INTRODUCTION
Rationale
Scaffolding is a crucial support mechanism provided by experts to novices, facilitating their learning process (Wood et al., 1976) According to Davis and Miyaki (2004), scaffolding is a key component of activity-based learning methodologies, which also include modeling, coaching, reflection, and exploration This approach enables teachers to offer cues, questions, and coaching, assisting students in completing tasks before they attempt them independently (Pearson, 1999) Essentially, scaffolding effectively bridges the gap between students' existing knowledge and what they need to learn The benefits of scaffolding, particularly peer scaffolding, are significant; Fawcett and Garton (2005) highlight that peer collaboration enhances interaction and verbal communication, allowing students to explore each other's thoughts and develop new perspectives Furthermore, peer scaffolding plays a vital role in enhancing oral fluency (Ohta, 2000) In summary, both scaffolding and peer scaffolding are effective strategies that promote collaborative learning, aiding in vocabulary development and thematic construction among students.
Research on scaffolding in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms has shown its positive impact on students' writing and reading comprehension abilities (Riazi & Rezaii, 2011; Chi, 2007) However, there is a lack of studies in Vietnam focusing on scaffolding to enhance students' English proficiency, particularly in speaking skills, which are crucial for effective communication Despite Vietnamese students' strong grammar skills, many struggle with speaking due to passive learning attitudes, reluctance to share opinions, and limited vocabulary (Le, 1999; Nguyen, 2005; Nguyen, 2009) Interviews reveal that students often lack the background knowledge necessary for discussions and feel insecure about expressing their thoughts This leads to a preference for collaborative speaking tasks, as students feel more comfortable working in pairs or groups (Littlewood, 2000) Therefore, implementing group work and scaffolding strategies could significantly enhance students' speaking skills by leveraging their strengths and addressing their weaknesses.
Peer scaffolding significantly enhances students' speaking
SCAFFOLDING IN PEER INTERACTION BY ENGLISH MAJORS AT HUE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES”.
Aims of the study
The purposes of this paper are to:
- investigate the students‟ perceptions towards peer scaffolding
- explore the use of scaffolding in peer interaction, if any
- identify the scaffolding features made by students in dialogues
Scope of the study
In a recent study at Hue University College of Foreign Languages (HUCFL), 100 second-year English majors participated in a questionnaire focused on their perceptions of scaffolding in language learning To gain deeper insights, 10 pairs of these students were interviewed, engaging in discussions on assigned topics, with all conversations recorded for analysis.
Significance
This research aims to enhance both theoretical and practical understanding of scaffolding, particularly in dialogues, thereby advancing its application in speaking and English learning The study seeks to enrich the existing literature on scaffolding for future research and raise students' awareness of its features By fostering collaborative learning through scaffolding, students are expected to expand their vocabulary and share knowledge, ultimately stretching their capacity boundaries.
Research questions
This research investigates English majors' perceptions of scaffolding in peer interaction, exploring their views on its advantages and disadvantages Additionally, it examines how these students utilize peer scaffolding during their interactions.
Organization of the study
The plan of this paper is as follows
Chapter 1 describes the rationale for the study on the use of scaffolding in peer interaction of English majors at HUCFL The research questions and the aims of the study are also mentioned in this chapter Finally, this chapter offers the significance of the study and research organization
In chapter 2, some theoretical concepts are presented It is a literature review on scaffolding, and peer scaffolding as well as its features, and previous studies on scaffolding
Research methodology, focusing on the chosen research design, data collection tools and procedures of the study are shown in Chapter 3
Chapter 4 presents what is found out in the study and offer a thorough discussion of the findings The findings are discussed in the light of what is reviewed in the related literature
Chapter 5 presents the conclusion of the findings and discussion, highlighting the implications and offering suggestions for improving the use of peer scaffolding in interactions.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This chapter explores the theoretical foundations of scaffolding, highlighting Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) It defines scaffolding and peer scaffolding, examining their respective advantages and disadvantages Additionally, the chapter reviews previous studies to establish a framework for the current research.
Scaffolding and its theoretical concepts
Scaffolding, originating from the construction industry, refers to a temporary elevated platform that supports buildings during construction or provides a safe standing area for workers to access high sections As the building becomes more stable and develops, the scaffolding is systematically dismantled.
In educational research, scaffolding is often linked to Lev S Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, which highlights the crucial role of culture, peers, and adults in shaping children's linguistic and cognitive development Vygotsky posits that social interaction is fundamental to cognition, with children's thinking evolving through language-mediated interactions He emphasizes that learning occurs on two levels: first, through engagement with others, and second, as knowledge is internalized within the individual’s mental framework Vygotsky asserts that a more experienced partner, whether a peer or teacher, facilitates the acquisition of new concepts Overall, he argues that learning is inherently social, taking place through interactions that allow knowledge to be shared and constructed within culturally rich environments.
2.2.2 The notion of the ZPD
A crucial aspect of Vygotsky's work related to the theoretical foundation of scaffolding is his concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which plays a vital role in the learning process According to Vygotsky (1978:86), the ZPD defines the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance and support.
The gap between a learner's current development, assessed through independent problem-solving, and their potential development, achieved through guidance from adults or collaboration with more skilled peers, is crucial for understanding their growth.
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) refers to the space between a learner's independent capabilities and what they can achieve with guidance from a more knowledgeable individual, such as an adult or peer This knowledgeable figure plays a crucial role in sharing insights and facilitating the learner's progress, effectively bridging the gap between existing knowledge and new information.
As a student's knowledge grows, their actual developmental level and Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) also evolve This dynamic nature of the ZPD necessitates that scaffolded instruction be continuously tailored to meet the unique and shifting needs of each learner.
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), as highlighted by Mariani (1997), is crucial in education as it defines the range of difficulty where effective learning takes place Instruction that is too challenging may lead to frustration, while overly simplistic tasks fail to engage learners Optimal learning occurs when students operate within their ZPD, supported by knowledgeable adults or peers who help expand their understanding and knowledge.
Figure 2.1: Zone of proximal development
From: http://etec.ctlt.ubc.ca/510wiki/Components_of_Cognitive_Apprenticeship:_Scaffolding
In conclusion, learning is enhanced through interactions between learners and more knowledgeable adults or peers This guidance allows learners to expand their knowledge and skills, reaching tasks that are beyond their current abilities.
Figure 2.2: The interaction between the learners/child and teacher/parents
From: http://esl.fis.edu/teachers/fis/scaffold/page1.htm
Scaffolding
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) play a crucial role in understanding scaffolding in education Central to this theory is the notion that advanced thinking and skill acquisition are influenced by social interactions among learners within their ZPD, supported by scaffolding techniques There is a strong consensus among scholars that Vygotskian sociocultural psychology and the ZPD are fundamental to the scaffolding concept (Berk, 2001; Daniels, 2001; Hammond, 2002).
Vygotsky's theory lacks clarity on the specific types of social interactions that aid learners within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Teachers can offer various forms of assistance, including authoritative guidance and cooperative support (DeVries, 2000) Authoritative assistance may involve educators or teaching assistants directing a group towards a set objective Without group interaction, individual students may struggle to reach their goals; however, collaboration allows for the assessment of each student's developmental potential Scaffolding emerges as a viable solution to address this challenge.
The concept of scaffolding in learning was first introduced by researchers Wood, Bruner, and Ross in 1976, initially describing the role of parental tutoring in young children's language development Bruner further elaborated on this idea in 1978, defining scaffolding as a supportive framework that aids learners in acquiring new skills.
To enhance a child's ability to focus on mastering a challenging skill, it is essential to limit the degrees of freedom in executing related tasks This approach allows the child to concentrate more effectively on the specific skill they are developing.
Scaffolding, as defined by Stone (1998) and Hammond (2002), serves as a metaphor for the role of adults or knowledgeable peers in facilitating children's learning and development This concept is particularly relevant in the context of young children's language development, reflecting a sociocultural perspective on holistic human growth.
In order to clarify the relationship between the first language development and second or foreign language (L2) development, Bruner (1983:60) emphasizes they are closely relevant to each other:
The teacher offers a supportive framework to help learners overcome their difficulties through targeted interventions, gradually removing this support as students gain independence and confidence in their abilities.
Scaffolding is a teaching method that simplifies learning by reducing the complexities a learner faces, focusing their attention, and providing clear expectations According to Bruner (1978), knowledgeable adults or peers should engage with the learner to prevent regression and work within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) A key feature of scaffolding is the gradual withdrawal of support from the expert as the novice's understanding and confidence grow.
In summary, the concept of scaffolding, rooted in Vygotsky's framework, serves as a metaphor for learning, transitioning from early childhood language development to advanced second language acquisition in EFL classrooms In this context, scaffolding refers to the support provided by more knowledgeable individuals to those with less experience during interactions between teachers and students or among peers engaged in learning activities Teacher-student scaffolding focuses on how educators assist their students in enhancing their learning, while peer scaffolding emphasizes the collaborative support among friends.
Peer scaffolding
In the context of EFL classrooms, scaffolding refers to the temporary support that teachers provide to help students complete tasks and develop new understandings, enabling them to tackle similar tasks independently in the future According to Maybin, Mercer, and Steirer (1992), this essential assistance from mentors is crucial for learners to successfully engage with tasks As students learn within their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) under the teacher's guidance, their ability to perform tasks without help increases, leading to a shift in the ZPD Consequently, the scaffolding that aligns with the previous zone must be removed, requiring the instructor to offer new challenges and support In summary, scaffolding is a vital yet temporary component of the learning process for every student.
Bruner (1984) defined scaffolding as the interaction between an expert and a novice, emphasizing its role in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) In educational settings, experts are typically teachers or more capable students, while novices are less proficient learners However, mutual learning occurs, as both capable and less capable students can benefit from each other's insights The dynamics of pair work allow learners to alternate roles, with each taking turns as the expert, fostering a collaborative learning environment (Ohta, 1995; Kowal and Swain, 1994).
Scaffolding in the classroom, as defined by 2009, refers to the support provided by teachers or peers to facilitate learning This interaction between experts and novices—whether in teacher-student or peer contexts—is crucial for the learning process Essentially, scaffolding is a temporary yet essential form of assistance that enables participants to complete tasks through dynamic interactions, where roles can shift among learners.
Scaffolding in education can be categorized into two primary types: teacher-student scaffolding and peer scaffolding In the context of Vietnamese classrooms, teacher-student scaffolding often proves less effective than peer scaffolding due to factors such as large class sizes and cultural influences, particularly Confucianism and power distance These elements highlight the limitations of traditional teacher-led support in fostering student learning.
Vietnamese speaking classes typically consist of 30 to 40 students, making it challenging for teachers to provide individualized attention and facilitate interactive activities.
In 1987, it was noted that teachers often lack the time to provide individual instruction, making it essential for them to teach students how to support one another in their learning This approach emphasizes the importance of equipping students with learning strategies, as highlighted by Oxford (1990), who stated that effective scaffolding involves providing tools that enable independent learning Utilizing pair work or small group activities can facilitate this collaborative learning process, allowing students to help each other while developing essential skills.
Confucianism serves as a foundational framework for the actions and behaviors of the Vietnamese people, significantly influencing their learning styles A notable aspect of this is the introverted learning style, where students acquire knowledge primarily through direct instruction from teachers rather than through independent exploration.
In Asian cultures, silence is highly valued, leading to a reluctance among students to voice their opinions or ask questions, as doing so may be seen as disrespectful or as expressing disagreement with authority figures such as teachers (Littrell, n.d.; Song, 1995).
In Vietnamese classrooms, characterized by a high power distance, teacher-student interactions are often limited, leading to inadequate scaffolding compared to peer scaffolding Students typically feel hesitant and lack confidence in communicating with their teachers, while friendships foster a more relaxed and supportive atmosphere Consequently, during collaborative learning activities, students engage more freely with their peers, highlighting the shortcomings of teacher-led scaffolding in favor of the more effective peer scaffolding.
In Vietnamese speaking classes, traditional teacher-student instruction is often less effective than peer scaffolding, as learners tend to prefer discussing ideas in small groups or pairs to avoid losing face This reluctance to engage with teachers stems from a cultural emphasis on respecting authority, leading students to remain silent rather than challenge their instructors Therefore, organizing students into small groups or pairs to foster interaction is a more effective approach in enhancing speaking skills.
Advantages and disadvantages of scaffolding
Peer scaffolding in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching is increasingly recognized for its benefits, as highlighted by Webb (1989), who emphasizes that the learning process improves when students engage in mutual consultation and explanation.
Research suggests that teaching or explaining concepts to others enhances learning, enabling students to develop a clearer understanding of their own knowledge in a second language (L2) (Van Lier, 1996; Allwright, 1984) This process of peer interaction provides valuable scaffolding, benefiting both novice and expert learners alike.
Scaffolding plays a crucial role in enhancing learners' understanding during the educational process (Hammond, 2002) By engaging in carefully designed activities and receiving quality support from teachers and peers, students are challenged to expand their capabilities This approach encourages learners to push beyond their current skills and comprehension levels Furthermore, scaffolding provides students with opportunities for success, gradually guiding them into more complex and unfamiliar concepts.
Scaffolding instruction is highly effective in engaging learners as it encourages them to build on prior knowledge and create connections between new concepts (Van Der Stuyf, 2002) Rather than passively absorbing information, students actively construct their understanding through teacher prompts and peer interactions This approach is particularly beneficial for students with low self-esteem and learning disabilities, as it fosters positive feedback among peers When implemented correctly, scaffolding not only enhances knowledge acquisition but also motivates students to embrace learning.
This instructional approach helps reduce learner frustration, which is crucial for students who may easily become discouraged and withdraw from participating in further activities By minimizing frustration, it encourages ongoing engagement in the learning process.
Peer scaffolding can enhance learning, but it is most effective when guided by a teacher (Ge & Land, 2003) However, it is essential to recognize that group work may also lead to negative learning outcomes (Mattos, 2000) Notably, some students may prioritize competition over cooperation, especially when working with peers who have lower grades (Zhenhui, 2001) Additionally, disagreements regarding information and opinions can arise among group members (Gillies and Ashman, 2003) Therefore, teachers must actively monitor peer scaffolding activities and provide guidance to correct mistakes and minimize negative learning effects.
Peer scaffolding plays a crucial role in English speaking classes in Vietnam by enhancing students' understanding through interaction, fostering motivation, and reducing frustration To facilitate this, teachers often organize students into pairs or groups, either randomly or alphabetically, to collaboratively complete assigned tasks The effectiveness of peer scaffolding is underscored by its distinct features and strategies.
Scaffolding strategies and features
Scaffolding is essential in learning development, characterized by collaborative interactions that allow individuals to support each other, as noted by Yelland and Master (2007) and Yu (2004) This process involves engagement between learners and educators or peers, highlighting that anyone can serve as a teacher in specific areas According to Confucius, a more skilled learner can assist a less experienced one, but roles can easily be reversed depending on the context.
Scaffolding should function within the learner's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), meaning it must align with the learner's current competency level while introducing slightly more challenging tasks Effective peer interactions should start from the students' existing capabilities and gradually progress into more challenging areas to enhance learning.
As students advance in their learning journey, the support structures, known as scaffolding, are gradually removed, marking the third characteristic of this approach (Yelland & Masters, 2007) The primary goal of the educational process is to foster independent learning, which involves a gradual withdrawal of assistance from teachers and peers, empowering learners to complete tasks autonomously.
According to Yelland and Master (2007), the fourth trait of scaffolding is its dynamic nature, highlighting the significance of peer interaction in speaking classes To foster an effective dynamic process during these interactions and enhance student engagement in peer scaffolding, teachers should consider five key characteristics when providing scaffolding instruction (Jamie McKenzie, 2000).
Teachers play a crucial role in providing clear direction to minimize student confusion by presenting a comprehensive overview of the material To effectively implement scaffolding in instruction, educators should anticipate potential challenges and offer detailed, step-by-step guidance for task completion.
To enhance learning, teachers must clearly articulate the purpose of each lesson, ensuring that students understand the significance of their activities This clarity prevents confusion and allows learners to see how new concepts build upon their existing knowledge, fostering a more effective educational experience through guided instruction.
During scaffolding, teachers must ensure that students remain focused and engaged While students receive an overview of the lesson at the start, it's crucial for them to understand the lesson's progression This awareness allows students to make independent decisions regarding their learning journey.
To ensure effective peer scaffolding, teachers should guide students towards reliable resources that enhance research and learning By providing valuable materials, educators can minimize confusion and frustration, allowing students to support each other more effectively This approach not only alleviates uncertainty but also maximizes learning potential during peer interactions.
The last characteristic adapted from McKenzie (2000) is helping to create momentum Scaffolding inspires learners to want to learn more and increase their knowledge and understanding
Wood et al (1976) focused on tutorial interactions to investigate specific scaffolding features, identifying six key types of support provided by more capable students to assist less capable peers: (1) Recruitment, (2) Reduction in degrees of freedom, (3) Direction maintenance, (4) Highlighting critical features, (5) Frustration control, and (6) Demonstration.
The recruitment process aimed to engage less proficient students in their tasks, while reducing degrees of freedom simplified the tasks for better understanding Direction maintenance focused on keeping these students attentive and aligned with their goals Providing corrections addressed critical aspects of their performance, and frustration control was essential in minimizing stress during the peer scaffolding process Lastly, demonstration involved verbal explanations, whereas manifestation included both verbal and physical explanations to enhance learning.
Studies on scaffolding
Research based on Vygotsky's development theory highlights the significance of scaffolding in second language learning, focusing on interactions among teachers, experts, and peers Storch (1999) examined the impact of peer scaffolding by comparing individual and collaborative work among students The findings revealed that collaborative learning positively influenced grammatical accuracy and the construction of lexical knowledge.
Swain and Lapkin (1998, 2001) explored the collaborative writing processes of French students, emphasizing how they supported one another by focusing on language form Through co-construction of their texts, students generated and evaluated alternatives while correcting each other's second language errors Their findings demonstrated that this scaffolding approach facilitated microgenesis in vocabulary and grammar development.
A study by Riazi and Rezaii (2011) explored the impact of scaffolding on the writing abilities of EFL students, focusing on the effectiveness of teacher versus peer scaffolding The results indicated that while both teachers and peers employed various scaffolding techniques, teachers utilized a greater range of behaviors, leading to more successful outcomes in improving students' English writing skills compared to peer scaffolding.
Chi (2007) examined and compared the scaffolding strategies used by two EFL teachers to enhance reading comprehension The study aimed to identify the most effective strategies for both teachers and students The findings indicated that these scaffolding strategies significantly improved students' understanding of texts and overall reading comprehension.
Recent research on scaffolding EFL learners in Vietnam is limited Le Pham Hoai Huong's 2004 thesis, "A Sociocultural Analysis of Learning English in Unassisted and Assisted Peer Groups at University in Vietnam," explored the roles of peers in both unassisted and assisted groups, focusing on mediation through psychological and material artifacts The study aimed to identify pedagogical issues related to EFL group work in language classes Findings indicated that a more proficient senior student in the assisted groups facilitated dyadic interactions with peers, leading to vocabulary acquisition for students in both groups.
Recent studies highlight the positive impact of peer scaffolding on students' language proficiencies, despite some previous research indicating negative effects Given the limited studies on scaffolding in peer interaction and its influence on learning, this research aims to emphasize the effectiveness of peer scaffolding in enhancing students' speaking skills.
Summary
This chapter reviews the literature relevant to the study, highlighting key theoretical concepts of scaffolding, particularly Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory and the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) It defines scaffolding and peer scaffolding, discussing their respective advantages and disadvantages The chapter concludes with an overview of previous studies connected to the research topic, setting the stage for the upcoming discussion on research methodology.
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter outlines the research design, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative approaches through three distinct research methods It details the participants and research sites involved in the study Additionally, the chapter thoroughly presents the data collection tools utilized, including questionnaires, audio recordings, and interviews.
Research design
This descriptive study explores the application of scaffolding in peer interaction, employing a mixed-methods approach to enhance validity and reliability Utilizing questionnaires, audio recordings, and student interviews, the research integrates both quantitative and qualitative methods to leverage their respective strengths and address their limitations.
Quantitative research is valuable for providing explanations and making predictions that can be generalized across different populations and settings One key benefit of this approach is its objectivity (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992, as cited in Thomas, 2003) In this study, a questionnaire is employed to explore students' perceptions of scaffolding and its practical application.
This study employs qualitative research methods to explore interactions among students in a holistic and naturalistic classroom environment By examining these interactions in their natural settings, the researcher aims to understand how students support and scaffold each other's learning Data collection methods, including recordings and interviews, are utilized to interpret students' perceptions gathered from questionnaires.
Participants and research sites
A study involving 100 second-year English majors at HUCFL was conducted to explore students' perceptions of scaffolding To gain deeper insights, 10 pairs of these students were interviewed, and their conversations were recorded while they completed tasks on assigned topics.
Data collection tools
This research utilizes three complementary methods—questionnaires, audio recordings, and interviews—to gather data in response to three key research questions The data collected from these methods were meticulously analyzed to explore perceptions and the use of scaffolding in peer interactions during speaking classes at HUCFL The reliability of the findings is enhanced through the integration of these diverse approaches, as illustrated in Table 3.1, which outlines the data collection process for the study.
Table 3.1 Summary of data collection tools
Questionnaire To clarify the students‟ perceptions and reality of using scaffolding in peer interaction
30 questions with five- point scale
To identify the usage of scaffolding in peer interaction and how they use it
Interview To get deeper understanding about the usage, the advantages and disadvantages of using scaffolding in peer interaction
The questionnaire is a highly effective research tool, enabling the collection of data from a large number of teachers and students quickly and cost-effectively (Brown, 1995; Bell, 1987) This method not only facilitates extensive information gathering but also respects respondents' privacy and allows them the freedom to express their choices without pressure.
While questionnaires have their advantages, they also present significant drawbacks Researchers often face challenges in assessing the honesty and depth of thought from respondents Furthermore, questionnaires may fall short in capturing nuanced information related to emotions, feelings, and behaviors These limitations can be addressed by utilizing alternative methods, such as interviews, which offer a more comprehensive understanding of respondents' experiences.
In a study involving 100 second-year English majors at HUCFL, questionnaires were distributed to assess students' perceptions of scaffolding in peer interaction The collected data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) to conduct a quantitative analysis.
The questionnaire consists of 30 questions rated on a five-point scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree It is organized into three key clusters: English majors' perceptions of scaffolding in peer interactions, the advantages and disadvantages of scaffolding, and the application of peer scaffolding in interactions among English majors.
Participants' perceptions regarding scaffolding in peer interaction were explored, focusing on three key sub-clusters: the advantages and disadvantages of Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory, the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), and the roles of scaffolding and peer scaffolding Specific perceptions of English majors were highlighted in items 1, 13, 15, 17, and 18, along with additional insights from items 3, 5, 6, 11, and 12.
19, 23, 25, and 26 address participants‟ perceptions towards the ways peer scaffolding is used in interaction Table 3.2 below summarized items of each cluster in the questionnaire
Table 3.2 Summary of the questionnaire
English majors‟ perceptions towards scaffolding in peer interaction
22, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30 English majors‟ perceptions towards advantages and disadvantages of scaffolding
English majors‟ perceptions towards how peer scaffolding is used in interaction
Among 100 students completing the questionnaire, 20 students were randomly chosen to work in pairs and discuss some topics which consist of:
The researcher highlights these familiar topics, primarily derived from the second-year textbook "Q: Skills for Success Listening and Speaking 2" (Brooks, 2010) The discussion questions associated with these topics are designed to be accessible, ensuring that students do not encounter significant challenges or difficulties.
In the second semester of the 2012-2013 school year, 20 students collaborated in pairs to engage in discussions on assigned topics Each pair received cue cards containing questions related to two specific topics, dedicating approximately 7-10 minutes to explore the questions for each topic.
The researcher audio-recorded discussions between each pair to analyze the use of peer scaffolding in their speaking This approach aimed to determine whether and how participants utilized peer support during their conversations.
This research employs interviews to address gaps identified in the questionnaire method, aiming to explore students' perceptions of scaffolding during peer interactions at HUCFL.
Interviews are essential for gathering deeper insights from participants, as questionnaires alone cannot capture the emotions and complex thoughts of students (McMillan & Schumcher, 1993) This technique offers flexibility and adaptability, significantly improving the accuracy and clarity of the information collected.
The second-year English majors who were recorded are the subjects to be interviewed The interviews were in person conducted comfortably and in a friendly manner
This study utilized three data collection methods: questionnaires, audio recordings, and interviews A questionnaire was administered to 100 second-year English majors at HUCFL to assess their perceptions and evaluations of scaffolding in peer interactions From these students, 20 were randomly selected in 10 pairs to engage in discussions on textbook topics, with their conversations audio-taped for analysis of peer scaffolding usage and characteristics Participants were instructed to complete the task in 7-10 minutes while maximizing their use of English To further explore students' perceptions of peer scaffolding, the recorded students were subsequently interviewed The data for this study was derived from both the audio recordings and the interview protocols.
Summary
This chapter outlines the research design, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative approaches through three distinct research methods It details the participants and research sites involved in the study Additionally, it thoroughly examines the data collection tools utilized, including questionnaires, audio recordings, and interviews, along with their respective advantages and disadvantages The subsequent chapter will present the findings and discussions derived from the collected data.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Introduction
This chapter presents the results of the data analysis, including interpretations and discussions related to the study It reveals the findings from both qualitative and quantitative data gathered through questionnaires, audio transcriptions, and interviews.
Findings from the questionnaire
Participants received a 30-item questionnaire and rated their responses on a five-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) The data collected were analyzed using SPSS, and a reliability test was conducted to assess the questionnaire's consistency The findings indicated a strong reliability coefficient, with Cronbach’s Alpha at α = 811.
The Descriptive Statistic Test was used to analyse the participants‟ perceptions towards scaffolding in peer interaction Table 4.1 shows the result of the test
Table 4.1 The mean score of the questionnaire
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation
The descriptive statistics indicate that the mean score of the questionnaire was 4.05, with a standard deviation of 0.315, significantly exceeding the average score of 3 on a five-point scale (t = 128.6, p = 00) This suggests that English majors strongly support the use of scaffolding in peer interactions.
The study categorized the questionnaire into three key clusters that explore students' perceptions on important topics: English majors' views on scaffolding in peer interaction, the advantages and disadvantages of scaffolding, and the application of peer scaffolding in interactions Each cluster was analyzed using Descriptive Statistic Tests and One Sample T-Tests to elucidate the participants' viewpoints.
4.2.1 English majors’ perceptions towards scaffolding in peer interaction
In order to explore students‟ perceptions towards peer scaffolding, the cluster was analyzed by the Descriptive Statistic Test Table 4.2 presented the result of the cluster
Table 4.2 The mean score of cluster 1
The Descriptive Statistic Test indicated a mean score of 4.05 for the cluster, which is notably higher than the average score of 3 on a five-point scale This suggests that students have a highly positive perception of peer scaffolding To confirm the significance of this difference between the cluster's mean score and the average, further analysis is warranted.
One Sample T- Test was used
This article explores English majors' perceptions of Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory, focusing on three key sub-clusters: the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), scaffolding, and peer scaffolding A Descriptive Statistic Test was conducted to analyze these perceptions in depth.
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation Mean of cluster 1 100 3.38 4.69 4.0519 32312
4.2.1.1 English majors’ perceptions towards Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory
The cluster was analysed by the Descriptive Statistic Test in order to examine students‟ perceptions towards Vygotsky‟s socio-cultural theory The result of the test was reported in table 4.3
Table 4.3 The mean score of cluster 1.1
The Descriptive Statistic Test indicated a mean score of 3.95 for the cluster, surpassing the average score of 3 on a five-point scale This suggests that students have a highly positive perception of Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory To confirm the significance of this difference, further analysis is required to compare the cluster's mean score with the average.
One Sample T- Test was used
The One Sample T-Test results revealed a significant difference between the mean score of students' perceptions towards Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory and the accepted mean of 3.0 With a sample mean of M = 3.95 and a standard deviation of SD = 50, the findings showed a t-value of 78.8 (df = 99, p = 00), indicating that students hold more positive perceptions of Vygotsky's theory than previously accepted.
To consider the percentage of Vygotsky‟s socio-cultural theory, the
Frequency Test was used Table 4.3 summarised the responses in terms of three main scales: Strongly Agree and Agree, Neutral and Strongly Disagree and
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation
Table 4.4 Summary of students’ responses to each item in the cluster 1.1
1 The thinking of students through social interaction is mediated by language
2 Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition in students
3 Learning involves a communicative process whereby knowledge is shared and understandings are constructed in culturally formed settings
The data indicates that 88% of second-year students believe that learning is fundamentally a communicative process Additionally, 76% of students recognize that their thinking is influenced by social interaction mediated through language Furthermore, 70% of students acknowledge the essential role of social interaction in the development of their cognitive abilities.
Students often lack a complete understanding of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, particularly regarding the role of language and social interaction in the learning process This theory emphasizes that students' cognitive development is significantly influenced by their social interactions, highlighting the importance of communication in enhancing their thinking skills.
4.2.1.2 English majors’ perceptions towards the notion of ZPD
The Descriptive Statistic Test was also run to analyse the students‟ perceptions towards the notion of ZPD The results were shown in Table 4.5
Table 4.5 The mean score of cluster 1.2
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation Mean of
The data indicates that the mean score of the cluster (M = 4.1) surpasses the midpoint of 3 on a five-point scale, highlighting that students possess a positive perception of the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
The One Sample T-Test confirmed that the mean score of students' perceptions towards the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) was significantly higher than the accepted mean of 3.0, with a calculated mean of 4.1 (SD = 47) and a t-value of 87.2 (df = 99, p = 00) This indicates that students have a more positive perception of ZPD than previously established benchmarks.
The Frequency Test assessed student perceptions of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), summarizing responses in terms of Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Strongly Disagree, and Disagree The findings are detailed in Table 4.6.
Table 4.6 Summary of students’ responses to each item in the cluster 1.2
The more knowledgeable student shares knowledge with the student to bridge the gap between what is known and what is not known
Learning can happen through interaction between the learners and the more knowledgeable adult or peer
Through the interaction as the guidance or assistance, I can expand my knowledge
The ZPD is always changing as students expands and gains knowledge
The data indicates that a substantial majority of students recognize the importance of guidance and interaction in expanding their knowledge within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), with 89% and 88% respectively acknowledging these factors Additionally, over 80% of students believe that the ZPD is dynamic, and 75% agree that more knowledgeable peers play a crucial role in sharing information to help less knowledgeable students bridge the gap between known and unknown concepts.
The findings indicate that students recognize the importance of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) in their learning process, understanding that they can enhance their knowledge through guidance and peer interaction However, some aspects of the ZPD remain unclear to them, with only a few students acknowledging that it is a dynamic concept that evolves as they acquire new knowledge Additionally, there is a lack of awareness among many students about the significance of knowledge sharing in helping others bridge their learning gaps.
4.2.1.3 English majors’ perceptions towards scaffolding and peer scaffolding
Similarly to two previous clusters, the Descriptive Statistic Test was conducted to analyze the perceptions towards scaffolding and peer scaffolding Table 4.7 presented the results of the Descriptive Statistic Test
Table 4.7 The mean score of the cluster 1.3
Table 4.7 reveals that students' perceptions of scaffolding and peer scaffolding are notably positive, with a mean score of 4.06, significantly exceeding the neutral scale of 3 This indicates that students hold favorable views towards both scaffolding methods.
The sample mean (M = 4.06, SD = 36) was noticeably different from 3.0 (t
= 112.6, df = 99, p = 00) The results supported the conclusion that students‟ perceptions towards scaffolding and peer scaffolding are more positive than that of the accepted mean
Interviews with students
To explore students' perceptions of peer scaffolding during interactions, interviews were conducted with 20 second-year students at HUCFL The discussions centered on the effectiveness of peer scaffolding, highlighting its advantages and disadvantages, as well as the methods employed to support fellow students.
4.3.1 English majors’ perceptions towards peer scaffolding
Students largely agree that interaction in pairs or small groups is an effective approach in speaking classes, as it allows them to communicate and share ideas more freely The data indicates their awareness of the benefits of collaborative learning, with one student expressing her positive perception of this method.
“When I work with my friends, I feel more comfortable and easy to speak
The others also attached some more reasons for the fact students can talk and share ideas with friends more freely in speaking classes They said:
“My friends know me better than teachers do So in some topics, I feel so freely to talk with my friends.”
“I think one of the reasons that I cannot speak freely with my teachers is the gap generation […] I and my friends share the same generation, so we somehow know each other.”
“Teachers are always right I don‟t want to say anything if my ideas are different with theirs.”
The large class sizes in speaking courses hinder teachers from providing individual instruction, leading to challenges in effective learning A student shared insights on this issue and proposed potential solutions to enhance the learning experience.
My speaking class often feels overcrowded, making it challenging for teachers to engage each student individually on a single topic This approach frequently leads to time constraints Instead, my teacher effectively organizes the class into pairs or small groups of three, allowing us to collaborate more efficiently Additionally, she breaks tasks into smaller sections, assigning each group a specific part to focus on, which fosters teamwork and helps us compile our ideas to complete the overall assignment.
Over half of the students expressed hesitation and lack of confidence when it came to speaking with their teachers during classes They were particularly reluctant to voice their opinions or ask questions, fearing that it might be seen as public disagreement Many students openly shared their feelings on this issue, highlighting a common experience among them.
“Sometimes, I discuss one issue openly and endlessly with my partners, then my teacher asks me to present or talk before the class, I just speak little.”
“I and my friends share the same level When I talk with my teacher in front of the class, I don‟t feel confident.”
“I listen to my friends‟ ideas and mine is different from theirs, and then I do not want to share my ideas anymore.”
In conclusion, students preferred peer scaffolding over teacher scaffolding for several reasons They often feel shy and uncomfortable speaking in front of teachers or large groups, finding it easier to share ideas in small, closed settings or pairs (Nguyen, 2005) Additionally, students are hesitant to seek assistance from teachers due to fear of asking too many questions and the perception that teachers lack the time to address all inquiries They also expressed concerns about a generational gap, which makes it challenging to communicate openly with teachers compared to their peers.
4.3.2 English majors’ perceptions towards the advantages and disadvantages of peer scaffolding
The interview utilizing open-ended questions revealed students' perspectives on the benefits and drawbacks of peer scaffolding Students highlighted that peer scaffolding enhances learning by building on prior knowledge and deepening their understanding throughout the educational process.
“During the discussion, I and my friends always exchange information
Colors can have interesting effects on our emotions and behaviors; for instance, pink is known to have a calming effect, while yellow can stimulate appetite These fun facts highlight the fascinating relationship between colors and our psychological responses.
They recognized the advantages of teaching and explaining concepts to others, as well as the importance of scaffolding in reducing frustration levels.
“It makes me review that word Also, I remember it longer because I really explain the word to my friends.”
“One time, my teacher gives our pair one complex task in just 5 minutes discussing I almost freak out because I have no idea about this matter
Luckily, I work with a partner who calms me down, and helps me to focus on the matter We discussed in 3 minutes and everything was done quite well.”
Some of them contributed more ideas about the advantages of the scaffolding
“Working with friends helps me more active and confident.”
“It helps me to allocate my level and also my friends‟.”
The students are also open to share some of their ideas about scaffolding‟s drawbacks They said why they agreed about negative learning effect in peer scaffolding:
“One of these reasons is that my friends could be wrong if we just discuss without teachers‟ guidance or assistance.”
“Sometimes we spend a long time discussing a hot topic We have different point of views, so we need time to negotiate between many ideas to give out the final agreement.”
“Also I and my friends share the same level, so I feel I gain no improvement when I speak English with my friends.”
Peer scaffolding significantly enhances students' understanding during the learning process, as noted by Hammond (2002) Interviews reveal additional benefits, including increased confidence and active participation among students This collaborative approach fosters interaction, allowing students to assess their own and their peers' knowledge levels Van Lier (1996) emphasizes that explaining concepts to friends aids in long-term retention and vocabulary review Ultimately, every participant in peer scaffolding experiences its advantages, highlighting its effectiveness in educational settings.
Peer scaffolding can negatively impact learning, as students express concerns about the reliability of their peers' responses Additionally, heated debates on controversial topics can lead to fatigue during discussions Ultimately, students feel that conversing in English with friends, particularly those of similar or lesser proficiency, offers little improvement in their language skills.
4.3.3 English majors’ perceptions towards scaffolding strategies
A personal interview was conducted to gain insight into the perspectives of second-year English majors regarding their role in scaffolding peers The students emphasized the importance of collaborative interaction among group members, expressing nearly identical views on the necessity of teamwork in their learning process.
To effectively complete a task, we must first discuss our approach Typically, we begin by assigning roles or breaking the task into manageable sub-tasks, with each person responsible for a specific part Following this, we brainstorm ideas on how to organize and present our work in front of the class.
When I encounter unfamiliar words or concepts, I turn to my friends for assistance They often have the knowledge I lack, and their input helps facilitate a smoother group discussion.
According to Wood et al (1976), students employ various scaffolding features, including recruitment, reduction in degrees of freedom, direction maintenance, highlighting critical features, frustration control, and demonstration Interviews reveal that peer discussions go beyond mere idea sharing; they serve as a platform for offering explanations Students utilize diverse methods, both verbal and nonverbal, to enhance understanding among peers, such as providing examples or equivalent meanings in Vietnamese.
Audio transcriptions
To gain insights into students' scaffolding strategies, audio recordings serve as a valuable tool In this study, 20 students participated in interviews, working in pairs or groups of three to discuss 10 topics guided by questions on cards All discussions were recorded for analysis.
4.4.1 Reduction of degrees of freedom
To demonstrate effective scaffolding strategies, students engaged in a fashion-themed activity where they paired up and conducted interviews Each student received a piece of paper with specific questions, which guided their discussions with their partner, fostering collaborative learning and communication skills.
01 S1: Lam chi day [What do I do?]
02 S2: English Teacher asks us to speak English
03 S1: Ma tau khong biet lam chi day [But I don‟t know what to do]
04 S2: Ok You have one paper I have one paper, too Your paper is different from my paper Then we ask each other the questions in the paper
06 S2: I know For example, number 1 you ask: “What is your favorite color for clothes?” I answer and then you take note Understand now?
S1 initiated the conversation but lacked clarity regarding the task, communicating in Vietnamese Despite S2's request for S1 to speak in English, S1 continued to use their native language to seek clarification, leading to S2's confusion about how to proceed with the card In response, S2 attempted to simplify the task by explaining it in clear and accessible English.
Students who struggled with the task received support from their peers, aimed at simplifying the task or enhancing understanding This collaborative assistance is essential for effective learning, as noted by Wood et al.
(1976), the act of making the task easier is reduction of degrees of freedom
13 S2: Yes, colors affect my mood When I feel sad, I always ride a bike along the streets with many trees I see them and I feel better
14 S1: Wow Maybe that‟s why everything you have is green Hey, I really like your green pull today Where did you buy it?
On Nguyen Trai Street, I’ll take you there sometime However, we need to finish our discussion to avoid getting scolded by the teachers Do you experience similar feelings when you see the color red?
18 S1: Sometimes, it gives me energy, and happiness But sometimes, when it‟s too hot, red makes me headache
In a discussion about favorite colors, two students explored whether colors influence mood S1 shifted the conversation to inquire about S2's green pullover, which could have derailed their task However, S2 skillfully redirected the focus back to the topic, ensuring they remained on track despite using Vietnamese Ultimately, their interaction was effective and task-oriented, demonstrating the importance of maintaining direction in discussions.
This article explores the theme of storytelling in recruitment, highlighting the importance of direction maintenance A group of three individuals shared their insights on the types of stories they enjoyed and the storytellers from their childhood, emphasizing the impact of narratives on their perspectives.
01 S1: Now we have to discuss three questions I don‟t think it‟s too difficult for us, for three beautiful and smart women
03 S1: What are the best kinds of stories, for example: funny stories, ghosts‟ stories, romantic stories?
04 S3: I like romantic novels such as Marc Levy‟s novels
05 S1: Maybe I don‟t like his style I prefer Nicholas Sparke‟s novels
06 S2: I don‟t know those people I like funny and short stories Sometimes I like to read Nguyen Ngoc Tu‟s stories
07 S1: Yes, me too Because I feel it‟s sad when reading her stories
08 S3: I don‟t like her stories I don‟t understand
09 S2: Ok So everyone has own ideas, but which kinds of stories are the best?
10 S3: I think everyone should have own ideas In my opinion, we discuss, write them down and we will vote later
11 S1: I agree I will write them down First, romantic novels Then funny stories Three, short stories Anything else?
12 S2: Du roi do [That‟s enough.]
13 S1: Tu nhien mi noi tieng Viet [Why suddenly you speak Vietnamese?]
15 S3: Focus, focus I think number one is romantic stories
16 S2: Okay, then short stories, I think
17 S1: Right I agree Number one is romantic, second, short stories and number three funny stories
18 S2: Ok Move to next question: who told you stories when you were a child
The selected sequence from the topic stories highlights the importance of direction maintenance and recruitment in group discussions S1 initiated the conversation with a humorous lead-in, effectively engaging the group and fostering excitement (line 01) This recruitment strategy aims to keep peers focused and aligned with the discussion's objectives (Wood et al., 1976) However, the dialogue among three students became complex and time-consuming, leading to a lack of clear direction (lines 03-08) To address this, S2 refocused the group on their ultimate goal of identifying the best types of stories, steering the conversation away from personal preferences (line 09) This shift encouraged collaboration rather than individual idea protection Additionally, S2's use of Vietnamese to signal that the discussion had reached its limit (line 12) prompted S1 to remind everyone to continue in English, reinforcing the need for clarity in communication S3 played a crucial role in guiding the group back to their objective and making final decisions (line 15) Ultimately, S2's efforts to accelerate the discussion by directing attention to the next question exemplify effective direction maintenance.
In conclusion, mutual support plays a crucial role in maintaining interest and focus on tasks, ultimately driving progress toward goals This collaborative assistance fosters effective discussions and enhances overall productivity.
Another scaffolding strategy involves emphasizing critical features, as noted by Wood et al (1976), which includes providing corrective feedback In the context of fashion and manners, this strategy is illustrated through specific sequences where a selected part appears in the middle of the discussion in sequence 03, but serves as the starting point in sequence 04.
16 S2: Next, okay? What sort of clothes do you find comfortable?
17 S1: Uh uh…Pull and jeans I like wearing short jeans
18 S2: Good, it‟s better How often do you go shopping? How do you feel?
19 S1: Every weekend I go with my …person who live with me?
21 S1: Yes I go with my roommates I feel happy
22 S2: Good Now your turn to ask me
23 S1: Ok What is your favorite color for clothes? (wrong pronunciation)
25 S1: Favorite What is your favorite color for clothes?
03 S1: Yes, yes It‟s correct Now we will read the questions first and then let‟s discuss, ok?
04 S2: Difficult The questions are difficult
05 S1: Don‟t worry We can do it Question 1 first, okay?
06 S2: Ok Bad manners and good manners?
07 S1: Good manners such as helping others, especially elderly people
08 S2: Bad manner… thi nguoc lai [vice versa]
10 S2: Yes, I forgot Bad manner, such as, one people is in trouble, but we don‟t help
11 S1: One people or one person?
In sequences 04 and 05, three distinct types of correction are observed In sequence 04, S1 struggles to find the English word for shopping companions (line 19), prompting S2 to provide the correct term immediately Additionally, S1 mispronounces a word (line 23), and S2 steps in to correct her pronunciation Sequence 05 highlights grammatical correction, where S2 makes a simple yet incorrect grammatical statement (line 10), and S1 assists in rectifying it (line 11) Furthermore, S1 supports S2 emotionally during their discussion, as S1 finds the questions challenging (04), while S2 reassures her that they can tackle the questions together (05).
In the context of fashion, students collaboratively support one another by managing frustration during discussions They engage in conversations about various fashion-related topics, including their favorite clothing colors, preferred shopping locations, and the consideration of second-hand clothing options.
25 S1: Favorite What is your favorite color for clothes?
26 S2: Pink Even though I like green, I like pink for my clothes Pink gives me luck, especially in the exam
27 S1: Really? Where do you buy clothes?
28 S2: Sometimes I buy T-shirts at Dong Ba Market Sometimes I buy them in the shops along Le Huan street Sometimes I buy them online
Shopping online can be a great way to save money on clothes Many people, including myself, find that online stores offer more affordable options However, crafting questions about this topic can be challenging.
30 S2: Let me see It‟s easy Have you ever bought secondhand clothes? When you see ever, just use “Have you ever…”
31 S1: Ok Have you ever bought secondhand clothes?
Students face challenges when tasked with creating questions from given phrases One student, S1, struggled to formulate a question from a single phrase, expressing her uncertainty and disappointment by resorting to Vietnamese.
29) After that, S2 calmed S1 down first and tried to give her an easy explanation
(30) which also aimed at making S1 calm The discussion continued
The final scaffolding strategy is demonstration, involving both verbal and nonverbal explanations This approach is exemplified through peer scaffolding, specifically focusing on the topics of colors and dirt and rubbish.
01 S1: What is your favorite color? Why do you like this particular color? (read the question) What does particular mean?
02 S2: I don‟t know, too De tau hoi co [Let me ask teacher]
03 S1: Thoi, thoi [No, no] (Then S1 asked S3 who belongs to next pair) What does particular mean?
04 S3: It means specific For example, you like blue Why do you like blue? That‟s it
06 S1: I like red because red means victory It also brings me luck and happiness How about you?
07 S2: My favorite color is green I don‟t know the reason why but anytime I look at green things, I feel refreshed
08 S1: So you think colors affect your mood?
09 S2: Mood? What does it mean?
10 S1: Mood is something like (2 seconds pause) you‟re sad, you‟re happy, you‟re angry These are your moods
11 S2: You mean “tam trang” (the equivalent of the word mood in Vietnamese)
Summary
This study utilized both quantitative methods, such as questionnaires, and qualitative methods, including interviews and audio recordings, to analyze peer scaffolding among 20 second-year English majors The questionnaire results indicated that students recognized the benefits and drawbacks of peer support, often employing scaffolding techniques in pairs or small groups Interviews revealed a preference for peer scaffolding over teacher-led support, as students articulated the advantages and disadvantages of these approaches Additionally, audio recordings provided reliable evidence of six distinct scaffolding strategies used during interactions The subsequent chapter will outline implications and offer suggestions for future research.