonics.
Regarding writing, the use of computers allows ELL learners to hone their writing skills, since the inclusion of visuals enabled by utilizing a computer can make the writing experience
12 much more pleasurable and help students express their ideas more effectively (Lewis, 1997)
EFL learners often face challenges when writing paragraphs, but they can enhance their writing by utilizing various text formatting options such as highlighting, bolding, italicizing, and changing font size and color through specific applications that also provide automatic spelling and grammar checks Research indicates that using computers for writing is significantly more engaging for those who find English grammar difficult, compared to traditional methods involving pencil and paper (Ybarra & Green, 2003).
EFL students can enhance their speaking skills through virtual communication and innovative technology, such as speech synthesis programs powered by Artificial Intelligence These advanced applications help signal and decode human speech, making them effective tools for improving speaking, vocabulary, and pronunciation abilities (Nomass, 2013) Additionally, learning through television can further support language acquisition.
Television is recognized as a powerful tool for language learning, enhancing listening comprehension, vocabulary acquisition, and cross-cultural understanding (Danan, 2004; Lian, 2014; Meinhof, 1998; Vanderplank, 1998, 2010) Language learners value television as a significant resource for language learning and bilingual communication (Nunan & Richards, 2015) Its primary advantage lies in providing an extensive amount of spoken input in the target language, which is crucial for developing vocabulary and listening skills, as well as other aspects of second language acquisition (Webb, 2014) Additionally, watching L2 movies and programs helps learners fulfill their need for increased exposure to the language.
One way in which television viewing relates to language learning is using television series, a multi-episodic television series related to a cognitive approach known as ‘resourcing’
In the language learning process, viewers take notes on words or expressions they wish to learn, facilitated by textual captions or subtitles (Hanf, 2014) Captions provide a script in the target language, while subtitles offer a translated version in the learner's native language The choice between captions and subtitles depends on the learner's language proficiency Furthermore, learners have the flexibility to control their experience by pausing or replaying content to enhance understanding As their listening and resource skills improve, they become more adept at grasping longer sequences of words.
The advent of Internet television has revolutionized viewing habits, allowing users to stream content on various Internet-enabled devices like smartphones and tablets This flexibility enables language learners to access their favorite shows, dramas, and comedies anytime, anywhere, simply by connecting to the Internet With the widespread availability of Internet television, learners can now utilize their 'dead time' during commutes to engage with English-language programs, ensuring they receive authentic language input even in short intervals This convenience greatly enhances language acquisition opportunities for learners on the go.
2.2.2.2 Naturalistic language learning a Interacting with native speakers of the target language
The first language a person learns is referred to as their mother tongue, making them a native speaker of that language (Davies, 1991; Bloomfield, 1933) Engaging with a native speaker, or a monolingual individual who continues to use the language acquired in childhood, is crucial for effective language learning.
EFL learners can enhance their English language skills through various activities that promote face-to-face interaction with native speakers outside the classroom Popular methods include engaging in conversations with native English speakers, establishing pen pal relationships for written correspondence, and traveling to English-speaking countries.
Modern technology offers EFL learners numerous platforms to interact with native speakers, significantly enhancing their language skills Email is a particularly effective tool for improving writing abilities, allowing students to practice formal communication by responding to messages (Singhal, 1997) Additionally, text messaging serves as a user-friendly medium for expressing thoughts and ideas, facilitating real-time communication and further developing writing skills.
Previous studies
2.3.1 Students’ active engagement with LLBC
Research consistently highlights the active participation of EFL students in LLBC activities across various contexts Studies have shown that EFL learners in Indonesian junior high schools (Lamb, 2004a) and universities in regions like Hong Kong (Spratt et al., 2002), Turkey (Inozu et al., 2010), and Taiwan (Shen et al., 2005) engage with similar LLBC resources and activities, despite minor variations in usage frequency Additionally, the experiences of successful adult EFL learners in Japan (Murray, 2008) underscore the essential role of LLBC in language acquisition, particularly through their engagement with pop culture, including TV shows, movies, and music.
20 novels These various accounts of different population groups from all over the world have shown that EFL learners are actively engaging in LLBC
2.3.2 The variety of LLBC resources and activities available for EFL students
Research has significantly enhanced our understanding of LLBC resources and activities, highlighting their benefits and limitations for language learning For instance, Freeman (1999) discovered that ESL/EFL learners prefer engaging in diverse LLBC settings over traditional classroom activities Additionally, Pearson's 2004 survey of Chinese international students in New Zealand indicated that these learners frequently used various LLBC resources—including magazines, newspapers, TV shows, movies, radio, and peer interactions—to enhance their English skills, reporting that these resources made learning more enjoyable.
Recent studies of these kinds have also acknowledged self-organized communities or
Recent studies highlight various emerging language learning settings, such as English corners (Gao, 2007, 2009), independent home learning (Kuure, 2011; Palfreyman, 2011), and community heritage language programs (Back, 2013; Moore & MacDonald, 2013) Additionally, face-to-face or Skype tutoring at home (Barkhuizen, 2011; Kozar & Sweller, 2014) and language cafes in educational institutions (Murray et al., 2014) have gained popularity With advancements in the Internet and Information and Communication Technology, there is an increasing focus on online language learning, including platforms like fan fiction (Black, 2008) and online TV dramas (Wang, 2012).
2.3.3 Factors affecting EFL students’ selection of LLBC resources and activities
Examining the diverse LLBC (Language Learning Beyond the Classroom) settings for learners can help us understand how these resources and activities contribute to broader 'social ecologies' of language learning (Palfreyman, 2014) This viewpoint highlights the significance of LLBC in enhancing language acquisition and fostering collaborative learning environments.
The relationship between in-class and out-of-class learning is crucial in the study and practice of teaching ESL/EFL, emphasizing the importance of connecting classroom experiences with external learning opportunities.
A study by Lamb (2004b) on Indonesian EFL learners revealed that language acquisition predominantly occurs outside the classroom, although students value English classes for their relationships with teachers rather than the lesson content Similarly, Lai's (2015) research in Hong Kong highlighted that undergraduate EFL learners appreciated both in-class and language learning beyond the classroom (LLBC) activities, yet distinguished between their respective roles in the learning process.
Active language learners often seek diverse learning experiences outside the classroom to meet their socio-psychological needs, as highlighted by Lai and Gu (2010) These out-of-class resources not only provide additional language learning opportunities but also foster a positive learner identity, enhancing motivation (Lamb, 2007) Furthermore, they create a supportive learning community and offer a platform for self-expression and self-image improvement (Gao, 2009) Research indicates that EFL learners choose LLBC activities based on personal preferences, resource availability, and individual needs, rather than following teacher directives (Suh et al., 1999; Littlewood & Liu, 1996; Pickard, 1996; Yap, 1998).
Hyland (2004), however, investigated the relationship between socio-political factors and EFL learners’ selection of LLBC resources and activities at a university in Hong Kong She
22 discovered that the negative social connotations attached to those using English in the Cantonese-speaking community prevented EFL learners in this country from choosing the
EFL learners tend to prefer the 'private domain' of language use, which involves less face-to-face interaction and is easier to manage, as it poses fewer challenges to their personal identities In contrast, the 'public domain' encompasses interactive activities like communicating with friends, making phone calls, and engaging with shopkeepers in English, which can be more daunting for learners.
Various idiosyncratic factors, including learners’ language profiles, study situation requirements, language proficiency levels, and motivation, significantly influence their choice of LLBC resources and activities (Chusanachoti, 2009; Hyland, 2004; Pearson, 2004; Spratt et al., 2002) Bailly (2010) categorized LLBC activities of teenage EFL learners in France into 'serious' activities, which involve conventional learning techniques, and 'lighter' activities, closely linked to their daily lives She found that seriously motivated learners preferred 'serious' activities, while less motivated learners tended to choose 'lighter' activities Similarly, Lai and colleagues examined LLBC resources and activities in Hong Kong, highlighting the impact of the locus of control on learners' preferences.
Gu (2011) found that EFL learners with higher level of proficiency and greater willingness to seek opportunities to use language beyond the classroom were more likely to opt for LLBC
2.3.4 English learning at tertiary level in Vietnam
At tertiary level, English is introduced as a discipline and a subject across the country Despite EFL becoming the most popular foreign language in Vietnam, academics, educators,
Current EFL learning outcomes in Vietnam are deemed inadequate, with Vietnamese students demonstrating significantly lower language proficiency compared to their Asian peers (Do, 2006) This deficiency hampers their ability to communicate effectively and pursue studies in English-medium programs The prevalent teacher-centered approach in Vietnam, where students primarily listen, repeat, and copy from the instructor, contributes to the neglect of communicative learning outcomes (Pham, 2007) Consequently, this method emphasizes memorization of English forms and rules rather than fostering interactive conversations among students (Canh).
A study by Vo (2017) highlighted the relationship between Vietnamese university students' perceptions of the utility of Language Learning Beyond the Classroom (LLBC) activities and their actual practices However, this research was limited to only 40 third-year English majors, which is a small sample size in the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Additionally, the study lacked a thorough examination of the LLBC resources utilized by EFL learners There is a notable scarcity of research focusing on Vietnamese students' experiences with LLBC resources and activities, which are crucial for understanding their motivation, attitudes, and identity as language learners Consequently, there remains a significant gap for further research on a larger scale regarding the variety of LLBC resources and activities available to English majors at HU-UFL, their perceptions of these resources, and their practical application in language learning.
Theoretical framework for the study
Before the research conducted by Nunan and Richards in 2015, the term LLBC was described using various labels such as 'out-of-class', 'after-class', 'extra-curricular', 'self-access', 'out-of-school', and 'distance learning', reflecting its location-based context Additionally, it was characterized by terms like 'informal', 'non-formal', and 'naturalistic'.
Learning can be categorized into various types, including 'formal learning,' 'non-instructed learning,' and 'self-instruction' based on pedagogical approaches, as well as 'autonomous,' 'independent,' 'self-directed,' and 'self-regulated learning' depending on the locus of control For the field of Language Learning Beyond the Classroom (LLBC) to develop cohesively, it is essential to thoroughly analyze and clarify the dimensions represented by these terms (Reinders & Benson, 2017).
Schugurensky's model (2000) categorizes 'informal learning' into three types: 'self-directed learning,' which is intentional and conscious; 'incidental learning,' which is conscious but unplanned; and 'socialization,' which is non-intentional and unconscious Although this model is frequently referenced in educational literature, its terminology can be confusing Informality represents only one aspect of Lifelong and Lifewide Learning (LLBC), and its key terms are linked to other, less defined concepts.
‘self-directed’ with ‘other-directed’, ‘intentional’ with ‘incidental’)
Benson (2011) presents a model outlining four essential dimensions of language learning beyond the classroom (LLBC), derived from key oppositions in existing literature These dimensions include location, distinguishing between learning that occurs 'in the classroom' versus 'outside the classroom'; formality, contrasting 'formal' and 'informal' learning; pedagogy, differentiating between 'instructed' and 'non-instructed' approaches; and locus of control, which considers whether learning is 'self-directed' or 'other-directed'.
Subsequently, Chik (2014) introduces to the model another important dimension which is concerned with the trajectory of a learner’s engagement in a particular form of LLBC
Key dimensions of language learning include mediation, which involves the resources utilized such as teaching materials and technology; sociality, which pertains to the social relationships and networks that influence the learning process; modality, focusing on the various practices engaged in, such as reading, listening, and interaction; and linguistic factors, which relate to the skills and levels of competence required in language learning.
All in all, LLBC can be categorized by several distinct characteristics:
Intentionality Where the attention of learners is focused in language learning intentional, incidental, general, specific
Location Where and when the learning takes place home, library, museum, park, cinema, etc
The degree to which learning is linked to educational qualifications or structured by educational institutions formal, non-formal, naturalistic
Pedagogy The degree to which teaching is involved non-instructed, self-instructed
How decisions are distributed between the learner and others self-regulated, other-regulated
Trajectory Learner’s engagement in a particular form of language learning one-off, life-long
Mediation The resources and materials used in language teaching and learning authentic texts, technologies (computer, mobile phone, television)
Sociality Social relationships and networks involved in the learning process individual, pair, group
Modality The practices engaged in language learning in speech or writing, whether face-to-face, on-line, e-mail
Linguistic The language skills and levels of language competence involved in language learning listening, reading, writing, speaking, vocabulary, grammar, cultural competence
Note This table is adapted from dimensions of LLBC (Benson, 2011a) & (Richards, 2015)
As illustrated in Table 2.3, despite being rudimentary, Benson’s (2011) model provides the basic theoretical framework for analyzing dimensions of LLBC in this study
Location Where and when the learning takes place out-of-class, after-class, extra- curricular, self-access, out-of- school, distance
The degree to which learning is linked to educational qualifications or structured by educational institutions informal, non-formal, naturalistic
Pedagogy The degree to which teaching is involved non-instructed, self-instructed
How decisions are distributed between the learner and others autonomous, independent, self- regulated
Note This table is adapted from dimensions of LLBC (Benson, 2011a)
Table 2.3 shows that location is only one of several dimensions of LLBC, although
LLBC essentially refers to location After identifying the location in which learning occurs, it is possible to determine language learning as either ‘informal’ or ‘formal’, ‘non-instructed’ or
The model effectively categorizes learning into three dimensions: 'instructed', 'self-directed', and 'other-directed', while also addressing three additional dimensions that are characteristic of Lifelong Learning in a Broader Context (LLBC).
● Whether the learning is ‘intentional’ (attention focuses on language learning) or
‘incidental’ (attention focuses elsewhere with language learning being a by- product) (DeKeyser, 2008);
● Whether the learning is ‘explicit’ (adding to learner’s conscious knowledge) or
‘implicit’ (adding to abilities or skills below conscious awareness) (Ellis, 2008);
● Whether the learning is ‘inductive’ (inferencing general rules from particular instances) or ‘deductive’ (applying general rules to particular instances)
Summary of the chapter
Recent research on Language Learning Beyond the Classroom (LLBC) indicates a shift in focus from traditional classroom learning to opportunities for language acquisition outside the classroom A diverse array of LLBC resources and activities has emerged for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners aiming to improve their English skills Previous studies highlight EFL students' engagement with these resources and activities, identifying various benefits and challenges linked to each Additionally, several factors influencing the choice of LLBC resources and activities have been identified, including socio-psychological, socio-political, and individual preferences This body of work establishes a theoretical framework that facilitates a deeper understanding of the dimensions of LLBC.
Methodology
Research questions
To achieve its ultimate aims, the study seeks answers to the questions as mentioned in Chapter 1:
Question 1: What are the LLBC resources and activities frequently used by English-majored students at HU-UFL?
Question 2: How do English-majored students at HU-UFL perceive the utility of such LLBC resources and activities?
Question 3: In what ways do they actually use these LLBC resources and activities to improve their English proficiency?
Research design
While developing the research design for this study, careful consideration was given to the five major research purposes articulated by Johnson and Christensen (2004) as follows:
• Exploration: using primarily inductive methods to explore a concept, construct, phenomenon, or situation to develop tentative hypotheses or generalization
• Description: identifying and describing the antecedents, nature, and etiology of a phenomenon
• Explanation: developing theory for the purpose of elucidating the relationships among concepts or phenomena and determining reasons for occurrences of events
• Prediction: using pre-existing knowledge or theory to forecast what will occur at a later point in time
• Influence: manipulating the setting of variables to produce a desired outcome
This research primarily focuses on exploration and description, aligning with key research objectives To effectively address the issues surrounding the use of LLBC resources and activities among English-majored students at HU-UFL, a combination of data collection methods was employed, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of both the breadth and depth of the topic.
A mixed method design was utilized in this study, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods The quantitative approach aimed to identify the range of LLBC resources and activities commonly used by English-majored students, along with their perceived effectiveness of these resources and activities.
Combining quantitative and qualitative research methods, as highlighted by Condelli and Wrigley (2004), leads to more reliable findings and enhances the interpretation of results Consequently, a qualitative approach was utilized to explore how students engage with LLBC activities to improve their English proficiency.
Research instruments
This study, characterized by its descriptive and exploratory nature, aimed to gather quantifiable data from a large sample Questionnaires emerged as the most practical and cost-effective method for reaching a diverse audience (Cohen et al., 2007) By utilizing online surveys through Google Forms, data collection becomes streamlined, allowing for automatic interpretation and visual chart generation The process of exporting data to statistical software is also simplified, significantly aiding analysis Additionally, online surveys substantially reduce costs associated with traditional methods, such as paper, postage, printing, and data entry (Llieva et al., 2002; Witmer et al.).
Questionnaires offer significant advantages, including time efficiency, ease of completion for respondents, and straightforward tabulation for researchers (Lodico et al., 2010) The structured nature of questionnaire data allows for less biased interpretation compared to other research methods, making the responses more reliable (Robson, 2002; Wolf, 1997) Therefore, this study utilized questionnaires to objectively assess the range of LLBC resources and activities commonly used by English-majored students at HU-UFL, along with their perceived usefulness of these resources and activities.
The questionnaire was designed for efficiency in coding and statistical analysis, utilizing a mix of closed-ended items, open-ended items, and a 5-point Likert scale It consists of three main sections: the first includes three closed-ended questions regarding learner demographics such as gender, major, and self-rated proficiency in English skills The second section features one closed-ended item, two open-ended questions, and 25 5-point Likert scale items to assess the range of LLBC resources and activities used by participants The final segment contains one closed-ended question and 26 5-point Likert scale items to evaluate participants' perceptions of the effectiveness of these LLBC resources in enhancing their English proficiency, concluding with space for participants to provide contact information for follow-up interviews.
The questionnaire utilizes a 5-point Likert scale to assess the LLBC resources and activities employed by English majors, organized by mediation and linguistic dimensions Additionally, the LLBC activities are classified into three categories: self-instruction, naturalistic language learning, and self-directed naturalistic language learning, as detailed in Table 3.1.
Category Number of items Items
Self-directed naturalistic language learning 6 I10, I12, I14, I15, I22, I24
Semi-structured interviews were conducted to gather qualitative data on students' experiences with LLBC resources, allowing for the emergence of new topics (Lodico et al., 2010; Menter et al., 2011) The interviews aimed to explore how the overall findings from the questionnaire related to individual students and their perceptions of the utility of LLBC activities Participants responded to questions focused on their actual usage of various LLBC resources.
To enhance the understanding of English proficiency improvement activities, interviews were conducted to gather deeper insights beyond the questionnaire responses These interviews aimed to clarify any ambiguous answers and focused on three key areas: the variety of LLBC resources and activities utilized by students, the benefits derived from these resources, and the challenges faced in their use Participants were also requested to share relevant artifacts, such as books, articles, and media, that reflect their engagement with LLBC resources via email after the interview.
Research participants
This study targeted English-majored students at HU-UFL, with an estimated population of 2,718 according to the Office of Student Affairs Due to time constraints, probability sampling methods like random sampling were not feasible; therefore, non-probability sampling was utilized Specifically, opportunity or convenience sampling was employed to recruit participants for the quantitative phase As defined by Brady (2006), this technique involves selecting data sources based on the researcher’s local knowledge or past experiences, making it the most accessible option for gathering participants Opportunity sampling is recognized as the most common type of non-probability sampling (Denscombe, 2010; Weathington et al., 2010).
The sample size plays a vital role in drawing inferences about a population To ensure adequate statistical power for this study, it was calculated that a sample of 183 individuals is necessary from a population of approximately 2,718, with a confidence level set at 95%.
During the quantitative data collection process, a total of 200 valid questionnaires were gathered, which is statistically sufficient to identify patterns of LLBC resources and activities utilized by students, as well as to capture significant associations between variables.
This study focused on second-year English major students as research subjects, chosen for their sufficient exposure to EFL teaching and learning methods at the university level Their experience has made them aware that traditional in-class language learning alone may not adequately address the growing demands of language proficiency.
A study focused on second-year English language majors revealed that these students were highly motivated to utilize LLBC resources and activities to improve their English proficiency in the four macro skills This motivation stemmed from their preparation for placement in specialized academic majors during the first semester of their third year, which was based on their English skill grades.
Data collection
The data collection process involved three key stages: piloting, modifying, and delivering questionnaires To address time constraints and challenges in participant contact, the questionnaire was converted into an online survey using Google Forms After completing the online survey, it was pre-tested with 10 randomly selected second-year English-majored students at HU-UFL, leading to necessary modifications based on their feedback Subsequently, the finalized questionnaire was distributed to second-year English-majored students at HU-UFL through various Facebook groups to effectively manage participant numbers.
In this study, qualitative data was collected from 10 willing participants through interviews conducted in Vietnamese, allowing for precise expression of ideas To ensure accurate data tracking, both tape-recording and note-taking methods were employed Participant confidentiality was maintained by omitting real names, instead utilizing descriptive coding based on interview order and demographic information, such as gender and academic major For instance, the first interview participant is coded as “S1-F-ELS.”
Data analysis
The analysis commenced with the Reliability Coefficient Test using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) to ensure reliability Following this, descriptive statistics were employed to analyze quantitative data from questionnaire responses, summarizing demographic information and overall usage of LLBC resources and activities through means, standard deviations, and percentages The findings were visually represented using tables, bar charts, and pie charts for clearer understanding.
The recorded interviews were transcribed in Vietnamese and subsequently translated into English for qualitative analysis Thematic analysis was employed to identify recurring patterns related to pre-defined themes, which guided the interview questions These themes and sub-themes focused on how participants utilized LLBC resources and activities to enhance their English proficiency.
Evaluative criteria of the study
Validity and reliability are crucial factors in the quantitative measurement of research design (Silverman, 2005) In this study's quantitative phase, validity was ensured by involving a select group of students in a pre-testing phase before distributing questionnaires for data collection Concurrently, reliability was assessed through appropriate measures, specifically by calculating Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients.
In this study, Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients were employed to assess the reliability of the quantitative data The Alpha coefficient values range from 0.0 to 1.0, with higher scores indicating greater reliability of the generated scale.
In a study assessing the use of LLBC resources and activities, a reliability threshold of 7 was deemed acceptable The questionnaire comprised 51 items on a five-point Likert scale, with 25 items focused on the frequency of LLBC resource usage and 26 items evaluating the perceived utility of these resources Data collection involved 10 randomly selected English majors from HU-UFL during the pilot phase, and the reliability analysis was conducted using SPSS software.
The reliability statistics of the piloted and total questionnaires
The piloted questionnaire demonstrated strong reliability, with Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients of 865 for the 25-item Frequency scale and 972 for the 26-item Utility scale, indicating that the items effectively formed a dependable measurement tool for further distribution to respondents.
Following the pilot stage, a questionnaire was administered to 190 English-major students, with data from these participants combined with responses from 10 piloted questionnaires The total dataset of 200 participants was analyzed using SPSS, resulting in Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients of 899 for the 25-item Frequency scale and 925 for the 26-item Utility scale These findings indicate that the questionnaire demonstrates a high level of reliability for use in this research.
Authenticity and trustworthiness were used to evaluate the research measurement from the qualitative perspective In the qualitative stage of this study, trustworthiness was addressed
Questionnaire Scale Cronbach's Alpha Number of Items
36 through the three concepts of credibility, transferability, dependability In the meantime, authenticity was established through the concepts of fairness, ontological authenticity, catalytic and tactical authenticity
Credibility in qualitative research is essential for ensuring that findings are trustworthy and accurately reflect the phenomena being studied (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011) In this study's qualitative phase, credibility was upheld through meticulous data representation, including precise recordings, transcriptions, and coding A key method for enhancing credibility involved engaging interviewees in the transcription process, allowing them to review and validate the transcripts shortly after the interviews concluded, thereby correcting any inaccuracies and clarifying ambiguous points.
The transferability of qualitative findings relies on the alignment between the context of the current study and the contexts where future readers may apply the results (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Stake, 2011) In this study, transferability is enhanced by providing a detailed account of the participants, research contexts, methodology, and the interpretations of the findings.
Dependability in qualitative research is crucial as it reflects the consistency and reproducibility of study results (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011) This study ensured dependability through careful data collection, transcription, interpretation, and analysis The researcher collaborated with a supervisor to review the data collection and analysis processes, confirming the accuracy of findings and their alignment with the collected data Additionally, all interpretations and conclusions were rigorously examined to ensure they were substantiated by the data.
Fairness is defined as the degree to which various constructs and their underlying value systems are solicited and honored during the analysis and interpretation process (Bogdan &
Biklen, 2003) In this study's qualitative data analysis, all the participants' opinions, attitudes, viewpoints, and experiences were correctly and fairly presented
Ontological authenticity refers to how an individual or group's understanding of the world has developed over time (Guba & Lincoln, 1994) In this study, ontological authenticity was achieved through semi-structured interviews between the researcher and participants This exchange of ideas enhanced the participants' knowledge of the LLBC resources and activities, enabling them to more accurately assess their actual use of these resources.
The interviewees gained valuable insights into their motivations for selecting specific LLBC resources and activities through discussions with the researcher, allowing them to identify both primary and secondary factors influencing their choices.
Catalytic authenticity, or the extent to which action is motivated (Guba & Lincoln,
In this study, participants were encouraged to reassess their use of LLBC resources and activities to enhance their English proficiency They clarified the specific contexts in which they utilized various resources for LLBC activities and outlined the strategies employed to engage with these resources Additionally, participants reflected on the effectiveness of LLBC resources and activities in improving their English skills.
The study's findings highlight several practical implications and actionable suggestions, demonstrating the research's tactical authenticity.
Summary of the chapter
This chapter has provided an overview of the nature of the study’s research design as well as its underlying methodological principles and premises It has rationalized all the
The study employs a mixed methods approach, integrating both quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques to achieve its objectives It outlines the rationale for this approach, details the research instruments, identifies the participants, and describes the procedures for collecting and analyzing data Furthermore, the evaluation methods for both quantitative and qualitative measurements are clearly defined, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the research process.