An investigation into the influence of teacher talk in english speaking classes at nguyen trai high school phu yen province

We can see clearly that teacher instruction or teacher talk is used in language classrooms when teachers are conducting instructions, cultivating students‟ language competence and managi

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HUE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

-NGUYEN HUU THANH SON

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE INFLUENCE OF TEACHER TALK IN ENGLISH SPEAKING CLASSES AT NGUYEN TRAI HIGH SCHOOL

PHU YEN PROVINCE

MA THESIS IN THEORY AND METHODOLOGY

OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

CODE: 60140111

SUPERVISOR: ASSOC PROF DR PHAN VAN HOA

HUE, 2013

BỘ GIÁO DỤC VÀ ĐÀO ĐẠO

ĐẠI HỌC HUẾ TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ

-

NGUYỄN HỮU THANH SƠN

KHẢO SÁT ẢNH HƯỞNG NGÔN NGỮ TRUYỀN ĐẠT CỦA GIÁO VIÊN ĐẾN CÁC LỚP HỌC NÓI TIẾNG ANH

TẠI TRƯỜNG THPT NGUYỄN TRÃI

TỈNH PHÖ YÊN

LUẬN VĂN THẠC SĨ LÝ LUẬN VÀ PHƯƠNG PHÁP

DẠY HỌC BỘ MÔN TIẾNG ANH

MÃ SỐ: 60140111

NGƯỜI HƯỚNG DẪN KHOA HỌC PGS.TS PHAN VĂN HÕA

HUẾ, 2013

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I certify my authority of the study project report submitted entitled

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE INFLUENCE OF TEACHER TALK IN ENGLISH SPEAKING

CLASSES AT NGUYEN TRAI HIGH SCHOOL

PHU YEN PROVINCE

In fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of M.A in English

Except where the reference is indicated, no other person‟s work has been used without due acknowledgment in the text of the thesis

Hue, 2013

Nguyen Huu Thanh Son

ABSTRACT

This paper focuses on the purpose, nature and quality of teacher talk in English speaking classes The way of using teacher talk has a great influence on the development of students‟ English speaking skill The study explores the habit of employing teacher talk of some of the English teachers at Nguyen Trai high school

in Phu Yen province, from which we have a more general look into this reality of other high schools in Vietnam The research contains samples of empirical data, which include their interpretations related to research literature, and a more personal overall reflection of the teaching practice in English speaking classes This paper considers the proportion of using teacher talk in English and in Vietnamese and the recognition of high school students about it The present study also points how teacher talk is delivered in English speaking classes, how teacher talk motivates or dispirits language students under the forms of questions and feedback To a large extent, both analysis and reflections derive from the classroom observations, questionnaires, and interviews This paper contains some of the useful discussion on the findings and their effects on the process of developing students‟ language speaking skill These results serve as practical evidence for some important pedagogical implications

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Assoc

develop and complete this paper This paper could not have been finished without his critical comments and tireless help

My sincere thank would be sent to Assoc Prof Pham Thi Hong Nhung, vice rector of College of Foreign Language, Hue University, who gave me helpful advice on choosing the topic

I would like to thank all the lecturers at the Department of English, College of Foreign Language, Hue University for providing me with useful information and knowledge to conduct the successful study

I would like to acknowledge all the teachers and students at Nguyen Trai high school, Phu Yen province, especially the students coming from three classes 10A3, 11B8, and 12C2 Their enthusiastic help is a really important factor which contributes to the completion of the study

Finally, my deepest thank is to my family, my teachers and my friends who always motivate and assist me during the time of carrying out this project

TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP i

ABSTRACT ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS vii

LIST OF TABLES viii

LIST OF CHARTS ix

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Research background 1

1.2 Rationale of the thesis 2

1.3 Research aims 6

1.4 Research Questions 7

1.5 Scope 7

1.6 Structure of the thesis 8

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 9

2.1 Definitions of Teacher Talk (TT) 9

2.2 Features of Teacher Talk 12

2.3 Teachers‟ questions 14

2.3.1 Functions of teachers‟ questions 14

2.3.2 Types of teachers‟ questions 15

2.3.2.1 Procedural questions 15

2.3.2.2 Convergent questions 15

2.3.2.3 Divergent questions 15

2.4 Teachers‟ feedback 16

2.4.1 Teachers‟ correction 17

2.4.2 Teachers‟ assessment 18

2.5 Theoretical background of speaking skills 19

2.5.1 Speaking 19

2.5.2 A good speaker 20

2.5.3 General outline of a speaking lesson 22

2.5.4 In-class speaking tasks 23

2.5.5 Assessing speaking 25

2.6 Background overview 25

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 27

3.1 Research site 27

3.2 Research methodology 27

3.3 The participants 28

3.3.1 Teachers 28

3.3.2 Students 28

3.4 Data collection methods 30

3.4.1 Questionnaires 30

3.4.2 Interviews 31

3.4.3 Classroom observations 31

3.5 Data analysis 32

CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 33

4.1 Teachers‟ perceptions of teacher talk in language classrooms 33

4.2 How do teachers use their talk in English speaking classes? 36

4.2.1 The frequency of using convergent questions and divergent questions in English speaking class 36

4.2.2 The distribution of teacher‟s questions 38

4.2.3 Assessment in teacher talk 41

4.2.4 Error correction in teacher talk 42

4.3 To what extent teacher talk affect students‟ speaking skill 44

4.3.1 The reality of using teacher talk in English and Vietnamese in English speaking classes 45

4.3.2 The advantages and disadvantages of using teacher talk in English speaking class 49 4.3.2.1 Advantages 49

4.3.2.2 Disadvantages 52

4.4 Discussion 55

4.4.1 The impact of the amount of teacher talk on English speaking 55

4.4.2 The effects of teacher talk in the forms of questions on English speaking skill 57

4.4.3 The effects of teacher talk in the forms of feedback on English speaking skill 59

4.4.4 The effects of teacher talk in the target language in English speaking class 60

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATION 63

5.1 Answers to the research questions 63

5.1.1 Research question 1 63

5.1.2 Research question 2 63

5.1.3 Research question 3 65

5.2 Pedagogical Implications for teaching English in English speaking classes 66

5.2.1 Reinforcing teachers‟ awareness of their talk 67

5.2.2 Controlling the amount and emphasizing the quality of teacher talk 67

5.2.3 Applying suitable questioning techniques 68

5.2.4 Applying suitable feedback techniques 66

5.3 Strengths, limitations and further study 69

REFERENCES 72 APPENDIX I

APPENDIX II

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Background Information of the Three Participating Teachers 28

Table 3.2: Description of the students participating in questionnaires 29

Table 3.3: Description of the students participating in interviews 29

Table 4.1: The amount of teacher talk 33

Table 4.2: Frequency of using teacher talk in the target language 34

Table 4.3: The importance of teacher talk in English speaking class 35

Table 4.4: The frequency and the percentage in the total sum of using convergent and divergent questions 37

Table 4.5: The result of question patterns delivered by teachers and the percentage in the total sum 39

Table 4.6: Types of assessments in teacher talk and the percentage in the total sum 41

Table 4.7: Types of error correction in teacher talk and the percentage in the

total sum 43

Table 4.8: The results of the questionnaire about teacher talking time (question 3) 48

Table 4.9: The results of the questionnaire about the development of language skills thanks to teacher talk (question 4) 48

Table 4.10: The Advantages of Using Teacher Talk in English Speaking Class 49 Table 4.11: The Disadvantages of Using Teacher Talk in English Speaking Class 52

LIST OF CHARTS

Chart 4.1: Reality of using teacher talk in English and Vietnamese in English

speaking classes 46Chart 4.2: Students‟ suggestion for using teacher talk in English speaking class 47

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research background

For over nine years I have worked as a teacher of English at a High School and at Phu Yen Continuing Education Center I have had opportunities to observe many of the teachers of English in a variety of teaching environments From that, I have learned a great deal from teachers about their instructions when they teach English and I am grateful for their dedicated commitment to language teaching In all of the observations, I have listened to, watched for and paid my attention to students‟ reaction to activities, exercises, and presentations of teachers The primary focus of observations is the learners not the teachers I have observed learners‟ language involvement, comfort, and understanding I have also watched for language teaching And it is not denied that teacher talk has a great impact on foreign language acqusition of learners

For foreign language learners, classroom is the main environment where they can use the target language frequently The kind of language used by the teachers for instruction in the class room is known as teacher talk (TT) Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics defines teacher talk as “that variety of language sometimes used by teachers when they are in the process of teaching In trying to communicate with learners, teachers often simplify their speech, giving it many of the characteristics of foreigner talk and other simplified styles of speech addressed to language learners” (Richards, 1992, p.471)

In this research, the oral form of teacher talk instead of written form will be under investigation It mentions the language that teachers use in language classrooms rather than in other contexts

Firstly, from this definition, it is clear that teacher talk in English classrooms

is considered as a kind of the English language Therefore, it has its own specific characters and features Because if there are the limitations of physical teachers and

learners, as well as the purposes of teaching and learning, teacher talk has its own characteristics to help teachers and language students gain the aims of teaching and learning respectively Secondly, we can see that teacher talk is a special communicative activity Its goal is to communicate with students and develop students' foreign language proficiency

We can see clearly that teacher instruction or teacher talk is used in language classrooms when teachers are conducting instructions, cultivating students‟ language competence and managing classroom activities Teachers make use of the target language to encourage the ability of communication of students In this way students have opportunities to practice the target language by responding to what their teachers require Furthermore, teachers use the target language to promote communication between learners and themselves

1.2 Rationale of the thesis

Learning English, or any other languages, is a process in which learners concentrate on developing the four primary skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing Of the four skills which all learners of any foreign language need to develop, speaking may be the most challenging skill for teaching and learning It has always been reported that teaching speaking skill is a very challenging job when teachers and learners share the same mother tongue and have little or no exposure to English outside the classroom (Bresnihan &Stoops, 1996; Chelle de porto, 1997; Nguyen, 2004)

To most of the language learners, “Mastering the art of speaking is the single most important aspect of learning a second or foreign language.” (Nunan, 1991, p.39) The speaking skill has become a practical aim for any Vietnamese learners of English, who want to “to communicate with people in other countries and to get a job” (Kramasch & Sullivan, 1996, p.210) Moreover, since Vietnam has opened its doors and integrated the economy with other countries all over the world, the demand for speaking English to be competent enough to communicate verbally with the outside world and to access technology has rapidly increased (Le, 2005)

However, the quality of English teaching and learning has not matched the growing demand of the society Do (2000) has found that less than 33% of the Vietnamese learners at tertiary level are fluent in spoken English This evidence shows a disappointing reality dominant in Vietnam at present time

When learning a foreign language, the speaking skill is really important, especially in the age of information and modern technology Thus, when generalizing about the nature of communication, Harmer (1997) notes:

Speakers say things because then want something to happen as a result of what they say They may want to charm their listeners; they may want to give some information

or express pleasure They may decide to be rude or flatter, to agree or complain In each of these cases they are interested in achieving a communicative purpose (p.46) According to Brown (1994), in methods of language teaching, textbooks were considered primary factors in successful learning a few decades ago, the “methods” that learners employ to internalize and to perform in the language are as important as the teachers‟ methods in recent years He proposes the principle of strategic investment: Successful mastery of second language will be due to a large extent of a learner‟s own personal “investment” of time, effort and attention to the second / foreign language in the form of an individualized battery of strategies for comprehending and producing the language (p.20)

At Nguyen Trai high school in Phu Yen province, students are supposed to learn all language skills of English including listening, speaking, reading and writing However, due to lack of previous experience in oral English, they have difficulties in learning speaking skill Most students are struggling really hard even when they need to engage in a very simple conversation with not only Vietnamese teachers of English but also native English speakers Despite taking some experiences that they have got in the previous grades, students still have the tendency to speak very little in their speaking classes In addition, in a large class (from 37 to 45 students), with three English classes a week (each class lasts for 45 minutes) only some active students have opportunities to practice their speaking skill while the majority of them show their less enthusiasm or even keep silent It

seems that these students feel anxious and nervous in speaking lessons Some of them do not seem to be eager to speak English; others do not know what to say or how to express their ideas in the target language In general, most students appear to

be passive in the speaking classes Therefore, it is necessary to find out the limitations of students‟ speaking skill

We all know that “language teaching and learning is a very complicated process in which teacher instruction is particularly important to language teaching” (Cook, 2000, p.144) According to the pedagogical theory, the language that teachers use in classrooms determines to a larger degree whether a class will succeed or not Many scholars found teacher talk makes up around 70% of classroom language (Cook, 2000; Chaudron, 1988) Teachers bring knowledge and skills, organize teaching activities and help students practice through the ways of teacher talk In English classrooms, the language teachers use is not only the object of the lessons that they intend to convey, but also the medium to achieve the teaching objectives Both the organization of the classroom and the goal of teaching are carried out and achieved through ways of teachers‟ speaking in language classrooms which is hereinbelow referred to as teacher talk

In Vietnam, most people learn a foreign language just in classrooms Classroom language is the main source of foreign language learning and in some places it is considered as the only source Classroom language is considered not only as a major source of language learning but also as a tool by which a foreign language is taught It is believed that, to a certain degree, the language that teachers communicate with language learners will influence language learning However, how and to what degree it influences language learning still remains unclear When language students have understood well the use of teachers‟ language, they can improve their learning, and students can make use of teacher talk better in order to learn the target language better Therefore, it is extremely necessary to do the research on teacher talk from both theoretical and practical factors

This paper is carried out to explore how teachers use their talk in classes at

following reasons Firstly, teacher talk is one of the important factors that reinforce the learners in learning language Thanks to the kind of language teachers use in their teaching outside or inside classrooms, learners can take part in real communicative activities through classroom interactions and authentic materials They try to express their ideas and discuss what they are talking about Hence, students will be proficient in English speaking using appropriate social language, gestures, or expressions in intercultural contexts Secondly, learners will become more and more confident and autonomous when using the target language outside the classrooms

With the instructions and demonstrations of teachers, students can receive knowledge communicatively in the classrooms The ways that teachers use in their language teaching could have great positive or negative effects on the whole process of learning any language From this research, we should have a deep consideration into teacher instruction in their teaching, have some modifications to suit the demands of learners and also improve the target language for both teachers and learners The ideas for doing this research also come from my own experience

as a teacher of English for over nine years In the past years, I have just focused on reading and writing skills, rarely using instructions in English, just a little or only Vietnamese, to teach language to students From observing other teachers‟ classes I recognize that they, similarly, have asked their students to do written practice exercises instead of coordinating written and oral activities, and paying much attention to communication which is also an effective way to acquire the target language We find that we are teaching in outdated way- using just traditional methods Nevertheless, we have not made efforts to find better solutions to this problem yet For the above reasons, I find it helpful to have an exploration about the constraints on teacher talk in language classrooms; how and to what extent it has influence on learners‟ speaking skills

1.3 Research aims

In recent years, many of the researches on the language that teachers use in their teaching in language classrooms have gradually drawn language teachers‟ attention This attention has gradually been paid to not only abroad but also in Vietnam In the past years, most of the researches of MA students in Vietnam have only focused on the teaching methods of teachers, the learning process of learners

We have not looked into the facts that teacher talk plays a very important role in second language acquisition However, very few researchers have investigated the effects of teacher talk on foreign language acquisition Teacher talk, as an important aspects of classroom-based language learning, is influenced by many factors, but it

is rarely explored in the previous studies It is clear that the English language teachers use in the language classes is affected by many factors One of the important factors in language classrooms is the students In other words, the students‟ learning needs and language interaction cannot be ignored However, so far all the researchers into teacher talk have not considered the factor of students in their studies Having observed language classrooms for a long time, I find that quite

a little teacher talk in classrooms is just used for teaching and teacher talk is completely neglected the students‟ learning needs Therefore, the present study is conducted for the purpose of investigating how teacher talk in foreign language classrooms at high schools affects English speaking classes, especially students‟ English speaking skill, and comparing the students‟ preferences towards the ideal teacher talk with the real teacher talk

The specific aim is mainly focused on the following points:

- To find out empirical evidences to the suggestion that the appropriate use of teacher talk would reinforce and modify foreign language teaching and learning, and whether teachers should talk effectively in classrooms In this way, teachers can improve their language quality efficiently so that English language teaching and learning can be interacted and facilitated

- To involve many aspects, especially three aspects which are related closely

to language learning: the amount of teacher talk in language classrooms; teachers‟ questioning; teachers‟ correction and teachers‟ assessment

- To examine teacher talk of English teachers at Nguyen Trai High School in Phu Yen province to explore its impacts on English speaking classes and learners‟ speaking skill

- To investigate the language use (the percentage of using between the mother language and the target language), language complexity and language variety that may reflect language proficiency of learners

- To identify problems of teacher talk in language classrooms and to offer classroom strategies which help to have more effective interactions between language teachers and language students

- To provide some insights into effective English teaching practices in English

speaking classes

1.4 Research Questions

The study is planned to focus on the following questions:

1 What are teachers‟ perceptions of teacher talk in language classrooms?

2 How do teachers use their talk in English speaking classes?

3 To what extent does teacher talk affect students‟ speaking skills?

4 What are some possible implications to the application of teacher talk in English speaking classes?

1.5 Scope

This research bases on the language theories and investigates practices of teacher talk and the difficulties that teachers of English and students at Nguyen Trai high school in Phu Yen province face With the narrow scope of the study due to the limitation of time and knowledge, I hope the study will contribute some insights to language teaching at Nguyen Trai high school in Phu Yen province in particular and

in Vietnam in general

1.6 Structure of the thesis

This paper consists of five chapters

Chapter I contains the introduction, the background, the rationale, and the objectives as well as the research questions and the scope of the study

Chapter II presents the concepts and definitions of key words that appear in the thesis It also offers a literature review of the previous studies in the topic Chapter III is for describing methods, participants, data collection and data analysis

Chapter IV focuses on the findings from the questionnaires, class observations, and interviews with the EFL teachers and the students at Nguyen Trai high school in Phu Yen province, and the discussion about what have been found Chapter V gives a summary of the results of the study and presents some implications and suggestions for the application of teacher talk

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

This chapter reviews the discussions of both Vietnamese and English authors

on and teacher talk speaking skills It also presents the theoretical background to analyze the data In this chapter, some aspects of speaking skills in English speaking classes are included It also points out some of the definitions and terms related to teacher talk

2.1 Definitions of Teacher Talk (TT)

There have been many of the definitions of teacher talk with different features and characteristics One definition is that teacher talk is the language in the classroom that takes up a major portion of class time employed to give directions, explain activities and check students‟ understanding (Sinclair＆ Brazil, 1985) It is

an essential part in the process of language teaching Teacher talk has its own features They are the content and the medium of the language teaching and learning The kind of language used by teachers in language classes is considered as the language teachers want to convey to language learners, and it is also used to instruct language communication and organize classroom activities Moreover, teacher talk plays a very important role in the teaching process because it is an communicative tool Teachers always use a lot of communicative tools such as repetition, prompting, stimulation, and explanations, which would be stimulate more interactions between teachers and students

Teacher talk is the language typically used by foreign language teachers in the process of teaching Allwright and Bailey (1991, p 139) claim that “talk is one of the major ways that teachers convey information to learners, and it is also one of the primary means of controlling learners‟ behavior” Through the language teachers employ in the classrooms, students acquire the target language Firstly, teacher talk

is the major source of comprehensible target language input in the instructed

language learning environment, thus it plays an integral role not only in the organization of the classroom but also in the processes of acquisition (Nunan, 1991,

p 189) Secondly, empirical data obtained in EFL settings suggest that teachers dominate classroom speech; on average teacher talk accounts for between one half and three quarters of the talking done in foreign language classrooms (Allwright & Bailey, 1991)

Talking about teacher talk, Brown (2001) recommends that teachers articulate their language, slow it down, use simpler vocabulary, and speak in structures just above the student's level Teachers do not need to speak loudly because the students have no problems of hearing Some authors think that when teachers use their talk outside the classrooms to discuss the lessons, it is considered to be the most effective way that a teacher can give, because it is the most authentic and meaningful language interaction between students and teachers

According to Ellis (1985), teacher talk is the special language that teachers use when addressing second language learners in the classroom He also comments that the language that teachers use to talk with second language learners is considered as register, having its own specific formal and interactional characteristics Hence, teacher talk is a special kind language that can only be observed in a classroom where teachers try to teach their language learners It may consist of the instructions

to complete homework, to explain the new tasks or theories, to make the pupils understand new terms of the lectures or to give feedbacks to their language performance in the classroom Language teaching is a very complicated process in which teachers have to apply many objectives in the classroom They have to impart knowledge to learners They have to organize their thoughts, ideas and views before putting forwards them to their students Through these ways, teachers would achieve the teaching objectives The language used by teachers determines success

or failure of the language class to a certain degree

According to Ellis (1994), teacher talk means that teachers address classroom language learners differently from the way they address other kinds of classroom

order to facilitate communication These adjustments are referred to as “teacher talk” He also states that teacher talk is very important for both classroom teaching organization and students‟ language learning in the process of foreign language learning and second language acquisition, because teacher talk is an instrument of implementing teaching plan

This kind of language used by teachers in classroom with characteristics of slower and louder speech, exaggerated pronunciation and simpler vocabulary and grammar for communication and instruction is known as teacher talk (Richards & Lockhart, 1994, p 108) Interaction is a two-way communication The interaction between teachers and students mostly takes place and dominates in the classroom environment For foreign language students, classroom is the main place where they can, most of the learning time, practise the target language Teachers sometimes repeat their instructions, topics or lessons so that language students can understand better

Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics (Richards & Schmidt, 1992, p 543) defines that teacher talk is a variety of language sometimes used by teachers when they are in the process of teaching In trying to communicate with learners, teachers often simplify their speech, giving it many of the characteristics of foreign talk and other simplified styles of speech addressed to language learners

The language that is used by teachers in the classrooms is totally different from other situations It has its own specific features with its main objective to communicate with students and develop their language proficiency Learning a second language in a non-instructional setting is different from learning in the classroom (Lightbown & Spada, 2006) Outside the classrooms, students often make errors when using language, but within the classroom, learning process is limited to a few hours, errors are frequently corrected and students are always under pressure to perform the four skills such as reading, writing, listening and speaking in the target language Teacher talk is carried out in the class when the teachers want to give their instructions for completing tasks, for managing class activities and for communicating with learners to understand whether or not they can understand teachers‟ instructions carefully Similarly, the

responses of the learners in practicing the language by interacting to what teachers say contribute to the language communicative development

With all of the above given definitions and theories of teacher talk, I will use Ellis‟ (1994) definition of teacher talk in this paper for my research and for consideration into how it affects language students in English speaking classes because this definition reflects relatively fully the reality of using teacher language

in language classrooms

Many scholars found that teacher talk makes up around 70% of language classroom (Chaudron, 1988; Cook, 2000) In Vietnam, classroom is considered as the main source of learning a foreign language There are rarely places outside the classroom environment where foreign language can be spoken Especially, in Phu Yen province, language learners hardly have any opportunities to practice their language because there are very few foreigners who are travelling or going on their business In order to develop their English speaking skill, language learners should make a better use of teacher talk in foreign language classrooms In traditional classrooms, teacher talk is more content-based where the task is just on the related topic and where the aim of teachers is just to finish the content of the syllabus on due time They completely neglect and overlook the students‟ needs Teachers often occupies and controls class time Therefore, this research is carried out to find out how teacher talk in second or foreign language classrooms affects the process of foreign language learning in English speaking classes by considering teachers‟ and students‟ ideas about teacher talk There are many aspects of teacher talk, but in this paper, I just focus on the oral forms of teacher talk: the amount of teacher talk; teachers‟ questioning; teachers‟ assessment

2.2 Features of Teacher Talk

There are lots of functions and features of teacher talk in language learning and teaching In general, teacher talk has double features One form refers to the speed, pause, repetition, modifications of teacher talk The other refers to the quality and the quantity of teacher talk, teachers‟ questions, interactional modifications and

teachers‟ feedback (Dong-lin, 2008) Hence, the features of teacher talk have a noticeable impact on students‟ performance in language classrooms Thanks to the ways of using teacher talk in language classrooms, students can develop habits of using language, recognize language mistakes and have prompt modifications

In their studies on teacher talk in language classroom, Long (1983) and Long and Sato (1983) observed and came up with the following findings:

1 Long observed adjustments in pronunciations, lexis and grammar Formal adjustments occur at all language levels

2 In general, ungrammatical speech modifications do not occur

In a classroom, teachers‟ language should be the model for the students to imitate and to motivate them to learn the second language So, the words chosen by the teacher should meet the needs of class teaching

3 Interactional adjustments occur

A language classroom consists of learners of different levels of language performance and competence Teachers should not use the same teaching language for all the students They had better select the suitable words according to the learners‟ proficiency level With beginners, they use more accurate and standard pronunciation; the length of their utterances become shorter, speech is pitched higher, exaggerated intonation and so on Difficulties and complexities in language are avoided (Ellis, 1997)

Chaudron (1988) investigated teacher talk and summarized some research results on teacher talk that shows the classroom modifications:

1 Rate of speech is slower

2 Pauses are more frequent and longer

3 Pronunciation is simplified and exaggerated

4 Teachers repeat more frequently

5 Basic vocabulary is used

6 More declaratives and statements are used

From the above mentioned features of teacher talk, we can see that the language

teachers employ to interact with students in classrooms is a little different from that which is used outside and easy for them to understand However, if teachers use too much this kind of language in language teaching, students cannot develop their language skills, coming up with authentic and complicated language when they encounter in real situations

2.3 Teachers’ questions

Questioning is one of the most useful and important methods to control the language interaction in classroom It serves as a tool and a way to control and monitor the whole process of teaching on the learners According to Gall (1984), in some classrooms, over half of class time taken up by questioning and answer exchanging Questions are an important and a necessary part of the teaching-learning process Teachers often rely on questions that require students to recall bits

of knowledge Consequently, for many language students, teachers‟ questions help them remember old lessons, previous information or knowledge that have attained some time before

2.3.1 Functions of teachers’ questions

Teachers‟ questions are considered as a kind of input language provided by a teacher (Hasan, 2006) Ho (2005) says that teachers‟ questions form an integral part

of classroom interaction Nuan and Lamb (1996) suggest that teachers use questions

to elicit information, to check understanding, and also to control language learning behavior In most of the language classrooms, teachers always use questioning form

to evoke answers from students Chaudron (1988, p.126) states that “teachers‟ questions constitute a primary means of engaging learners‟ attention, promoting verbal responses, and evaluating learners‟ progress” Therefore, teachers‟ questions play a very important role in the process of language teaching Many of the studies

of ESL classrooms have researched the effect of teachers‟ questions and their impacts on students‟ language production (Tsui, 1995)

Using teacher talk as form of questions, teachers can recognize their learners‟ level of understanding the lesson in the classrooms Questions help teachers to look

into what their learners know, find out a suitable speaking topic and what kind of language skill their learners need to use to practice the given topic It also helps the learners to get acquainted with the learning materials and also relate it with the previous learning materials “Teachers‟ questions can make learners participate in language activities actively, leading them to utilize their ability by challenging their thinking and giving them problems to solve related to the class task” (Richards & Lockhart, 1994, p.185)

Thus, teachers‟ questions surely affect many factors of language students to acquire the target language However, the present study is to investigate the effect

of types of teachers‟ questions under the form of teacher talk on students‟ speaking skill in English speaking classes

2.3.2 Types of teachers’ questions

There are three kinds of questions described by Richards & Lockhart (1994):

2.3.2.1 Procedural questions

These questions have to do with classroom management, procedures and routines as opposed to the content of learning They have different functions from questions designed to engage the learners in the content of the lesson, to facilitate their comprehension, and to promote classroom interactions

2.3.2.2 Convergent questions

These kinds of questions encourage learners‟ response or focus on the central themes These responses are often answers, such as “yes” or “no” or short statements They do not usually involve higher level of thinking but often help language learners recall the previously presented knowledge Language teachers often use a lot of convergent questions to help reinforce oral skills and vocabulary before continuing some other teaching techniques

2.3.2.3 Divergent questions

These questions are opposite to convergent questions Divergent questions encourage diverse students‟ answers which are not short answers They require students to engage in higher level of thinking and excite students to give out their

own ideas with their own language

A further distinction has been studied by Long and Sato (1983) between

“referential” and “display” questions Referential questions are the ones that teachers

do not predict the answers from their students Display questions are the ones that teachers know the answers which are made to show particular structures It is shown that in naturalistic discourse referential questions are used more often than display questions (Lockhart & Richards, 1994, p.187) Therefore, in order to help language learners speak naturally and smoothly, teachers should use their more divergent questions in language classrooms to provoke students‟ language ability, encourage students to use the target language as much as possible in learning process

There are a lot of question patterns delivered by teachers in any language classrooms With narrow scope of this study, we just mention only the questions which require students by nominating, in chorus, volunteering or self-answering The result of this aspect will be presented more clearly in chapter 4

Feedback is the response to efforts by the learner to communicate, which includes the notion of error correction Feedback has been widely investigated based on information theory and general communication research outside classroom

or language learning context (Annett, 1969) It has been suggested that feedback plays a major role in helping learners to test hypotheses they have formed about the rule system of the target language (Ellis, 1985)

Providing feedback for students on their language performance is one of the important aspects of teacher talk Feedback can be either positive or negative and

feedback may serve not only to let students know how well they have performed the target language but also to stimulate them and create a supportive classroom atmosphere In language speaking classrooms, feedback on students‟ spoken language helps teachers to look back to the content which they have delivered and what students have produced Furthermore, frequent feedback from language teachers in the classrooms helps them modify teaching methods to suit students‟ language competence Two main components of feedback are correction and assessment

2.4.1 Teachers’ correction

All of the language learners make mistakes in the process of learning and they can learn better if they recognize the mistakes they make and their mistakes are corrected It is essential for teachers to point out students‟ mistakes and provide ways of correction According to Ur (1996, p 247) in correction, “some specific information is given on aspects of students‟ performance, through explanation, or provision of better or their alternatives, or through elicitation of these from teachers” The important problem is that how correction is given out in language classrooms: gently or assertively, supportively, tactfully or rudely Ur (1996) prefers tactful corrections According to his ideas, teachers should carry out the corrections that are best and suitable for their language students‟ level They have to be very careful while correcting students‟ mistakes They should not discourage students so that language students can maintain their confidence and they will not become upset A good teacher should know how to give good ways of mistake corrections to his students Ur (1996) also believes that teachers could adopt the following techniques to correct students‟ errors:

1 Not reacting to all mistakes

2 Indicating the mistake but not providing any further information about what

is wrong

3 Saying what is wrong and proving a model of the acceptable version

4 Indicating something is wrong and eliciting acceptable solution from the

learner who has made the mistake

5 Pointing out to the mistaken part and eliciting an acceptable solution from another member of the class

6 Asking the learner who makes the mistake to reproduce the corrected version

7 Providing an explanation of why the mistake is made and how to avoid it Good pedagogical ways of language correction help students to clarify their understanding of the meaning and construction of the language It is also necessary

to praise learners for their language success Teachers can stimulate their language students by giving encouraging words like “good, Ok, well-done, thank you” and so

on to help learners to perform well and steps up their motivation to study the language (Harmer, 1998)

2.4.2 Teachers’ assessment

Assessment is a technique to inform the learners how well they have performed, what they need to improve, how much they understand their work A grade in percentage on an exam would be one example; or the response “No” to attempted answer or “Excellent” at the end of a written exam (Ur, 1996, p 242) There are a lot of words or phrases that teachers use for evaluating learners‟ language performance

a Confirmation like “good‟, “right”, “well-done”, “correct”, “no”, “it is wrong”, “is the answer correct?” and so on

b Encouraging words like “that is better”, “try again”, “can you do better”, and “take your own time” and so on

It thoroughly depends on language choices of teachers to decide what kinds of words, phrases or sentences they would prefer to encourage their learners, create positive learning environment and for effective learning to take place The better assessment teachers give, the more effective results their language students will acquire (Yanfen & Yuqin, 2010)

In brief, feedback is one of the most important procedures of teaching language, in which its two integral components are correction and assessment make

great contribution to the success of students‟ foreign language acquisition Hence, language teacher had better choose their best ways of feedback to encourage their students to develop language skills and competence and to be more self-confident when producing their oral language in classrooms Teachers should be sure that feedback doesn‟t mean they degrade students‟ learning spirit This helps point out any language mistakes made by students and find possible pedagogical solutions to the shortcomings in their language performance

2.5 Theoretical background of speaking skills

According to Chaney and Burk (1998, p.13), speaking is “the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety context” Brown (1994), Burn and Joyce (1997) stated that speaking is “an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing, receiving, and processing information.” In a related study, Bygate (1993) gave one detailed definition saying “speaking is the skill by which learners are most frequently judged and through which they make and lose friends It is the vehicle par excellence of social solidarity, social ranking, of professional advancement and of business It is also the medium through which much language is learnt” (p.193) Burn and Joyce (1997) also stated that speaking is an interactive process of construction that involves two or more persons who use language for international and transactional purposes Johns (1987) defined speaking in a different way According to him, speaking

is a form of communication The speaker must consider the person that they are talking to as the listener The activity that the person does primarily is based on particular goals Therefore, it is important that everything we want to say is conveyed in an effective way, because speaking is not producing sounds but also a process of achieving goals that involve exchange messages each other Johnson & Morrow (1981) said, “How you say something can be important as what you say in getting your messages across”, so speaking process should be paid attention to what and how to say as well as to whom appropriately

2.5.1 Speaking

Speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and receiving and processing information (Brown, 1994; Burns & Joyce, 1997) The form and meaning of speaking are dependent on the speaking contexts in which it occurs, including the participants, their collective experiences, the physical environment, and the purposes for speaking It is often spontaneous, open-ended, and evolving However, speech is not always unpredictable Language functions (or patterns) that tend to occur in certain discourse situations (e.g., declining or accepting

an invitation or requesting time off from work, asking for a favor ), can be identified and charted (Burns & Joyce, 1997) For example, when a salesperson asks,

“May I help you?” the expected discourse sequence includes a statement of need, response to the need, offer of appreciation, acknowledgement of the appreciation, and

a leave-taking exchange Speaking requires that learners not only know how to produce specific points of language such as grammar, pronunciation, or vocabulary (linguistic competence), but also that they understand when, why, and in what ways

to produce language (sociolinguistic competence) Finally, speech has its own skills, structures, and conventions different from written language (Burns & Joyce, 1997; Carter & McCarthy, 1995; Cohen, 1996) A good speaker is the person who can synthesize all of the skills and knowledge to succeed in a given speech act

In English speaking classes, speaking is the language production competence

of language students, in which students can use it to communicate with and understand each other, mastering and carrying out language activities as well as the purpose of speaking tasks Speaking is also considered means of achieving the structures and the functions of the target language If language students show their weak ability in speaking, it is likely to predict that they cannot be successful in language study Speaking skill helps language students to have good interactions with their teachers and other students, which is the way of acquiring the target language more quickly and more effectively

2.5.2 A good speaker

A speaker‟s skills and speech habits have an impact on the success of any

produce the expected patterns of specific discourse situations They must also manage discrete elements such as turn-taking, rephrasing, providing feedback, or redirecting (Burns & Joyce, 1997) For example, a learner involved in the exchange with the salesperson described previously must know the usual pattern that such an interaction follows and access that knowledge as the exchange progresses The learner must also choose the correct vocabulary to describe the item, rephrase or emphasize words to clarify the description if the clerk does not understand, and use appropriate facial expressions to indicate satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the partners Other skills and knowledge that a good speaker needs include the following:

the language;

or shared points of reference, status and power relations of participants, interest levels, or differences in perspectives;

the topic being discussed, and the setting in which the speech act occurs;

words, rephrasing, or checking for listener comprehension;

of speech such as vocabulary, rate of speech, and complexity of grammar structures

to maximize listener comprehension and involvement (Brown, 1994)

Teachers should monitor learners‟ speech production to determine what skills and knowledge they have already had and what areas need development Bailey and Savage‟s New Ways in Teaching Speaking (1994), and Lewis‟s New Ways in Teaching Adults (1997) offer suggestions for activities that can address different skills They recommend that speaking competence can be reinforced by a lot of

exciting language activities Hence, language activities are very important in the process of language acquisition and teachers always play the central role in this process Hence, in order to have a perfect English speaking class, language teachers have to have a thorough understanding of speaking level of each student, from which they can organize suitable speaking activities

2.5.3 General outline of a speaking lesson

Speaking lessons can follow the usual steps of preparation, presentation, practice, evaluation, and extension The teacher can use the preparation step to set

up a situation for the speaking task (where, when , why, and with whom it will occur) and to arouse the awareness of the importance of the speaking skill for students (asking for clarification, stressing key words, using reduced forms of words) In presentation, the teacher can provide learners with a speaking model for furthers learners‟ comprehension and helps them pay more attention to language use and language observation Practice involves learners in reproducing the targeted structures, usually in a controlled or highly supported ways Evaluation involves directing attention to the skill being examined and asking learners to monitor and assess their own progress Finally, extension consists of activities that ask learners

to use the strategies or skills in a different context of authentic communicative

situation, or to integrate use of the new skill or strategy with previously acquired

ones (Brown, 1994; Burns & Joyce, 1997; Carter & McCarthy, 1995) Teachers are the important ones who need to understand and design a suitable speaking lesson plan, helping students improve their English speaking skill after each activity For each speaking context, we have different ways of introducing and establishing speaking topics for students This strategy aims to stimulate students‟ language ability at possible highest level Florez (1999, p.105) suggests the following procedures as an example of a speaking lesson

Example of a speaking lesson: Choosing appropriate topics for small talk

1 Preparation Give language students a picture of two people conversing in a

familiar casual situation Ask them to brainstorm what the people might be discussing (i.e., topics, vocabulary, typical phrases)

2 Presentation Present several video clips of small talk in casual situations (or

use some models of small talk) Have learners complete a worksheet in which they describe or list the topics discussed, the context in which the speech is occurring, and any phrases that seem to typify small talk Follow up with a discussion of the kinds of topics that are appropriate for small talk, the factors in the specific situations that affect topic selection (e.g., relationships of participants, physical setting), and typical phrases used in small talk

3 Practice Give learners specific information about the participants and the

setting of a situation where small talk will take place In pairs, have them list topics that might be discussed by the participants and simple phrases they might use Learners then engage in improvised dialogues based on these simple phrases

4 Evaluation Give pairs a teacher-prepared dialogue based on their scenario

Ask them to compare their improvised dialogues with the prepared dialogue, analyzing the similarities, differences, and reasons for both

5 Extension Have learners go individually or in small groups into various

contexts in the community (work, school, church, bus stop) and record the conversations they hear Ask them to report their findings back to the class, and then have the class discuss the findings

2.5.4 In-class speaking tasks

Teachers have to master a variety of teaching methods in language classrooms

to help students acquire the target language perfectly Among them, dialogues and conversations are the most obvious and they are most often used as speaking activities in language classrooms Teachers can select activities from a variety of tasks Brown (1994) lists six possible task categories:

Imitative

Drills in which the learner simply repeats a phrase or structure (e.g., “Excuse

me.” Or “Can you help me?”) for clarity and accuracy;

When designing or giving out any language tasks, teachers should introduce the language function in the task to learners and the real situation in which it usually occurs and the ultimate purpose of each task Teachers are advised to provide language learners with a lot of favorable opportunities for interactive practice Teachers should be careful not to overload a speaking lesson by providing language students with other new materials such as a lot of vocabulary or grammatical structures This cannot help them to perform the primary speaking goals of the lesson

Moreover, this can create a lot of difficulties in practicing language speaking skill

2.5.5 Assessing speaking

Assessing speaking activities are really necessary for teachers to define what students acquire from the given lessons Speaking assessments can take many forms, from oral sections of standardized tests such as the Basic English Skills Test (BEST) or the English as a Second Language Oral Assessment to authentic assessments such as progress checklists, analysis of taped speech samples, or anecdotal records of speech in classroom interactions Assessment instruments should reflect instruction and be incorporated from the beginning stages of lesson planning For example, if a lesson focuses on producing and recognizing signals for turn-taking in a group discussion, the assessment tool might be a checklist to be completed by the teacher or learners in the course of the learners‟ participation in the discussion Criteria of assessment should be clearly defined and understandable

to both the teachers and learners

In conclusion, speaking is a key to communication By considering what good speakers do, what speaking tasks can be used in class, and what specific needs learners report, teachers can help learners improve their speaking skill and overall oral competence

2.6 Background overview

So far, speaking has attracted a great numbers of researchers all over the world Among the remarkable researchers in this field of linguistics are Brown and Yule (1983), Bygate (1993), Lynch (1997), Cholewinski (1999), Nunan (2001), Widowson (2001) The researchers‟ interests towards speaking show that speaking is the skill that any language learners would like to master Furthermore, speaking is one of the most difficult skills for both teachers to teach and learners to learn In Vietnam, there have also been a lot of researchers who are interested in speaking skills such as Tran Ngoc Hung (1997), Le Thi Ngoc Uyen (1997), Phan Thai Nghi Giang (2010)

It can be said that speaking has interested both Vietnamese and foreign researchers However, so far there have not been many studies which focus on

students‟ speaking achievements under the influence of teacher talk in English speaking class Therefore, this thesis is going to be a great contribution to improving the speaking skill of students by exploring the influence of teacher talk

on students‟ speaking skill

Considered as an important factor of classroom teaching, teacher talk has not been noticed as an impetus for teaching and learning Classroom-centered research

or classroom-originated research investigates the process of teaching and learning

as they occur in classroom contexts “It simply tries to investigate what happens inside the classroom” (Allwright & Baily, 1991, p.3) Its aim is to identify the phenomena that promote or hamper learning in the classroom The clear analysis of teacher talk will stimulate language teaching method and determine the success of learning Despite the apparent differences in methodological principles, the various methods led to very similar patterns of classroom communication, with the result that the language learning outcomes are also similar Then, researchers continue giving the hypothesis that classroom interaction is the major factor that influences the process of second language acquisition “An offshoot of the comparative method studies, then, was to direct researchers‟ attention to the processes of classroom interaction by collecting language data from the classroom itself” (Ellis, 1985, p.143) “Classroom process research calls the study

of communication in the classroom, has taken different forms: interaction analysis; teacher talk; discourse analysis” (Ellis, 1985, p.143) All dimensions of classroom process, from giving instruction to questioning or disciplining students, providing the feedback, involve teacher talk Therefore, teacher talk has become one of the most important parts of classroom research

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The chapter describes the methods and techniques to show the influences of teacher talk on the process of foreign language acquisition of students It also has

a short description of research site, the participants and states information about data analysis

3.1 Research site

Nguyen Trai high school which is located in Tuy Hoa city, Phu Yen province

1992, Nguyen Trai high school has always tried hard to overcome many difficulties

on the way of asserting its prestige As a result, it is now acknowledged as one of the top four high schools that have the good teaching quality in all of the school subjects Together with Nguyen Hue, Duy Tan, and Luong Van Chanh high school for the gifted, Nguyen Trai high school is famous for its prestigious training quality

in Phu Yen Students of Nguyen Trai high school have won a lot of prizes in many big examinations such as: city rank excellent students examinations, national rank excellent students examinations In the academic year 2012 – 2013, Nguyen Trai high school has 33 classes with the total number of students over 1,100 Three classes chosen from each grade will be included in this study, from which we can draw out a general view on how teacher talk influences the process of speaking skill development of language students in English speaking classes

3.2 Research methodology

To find out reliable answers to the research questions, both qualitative and quantitative methods are chosen to carry out this paper The qualitative approach is

to describe the subjects‟ experiences, behaviors of teachers and learners, reflections

of learners on teacher instruction in language classrooms Using the quantitative methods, I aim to count the participants‟ responses and analyze them according to statistical models This data analysis will affirm the information from not only the interviews but also classroom observations

3.3 The participants

3.3.1 Teachers

There are 10 English teachers at Nguyen Trai high school All of them graduated from University and got M.A degrees in English They are all over 10-year experienced teachers They show really enthusiastic devotion to their teaching jobs All of them are engaged in giving their ideas about the questionnaire table, contributing to the definition of the reality of using their own talk in English speaking classes

In this research, 3 teachers of English at Nguyen Trai high school in Phu Yen province will be treated as core subjects, who teach English to students at the same school They are interviewed to give out the information about the reality of teaching speaking skills Questionnaires are also delivered to them to help the researcher with useful evidences, and at the same time their teaching is observed, from which the researcher collects the data for the study Apart from the classes mentioned above, the three teachers also participate in teaching others classes at the same school

Table 3.1: Background Information of the Three Participating Teachers

Teachers

3.3.2 Students

Three classes chosen at random for the thesis research are 10A3, 11B8 and 12C2 With the national curriculum of English for three grades (grade 10, grade 11 and grade 12), students have 3 periods of English learning each week Like other schools in the region and throughout the country, Nguyen Trai high school is using