INTRODUCTION
The rationale
Understanding word meanings is crucial for students to effectively communicate in English According to Krashen and Terrel (1983), vocabulary serves as a fundamental tool for second language learners to convey their thoughts and ideas.
Vocabulary is a crucial element in second language acquisition, playing a significant role in the learning process Zimmerman (1997a) emphasized that vocabulary is central to language and vital for learners According to Read (2000), words serve as the foundational units of meaning that construct larger language structures A deficiency in vocabulary can lead to poor listening comprehension, writing performance, conversational skills, and grammar knowledge, particularly affecting reading comprehension Therefore, mastering vocabulary is essential for second language students While learners recognize the importance of vocabulary, they may not fully understand how vocabulary learning strategies can facilitate their learning Scholars have linked these strategies to enhanced language skills, suggesting that each strategy aids in vocabulary and pronunciation acquisition (Kalajahi and Pourshahian, 2012) Nation (1990) asserted that independent vocabulary learning strategies are the most effective approach, highlighting that these strategies can significantly improve students' vocabulary skills.
Second language learners utilize various vocabulary learning strategies to understand new words, which are crucial for mastering English as a second language Effective learning strategies significantly contribute to a learner's success, with proficient learners employing more effective techniques than their less successful peers Furthermore, Ellis (1997) emphasizes that the dynamic strategies used by learners positively impact their academic performance According to Adam (1996), university students primarily acquire knowledge from diverse reading materials, including textbooks and other academic sources.
Vocabulary size is crucial for reading comprehension, as learners must understand the majority of the words in a text to grasp its meaning Nagy (1988) highlights that vocabulary knowledge poses significant challenges for second language learners Consequently, a strong vocabulary is essential for reading, a vital skill for the academic success of university students.
Numerous studies in both first and second languages indicate that vocabulary size is a key predictor of reading ability and the capacity to extract new information from texts (Anderson, 2000; Nation, 2001; Qian, 2002; Read, 2000) Grabe and Stroller (2001) highlight the importance of extensive vocabulary knowledge for effective reading comprehension Stahl (2003) further asserts that the connection between vocabulary and reading comprehension is strong, with vocabulary knowledge being a primary predictor of a text's difficulty Thus, the interrelationship between vocabulary learning strategies, vocabulary size, and reading comprehension is evident.
Research has primarily focused on the relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary knowledge in second language acquisition within the Thai context (Wimolkasem, 1992; Suthiwartnarueput, 2004; Siriwan, 2007; Mongkol, 2008) Gu and Johnson (1996) explored the vocabulary learning strategies employed by Chinese university students learning English and their correlation with metacognitive strategy outcomes Additionally, Wen and Johnson (1997) examined how learner variables influence the effectiveness of English vocabulary learning strategies through interviews and diaries, revealing that students frequently utilize psycholinguistic strategies, such as memory and cognitive techniques, alongside metacognitive strategies.
A comprehensive study from 1998 examines the vocabulary learning strategies employed by non-English learners, revealing that Chinese learners actively utilize a diverse range of both metacognitive and psycholinguistic strategies, which aligns with Gu and Johnson's (1996) findings Zhang's 2001 research highlights the characteristics of vocabulary learning strategies among non-English major graduate students, noting a distinction between "general academic English learning" and "professional English learning." The study indicates that during the "general academic English learning" phase, graduates tend to employ psycholinguistic and metacognitive strategies more frequently than in the "professional English learning" phase However, there is a lack of research on the correlation between vocabulary learning strategies, vocabulary size, and reading comprehension within the Vietnamese context This study aims to explore these relationships among students.
Students majoring in English recognize the significant impact of vocabulary strategies on learning English as a foreign language Nation (1990) emphasizes that independent learning strategies are crucial for vocabulary acquisition His recent work suggests incorporating vocabulary strategy training into development programs Understanding word meanings is vital, and Schmitt and Schmitt (1995) advocate for introducing diverse vocabulary learning strategies, allowing students to choose the ones that resonate with them.
Vocabulary learning strategies are crucial for enhancing reading comprehension, making it essential to investigate the connections between these strategies, vocabulary size, and overall reading understanding.
This is the researcher‟s interest that results in his carrying out the study titled
“An Investigation into Relationships between Vocabulary Learning Strategies and Vocabulary Size and Reading Comprehension at Hue University of Foreign Languages”.
Aims of the research
This study investigates the vocabulary learning strategies employed by English students at Hue University of Foreign Languages and examines the correlation between these strategies and their vocabulary competence levels Additionally, it explores the relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and reading comprehension, focusing on students' vocabulary proficiency and their ability to engage with reading texts.
The study particularly seeks to answer the following questions:
1 What vocabulary learning strategies are regularly used by English students at Hue University of Foreign Languages?
2 What is the students’ vocabulary size?
3 What are the relationships between the students’ vocabulary learning strategies, their vocabulary size, and their reading comprehension?
The scope of the research
Due to constraints in time, resources, and the scope of the thesis, data for this project were collected from a single university in Hue City, which may limit the generalizability of the findings Nevertheless, several aspects of the study are still applicable to other contexts within Vietnam.
The significance of the research
This study aims to explore the relationships between vocabulary learning strategies, vocabulary size, and reading comprehension Upon completing this research, I anticipate enhancing my knowledge and teaching skills The findings and suggestions are expected to benefit educators, trainers, and colleagues interested in the impact of vocabulary learning strategies on reading comprehension.
Structure of the thesis
The study contains five chapters: Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, Findings and Discussion, and Conclusions and Implications for further research
Chapter 1 presents a general overview of the study It states the background, the reasons, the aims, the scope and the structure of the study
Chapter 2 offers an overview of fundamental and theoretical concepts relevant to the research Besides, it presents the theoretical background of the study including some previous studies related to the research
Chapter 3 provides the research design and methodology, participants, data collection and data analysis
Chapter 4 describes the findings from questionnaires with students at Hue University of Foreign Languages Based on the findings through the questionnaires, vocabulary size and reading comprehension Tests, this chapter also discusses some issues relating to the relationships between vocabulary learning strategies and reading comprehension
Chapter 5 summarizes the results of the study At the same time, this chapter will focus on the implication of the findings and suggestions for further studies.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This chapter introduces key terms used in the thesis, including vocabulary, its definitions and functions, vocabulary learning strategies, vocabulary knowledge, vocabulary size, and reading comprehension It also discusses relevant literature on vocabulary learning strategies and emphasizes the significance of vocabulary size in relation to reading ability Additionally, earlier research in this field will be reviewed, culminating in a conclusion that underscores the necessity of this study.
Definitions of key terms
Vocabulary is defined by many different ways Dictionary, Webster Collegiate (9 th Ed, 1978:1320), gives the notion of vocabulary as:
- A list or collection of words or of words and phrases usually alphabetically arranged and explained or defined
- A sum or stock of words employed by a language, group, individual, or work or in a field of knowledge
Vocabulary encompasses the total number of words in a language, as defined by Hornby (1995, p.1331), who describes it as a collection of words or phrases David L Stepher emphasizes that vocabulary is a crucial element of language development (1973, p.39) Many authors share similar views on vocabulary, with Hubbard (1983) noting it as a powerful carrier of meaning Thus, vocabulary plays a vital role in effective communication and language mastery.
& Gutlohn (2006) suggest that vocabulary is the knowledge of words and meanings
Vocabulary is a fundamental element of language proficiency, significantly impacting learners' abilities in speaking, listening, reading, and writing (Richards, 2005:255) Furthermore, it plays a crucial role in influencing macro skills essential for effective communication.
Richards and Schmidt (2002:580) state that vocabulary is a set of lexeme, including single words, compound words, and idioms
Lehr, Osborn, and Hiebert (as cited in Kamil and Hiebert, 2005) highlight that vocabulary encompasses the understanding of words and their meanings in both spoken and written language, as well as in productive and receptive contexts.
Vocabulary is fundamental to language, serving as the primary element that English learners must acquire to achieve proficiency in English, alongside other essential components and skills.
2.2.1.2 Roles of vocabulary in language learning
Vocabulary is essential for language learning, serving as the foundation of effective communication Without vocabulary, language cannot exist As David L Stephen states, "Vocabulary is a basic skill to communicate; people will not be able to communicate easily without knowing it."
A rich vocabulary is essential for effective communication, as highlighted by Lee C Deighton, who states that vocabulary is a crucial component of language proficiency Students with extensive vocabulary are more likely to succeed in both productive skills, such as speaking and writing, and receptive skills, including listening and reading Therefore, vocabulary learning is vital; without it, learners struggle to express themselves and comprehend language In contrast, individuals with limited vocabulary face challenges in these essential language skills.
Vocabulary is crucial in foreign language learning, particularly for those acquiring English as a foreign language Developing a rich vocabulary is essential for learners, as highlighted by Nunan (1991), while Nation (2001) emphasizes that vocabulary learning is the most critical process in enhancing learners' knowledge.
Researchers such as Laufer and Nation (1999), Maximo (2000), Read (2000),
The acquisition of vocabulary is crucial for successful second language use, as highlighted by Gu (2003), Marion (2008), and Nation (2011) In both English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL), mastering vocabulary significantly impacts all language skills, including listening, speaking, reading, and writing Rivers and Nunan (1991) further emphasize that without a sufficient vocabulary, learners cannot effectively utilize the structures and functions necessary for clear communication.
Huckin (1995) confirms that second language readers depend significantly on their vocabulary knowledge, with a lack of it being the primary obstacle they face Consequently, vocabulary knowledge is essential for second language learners, as a limited vocabulary hinders effective communication Schmitt (2000) highlights that "lexical knowledge is central to communicative competence and to the acquisition of a second language" (p 5).
Vocabulary acquisition is crucial for English language learners, as it forms the foundational elements of sentence construction A limited vocabulary hinders comprehension, especially when dealing with texts that contain a broader range of words than those typically used in daily conversations Despite recognizing the significance of vocabulary in language learning, many students struggle to identify effective strategies for vocabulary acquisition This challenge will be explored further in the subsequent section.
2.2.2.1 Definitions of vocabulary learning strategies
According to Nation (2001), vocabulary learning strategies are one part of language learning strategies which in turn are part of general learning strategies
Language learning strategies foster self-direction among learners, promoting independence and responsibility in their educational journey Self-directed learners build confidence, engagement, and proficiency over time (Oxford, 1990), particularly through effective vocabulary learning strategies.
Language learning strategies are essential methods that empower students to enhance their learning experience These strategies enable learners to take control of their educational journey According to O'Malley and Chamot (1990), language learning strategies can be categorized into three main types: metacognitive strategies, which focus on planning and regulating language use; cognitive strategies, which involve manipulating information to acquire or retain knowledge; and social/affective strategies, which address interpersonal relationships and emotional management Each category encompasses a wide range of specific strategies that contribute to effective language learning.
In 1990, Oxford developed a comprehensive classification system for language learning strategies, which encompasses six key categories: Memory, Cognitive, Compensation, Metacognitive, Affective, and Social This framework suggests that learners who effectively utilize suitable language learning strategies experience enhanced proficiency and increased self-confidence.
Vocabulary learning varies based on our purposes and the context, as noted by Patricia N Sullivan and Grace Y Q Zhong (1992) Jeremy Harmer (1994) further emphasizes that appropriate vocabulary acquisition methods differ across various levels of learning.
Many learners employ specific strategies for vocabulary acquisition, particularly when compared to other language tasks Chamot (1987) discovered that high school ESL students utilize vocabulary strategies more than any other language learning activities, such as listening comprehension and oral presentation This heightened focus on vocabulary may stem from learners recognizing its significance Horwitz (1988) found that a considerable portion of ESL students, between 29% and 39%, agreed that mastering vocabulary is the most crucial aspect of learning a foreign language.
Previous research in the field
Numerous researchers have conducted studies on teaching and learning strategies, particularly focusing on vocabulary learning strategies that enhance English reading comprehension This area of research has garnered significant interest both internationally and in Vietnam.
In 2010, S A Wells conducted an action research project focused on vocabulary development in a seventh-grade classroom through dictionary skills His findings led to the implementation of a participative classroom research project designed to enhance English vocabulary among grade 7 learners The project evaluated the teaching and learning processes, aiming to improve the understanding of vocabulary instruction for additional language learners.
In their 2011 study, Mehrpour, Kian, and Razmjoo examined the correlation between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension among Iranian EFL learners Their findings indicate a positive relationship between the depth and breadth of vocabulary, suggesting that learners with a larger vocabulary also possess a deeper understanding of the words Additionally, the study concluded that gender did not significantly affect the learners' reading comprehension or vocabulary knowledge.
In his 1997 study, Schmitt, N examined vocabulary learning strategies, providing a comprehensive overview of their taxonomy He also highlighted initial insights into the frequency of their use and learners' attitudes towards these strategies.
In Vietnam, this field has not been paid much attention to by many researchers However, some researchers studied one or two in three aspects of this field
Huynh, T L H (2008) investigated the vocabulary learning strategies employed by second-year ESP students at Hue College of Economics, specifically within the context of their reading classes The study aimed to identify effective methods that finance and banking students utilized to acquire new vocabulary.
Tran, T T H (2009) conducted a study on the vocabulary learning practices of second-year Forestry students at Hue College of Agriculture and Forestry, specifically within their English for Special Purposes (ESP) course The research revealed valuable insights into the students' perceptions regarding the significance of vocabulary in mastering ESP.
In her 2009 study, Nguyen, T M T investigated the language learning strategies utilized by 11th-grade students in Thua Thien Hue while learning English The research revealed that the overall frequency of strategy use among high school students was at a medium level, with metacognitive strategies being the most commonly employed.
Nguyen, T T T (2011) An Investigation into English Reading Comprehension Strategies Used for Vietnamese First-Year Students at Vocational Schools in Thua
Thua Thien Hue Province has conducted research on reading comprehension strategies used by first-year students in vocational schools The findings indicate that the application of these strategies significantly enhances students' reading abilities.
Nguyen, N H (2011) investigated the language learning strategies (LLSs) utilized in English reading comprehension among grade 11 students in high schools in Thua Thien Hue Province The study aimed to explore both teachers' and students' perceptions regarding the application of guided English strategies (GESs) in reading comprehension, identify the types of LLSs frequently used by GESs, and examine the challenges students faced when applying these strategies.
In a study by Doan, T.T.T (2011) at Hue Industrial College, the focus was on techniques for presenting English for Specific Purposes (ESP) vocabulary to informatics technology students The research highlighted the perceptions of both teachers and students regarding the teaching and learning of ESP vocabulary It was found that the techniques employed varied significantly based on multiple factors, and students generally held a positive attitude towards the methods used by their teachers.
In conclusion, the researchers have significantly enhanced the teaching and learning of English; however, the relationship between vocabulary learning strategies, vocabulary size, and reading comprehension remains underexplored This gap highlights the necessity for further investigation, particularly focusing on Vietnamese tertiary-level English students, which will be elaborated upon in the following section.
Vietnamese students of English at tertiary level
English is a mandatory subject in Vietnam's higher education system, comprising 10% of undergraduate credits, 12% of graduate credits, and 3 self-studied credits at the doctoral level Recent research by Hoang Van Van et al (2008) indicates that English is the dominant foreign language studied, with approximately 94% of undergraduates and 92% of graduates enrolled in English courses.
The Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) mandates a 240-hour regular program for general English at the tertiary level, while English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is offered in a range of 60 to 90 hours.
Tertiary students are generally more motivated to learn English compared to primary and secondary students, as they attend colleges and universities located in urban areas that provide greater access to English language resources Additionally, proficiency in English significantly enhances their job prospects.
The quality of foreign language teaching and learning in Vietnam remains inadequate at both general and tertiary levels, failing to meet the country's socio-economic development needs (Van et al., 2006) Evidence of this low quality includes students' poor vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation, as well as substandard listening and speaking skills At the tertiary level, the situation is similar, with many college graduates lacking the foreign language proficiency required by employers.
Vietnamese tertiary students learning English can be categorized based on their goals: some view it as a means to secure attractive job opportunities, others seek proficiency for further studies at graduate or doctoral levels, and many aim to pass examinations (Hoang, 2007) Regardless of individual motivations, there is a prevailing consensus that English is an essential language for international communication and accessing higher-paying jobs.
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) establishes a standardized framework for assessing language proficiency across six levels Initially adopted by European Community countries, the CEFR has gained global recognition, including in Vietnam, as a vital tool for evaluating the language capabilities of individuals.
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) is widely adopted in Vietnam as a standard for language proficiency among teachers and students It specifies language requirements for various educational levels, such as B1 for primary and secondary school English teachers, and B2 for high school graduates Each level, ranging from A1 to C2, outlines the knowledge and skills students should achieve Importantly, this framework serves as a guideline for language ability rather than an examination or certification like IELTS, TOEIC, or TOEFL For instance, a B1 level in the CEFR corresponds to an IELTS score of approximately 4.5.
Summary
Vocabulary is a crucial component of language learning, particularly in acquiring a second or foreign language Successful language learners require a diverse range of vocabulary to enhance both their production and comprehension skills Implementing effective vocabulary learning strategies can significantly improve students' vocabulary knowledge, which serves as the foundation for mastering English as a second language A larger vocabulary correlates with better performance in language tasks However, detailed research on the vocabulary size of students in the Vietnamese context, along with its relationship to learning strategies and reading comprehension, remains insufficient This study aims to explore these relationships further.
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter describes the research approach, research methods for collecting data, the research site, participants and data analysis.
Research approach
This research investigates the vocabulary learning strategies employed by English major students at Hue University College of Foreign Languages, focusing on their perspectives It also explores the connections between these strategies, vocabulary size, and reading comprehension The study aims to answer key research questions regarding these relationships.
1 What vocabulary learning strategies are regularly used by English students at Hue University of Foreign Languages?
2 What is the students‟ vocabulary size?
3 What are the relationships between the students‟ vocabulary learning strategies, their vocabulary size, and their reading comprehension?
Both quantitative and qualitative methods were employed to ensure the researcher obtained reliable data in both quality and quantity, as these approaches complement each other effectively According to Codedelli and Wrigley, the integration of these methods enhances the overall research findings.
(1991) the best research design is a mixed method that integrates qualitative and quantitative research Additionally, Perone and Tucker (2003) stated both quantitative and qualitative methods can bring us quality information (p.202).
Research methods
Questionnaires, vocabulary size and reading comprehension Tests are the data collection methods used in this study The details are presented below
3.3.1 The vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire
Foreign language learners can employ diverse strategies to enhance their knowledge of the target language Recognizing this, researchers have systematically categorized vocabulary learning strategies utilized by both foreign and second language learners, including notable taxonomies such as those proposed by Gu and Johnson.
The investigation in this thesis is grounded in Schmitt's (1997) taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies, which categorizes strategies into two main groups: those for determining the meaning of new words and those for consolidating meaning upon subsequent encounters The first group includes determination and social strategies, while the second encompasses cognitive, metacognitive, memory, and social strategies, with social strategies appearing in both categories This classification serves as the basis for the questionnaire used in the study Despite variations in different taxonomies, they collectively offer a diverse array of applicable vocabulary learning strategies.
According to McMillan & Schumacher (1993), the questionnaire serves as the primary tool for gathering information from participants, as it is the most commonly utilized method for data collection in research.
A hundred questionnaires were distributed to second-year English students at Hue University College of Foreign Languages to gather data on their views regarding vocabulary learning strategies The questionnaire included a mix of open-ended and predominantly closed-ended questions, facilitating quicker and easier responses for both participants and researchers, as noted by Newman.
Closed-ended items, also known as structured questions, are effective for collecting easily categorized data (McMillan & Schumacher, 1993) However, Newman (2000) warns that valuable insights may be overlooked when individuals are compelled to fit their beliefs and feelings into limited categories The questionnaire utilized in this study was adapted from the vocabulary learning strategies developed by Nation (1990) and Oxford.
(2001) and criteria based on different types of strategies as described by Schmitt‟s
(1997) taxonomy All questions in the questionnaires were written in English and translated into Vietnamese for the students to understand all the questions (see Appendices 1 & 2)
The vocabulary size tests aimed to assess the vocabulary proficiency of second-year English students at Hue University College of Foreign Languages These tests were based on the framework developed by Nguyen & Nation.
(2011) bilingual vocabulary size test of English for Vietnamese learners (See Appendix 3)
The vocabulary size test consists of 14,000 items, featuring 140 multiple-choice questions, with 10 items corresponding to each 1,000-word family level To determine a learner's total receptive vocabulary size, their score must be multiplied by 100 This comprehensive assessment spans 14 levels, ranging from the 1,000-word family to the 14,000-word family.
To enhance vocabulary size, it is essential to connect vocabulary size scores with the three primary frequency levels: high-frequency, mid-frequency, and low-frequency words, as outlined by Nation & Beglar (2007).
Table 3.1: Vocabulary size score and learning procedures- Nation & Beglar (2007)
Level 1000 word family lists Learning procedures
High frequency 1000-2000 Reading graded readers
Mid-frequency 3000-9000 Reading mid-frequency readers
Low frequency 10,000 on Wide reading
Specialized study of a subject area
The vocabulary size test evaluates written receptive vocabulary size, requiring test-takers to possess a moderate understanding of word meanings This complexity makes it more challenging than the Vocabulary Levels Test (Schmitt, Schmitt & Clapham, 2001), as both the correct answers and distractors often share similar meaning elements.
The test employs a stem and a four-choice multiple-choice format, accommodating learners from diverse language backgrounds while managing answer difficulty levels Each question aims to assess a similar level of word knowledge, ensuring efficient and reliable marking while allowing learners to demonstrate their understanding of each item.
The test words were presented in a straightforward non-defining context This type of sentence serves to clarify the part of speech of the word, narrow down its meaning—especially for homographs or words with varied senses—and provide a subtle hint of the meaning through usage examples.
The assessment evaluates learners' receptive vocabulary knowledge by presenting them with word forms and requiring them to determine their meanings To successfully select the correct definition from four choices, learners must possess a moderately developed understanding of each word's meaning.
The fourteen levels of the test are structured to start with items that learners are more likely to know, allowing for a tailored assessment While it's not necessary for elementary or intermediate learners to complete all levels, they should attempt a few beyond their current proficiency This approach acknowledges that frequency level alone does not perfectly predict word familiarity, as various factors influence a learner's vocabulary Consequently, a learner with a vocabulary of 3,000 words may recognize some terms above this level while still struggling with certain words within it.
There are ten items at each 1000 word level; each item in the test represents
Mastering 100 word families can indicate a test-taker's proficiency in the most common 14,000 English word families To estimate total vocabulary size, the test score should be multiplied by 100, reflecting the individual's knowledge of essential vocabulary.
The test primarily measures receptive vocabulary size, meaning that a test-taker's score does not accurately reflect their ability to use these words in speaking and writing Furthermore, while vocabulary knowledge significantly influences text readability (Klare, 1974), the score obtained by a test-taker serves only as a rough estimate of their reading proficiency.
Participants
A questionnaire with three closed and open-ended questions was distributed to 100 second-year students majoring in English at Hue University College of Foreign Languages This sample size was sufficient to gather the necessary information for the research The students were currently enrolled in Reading 4 during their second semester, indicating an appropriate proficiency level for the study.
Research site
The research was conducted at Hue University College of Foreign Languages in Hue City, Vietnam, chosen for its proximity to the researcher’s accommodation, facilitating data collection Additionally, as a new university, it actively promotes research projects aimed at improving the quality of teaching and learning.
Data analysis
Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, which effectively summarize and present information collected from questionnaires According to McMillan and Schumacher (1993), descriptive statistics are essential for interpreting quantitative research results After the questionnaires were completed and returned, responses were coded and transferred into summary sheets, with the data subsequently organized into tables for analysis in terms of statistical frequency and percentage.
The vocabulary size and reading comprehension test results were coded and compiled into summary sheets The data was analyzed using statistical frequency and percentage, and the findings were presented in tables.
The collected data were meticulously totaled, grouped, and analyzed, resulting in clear tables and charts based on percentages This thorough process ensured that the data gathered was as reliable and trustworthy as possible.
Chapter summary
In sum, the chapter has presented the methodology of the study and the data analysis framework The next chapter will show the results and discussions.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Vocabulary learning strategies
The questionnaire data was coded for statistical analysis to identify the commonly used vocabulary learning strategies among second-year English major students at Hue University of Foreign Languages The analysis categorized strategies into high frequency, indicating consistent usage (always and usually), and low frequency, indicating infrequent usage (sometimes, rarely, and never) Each question in the questionnaire was examined individually within its respective vocabulary learning strategy group, with percentages calculated for each strategy.
4.1.1 The importance of vocabulary in reading comprehension
Chart 4.1: The importance of vocabulary in reading comprehension
Chart 4.1 reveals that the majority of students recognize the significance of vocabulary in reading comprehension, with 89% stating it is very important and 11% considering it important Notably, no students indicated that vocabulary is not important, highlighting its essential role in their understanding of reading material.
A survey revealed that 100% of students recognized vocabulary as essential, highlighting its significant role in reading comprehension within language learning at HUFL This conclusion aligns with Davis (1986), who identified knowledge of word meanings as the strongest correlate of comprehension Similarly, Anderson and Freebody (1981) emphasized vocabulary's critical importance in reading comprehension Furthermore, Laufer (1989, p.317) stated that learners require 95% lexical coverage of a text to achieve successful comprehension.
Very important Important Not impotant0%
As a result, the vital role of vocabulary in reading comprehension has been well recognized in language learning in general and English learning in particular
Despite recognizing the significance of vocabulary, students often struggle to discover engaging methods or strategies for effective learning The following section explores the strategies students employed to enhance their vocabulary development.
4.1.2 Frequency of students’ using strategies in learning vocabulary
Chart 4.2: Frequency of students’ using strategies in learning vocabulary
Chart 4.2 indicates that a significant number of students support the use of strategies for vocabulary learning The distribution of strategy usage frequency reveals that 70% of students sometimes employ these strategies, while 14% use them consistently.
Students recognize the importance of using strategies for vocabulary learning, which is crucial for enhancing reading comprehension skills They noted that the diversity and abundance of vocabulary make it challenging to learn and retain all items without employing effective strategies Therefore, it is essential for them to understand and utilize suitable vocabulary learning strategies, which will be discussed in the next section.
4.1.3 Vocabulary learning strategies frequently used by the students
This part comprises of the main strategies such as determination, social, memory, cognitive and metacognitive
Table 4.1: Vocabulary Learning Strategies in the Questionnaire
Group of strategies Questions in questionnaire Number of questions
4.1.3.1 Applying Determination strategies to learning vocabulary
Table 4.2: Students’ using of Determination strategies in vocabulary learning
According to Table 4.2, a significant percentage of students (45% and 42%) often or sometimes deduce the meanings of new words by inferring from the context Understanding vocabulary is essential for comprehending reading and listening passages in English However, students frequently encounter unfamiliar terms McCarthy and O'Dell (1995) noted that learners can sometimes guess a word's meaning before consulting a dictionary or asking for clarification Research supports that inferring vocabulary from context is a prevalent and effective strategy employed by language learners.
A significant 77% of students consistently used bilingual dictionaries for vocabulary learning, with 21% using them occasionally and none reporting never using this strategy In contrast, 24% of students usually relied on monolingual dictionaries, while 36% used them sometimes; however, 23% never utilized this approach The preference for bilingual dictionaries, particularly English-Vietnamese ones, was evident, as nearly all students employed them frequently.
On the other hand, using dictionaries is one of the most useful tools that language learners are able to use, which has been accepted by several researchers (Nation
Bilingual dictionaries were utilized more frequently than monolingual dictionaries and contextual guessing in determination strategies This preference may stem from the time-consuming nature of using monolingual dictionaries and making guesses based on context Despite this, students are often encouraged to use monolingual dictionaries to enhance their practice and reinforce their vocabulary learning.
4.1.3.2 Applying Social strategies to learning vocabulary
Table 4.3: Students’ using of Social strategies in vocabulary learning
4 Asking teacher for an L1 translation 2 44 33 18 3
5 Asking the teacher for a sentence including a new word 5 12 40 31 12
30 Discovering new meanings through group work activities 10 33 33 16 8
31 Asking the teacher for checking flash cards or word lists for accuracy
A significant 44% of students frequently requested their teacher to translate new words into Vietnamese, while 33% did so occasionally In contrast, 18% of students rarely sought this assistance, and only 3% never asked for help from their teacher.
Asking teachers for a sentence with a new word is an effective learning strategy, while inquiring about meanings from classmates is a popular method for retaining vocabulary Research shows that students tend to prioritize asking classmates for definitions, with 57% doing so frequently and 37% occasionally, whereas only 0% reported rarely and 2% never seeking help from peers.
Apart from making a sentence including a new word, most of students usually and sometimes discovered new meanings through group work activities
(occupying 66% for both), yet some students rarely and never used it
A significant portion of students, 49%, reported using flash cards or word lists for accuracy checks infrequently, while 12% indicated that they never utilized this strategy.
Engaging with native speakers is an excellent method for enhancing vocabulary skills Yet, only a small percentage of students actively seize these opportunities, with 16% always participating, 24% usually, 16% sometimes, 22% rarely, and 21% never taking part.
Social strategies were infrequently utilized by students, with the most common approach being asking teachers or friends for L1 translations, while interacting with native speakers was the least common Students preferred seeking explanations from their teachers to understand word meanings Despite limited opportunities, many students expressed a desire to engage with native speakers, leading over half to adopt this strategy Although empirical proof is challenging, indirect evidence supports this notion; for instance, Milton and Meara (1995) observed that nonnative speakers at a British university experienced vocabulary gains averaging 1325 words every six months, compared to just 275 words in their home countries (Schmitt, 1997).
Students frequently engaged in peer learning to study and practice the meanings of words, finding cooperation with peers to be the most effective strategy for learning new vocabulary This approach likely boosted their confidence, as they felt more comfortable sharing ideas in smaller groups or pairs rather than in front of the entire class According to Hubert Skrzynski (cited in MA Mai, 2008), pair and group work enhances learners' confidence, particularly for shy students or those less proficient in the language, allowing them to test their abilities in a supportive environment This collaborative learning not only improves vocabulary size but also fosters communicative competence, teamwork skills, and overall language proficiency Therefore, students should be encouraged to adopt this strategy more frequently in their vocabulary acquisition efforts.
Vocabulary size
Table 4.7: The vocabulary size test
Vocabulary size (word families wf)
Number of correct answers/ total questions
Table 4.7 illustrates the vocabulary size of the students, all of whom have successfully completed the third 1000 levels, indicating they possess a total of 3000 word families This vocabulary size represents the minimum requirement for most second-year English major students, as noted by Nation.
(1990), all learners need to know about 2,000 to 3,000 word level in order to function effectively in English Similarly, drawing on the previous studies, Laufer
Research indicates that a vocabulary size of approximately 3,000 words is crucial for effective reading comprehension, as learners with fewer words struggle on reading tests regardless of their academic abilities This vocabulary level covers about 90% to 95% of any text Additionally, to engage with advanced, authentic academic materials, a knowledge of at least 5,000 words is recommended.
At 4 th 1000 level, 21% of the students achieved this score This showed that
A study revealed that among 21 students, 3100-4000 word families were identified, but only 16% reached the 5th 1000 level, indicating they belonged to the 4100-5000 word families Furthermore, at the 6th 1000 level, only 18 out of 100 students correctly identified the 5100-6000 word families.
In a surprising finding, 24% of participants reached the 7th 1000 level, encompassing 6100-7000 word families In contrast, only 12% achieved the 8th 1000 level, which is half the number of those at the 7th level The decline continued at the 9th 1000 level, where only 8% of students were represented Notably, just one student, accounting for 1%, approached the 10th 1000 level with 9100-10000 word families This indicates that while many students have a vocabulary size exceeding 5000 word families, it is essential for them to develop further to effectively read a diverse range of authentic texts.
With the result that the students gained in the vocabulary size in the test (Appendix 3), it supports in enhancing their reading comprehension.
The relationships between Vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) and
The study identified that the most commonly employed strategies for vocabulary learning included the use of bilingual dictionaries, memorization of parts of speech, mastering idiomatic expressions, taking class notes, studying textbook vocabulary, and utilizing media Overall, memory strategies emerged as the most frequently used, whereas metacognitive strategies were the least utilized Additionally, participants favored cognitive and determination strategies over social strategies.
The vocabulary size test was designed as a concise multiple-choice assessment to evaluate written receptive vocabulary knowledge of the 14,000 most frequently used English word families from the spoken section of the British National Corpus It utilized 140 randomly selected items, with 10 items from each 1,000-word level, presenting words in simple sentences and offering four definition options By multiplying the number of correct answers by 100, the test estimates vocabulary size up to the 14,000-word family level Additionally, a bilingual version of the test ensures fair and accurate vocabulary size estimates, especially for lower proficiency learners.
(Elgort, 2013; Karami, 2012; Nation & Coxhead, 2014; Nation & Webb, 2011; Nguyen & Nation, 2011; Stewart, 2009) Therefore, the bilingual version test was
The vocabulary size test is more suitable for native speakers of a particular L1 than monolingual tests, as it helps to prevent the confusion of L2 grammar and reading skills with vocabulary knowledge (Nation and Coxhead, 2014, p 400) However, the multiple-choice format, which offers four response options per question, allows students to achieve correct answers without fully utilizing all vocabulary learning strategies, highlighting a significant weakness in the test design.
Many students utilize contextual guessing as a vocabulary learning strategy, with 45% doing so frequently and 42% sometimes This strategy is particularly relevant in tests measuring written receptive vocabulary knowledge, essential for reading While a complete understanding of word meanings isn't necessary for reading, familiarity with words facilitates comprehension (Nation, 2001) The test primarily assesses vocabulary knowledge rather than its application, indicating that a strong vocabulary and reading skills are crucial for understanding complex texts High-frequency words, which appear across various materials, are vital for learners The findings suggest that students employ diverse cognitive and memory strategies to enhance their vocabulary test scores, while those with lower scores often lack these strategies Despite this, students recognize the importance of vocabulary learning strategies and their connection to vocabulary size Moreover, effective use of these strategies can significantly boost vocabulary size (Schmitt, 1997) and contribute to reading comprehension, although the impact on comprehension is less direct.
Vocabulary learning strategies significantly influence students' vocabulary size, while their effect on reading comprehension is more indirect Cusen (2005) found a stronger correlation between vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary size compared to other factors like reading comprehension Stahl (2003) emphasized that readability indexes consider vocabulary as a key element, indicating that word difficulty impacts text comprehension Reading comprehension assessments prioritize reading skills over mere memorization Students relied on their vocabulary and reading abilities to perform well on these tests However, the study's findings may not accurately represent the entire second-year student population, as it involved only 100 students completing three tasks simultaneously: a questionnaire, vocabulary size assessment, and reading comprehension tests.
Despite achieving high scores in vocabulary size tests, many students struggled with the reading comprehension test, indicating a gap between vocabulary knowledge and reading understanding.
For example, the numbers of students getting mark 5 was only 16 students
Achieving a mark of 5 proved challenging for students, with a noticeable decline in the number of correct answers as the questions progressed For instance, 12% of students managed to answer 15 questions correctly (mark 6), while only 10% and 9% achieved 18 and 20 correct answers (marks 7-8), respectively Notably, no student reached the maximum score of 10 Various factors likely impacted their test results, but the findings suggest that vocabulary size played a significant role This aligns with Anderson & Freebody's (1985) assertion that vocabulary knowledge is closely tied to reading comprehension and conceptual understanding Students often struggle to grasp the text's meaning when faced with a limited number of familiar words in sentences or paragraphs.
Research indicates a significant relationship between vocabulary size and reading comprehension, though this relationship is complex and dynamic (Hu & Nation, 2000) Early studies by Schmitt (2000) and Laufer (1992) highlighted the importance of mastering the most common 2,000 words for effective comprehension Vocabulary size tests revealed that many students possess between 4,000 to 5,000 word families, suggesting a strong reading ability, as noted by Milton and Hopkins.
To achieve a C2 level on the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR), learners need a vocabulary of approximately 4,500 to 5,000 word families, equivalent to a Band 7.5 to 9 on the IELTS or a score of 590 to 677 on the paper-based TOEFL However, research by Hu and Nation (2000) and Nation (2006) suggests that a vocabulary of 8,000 to 9,000 words is necessary for reading complex texts, such as novels and newspapers, without external assistance Only 8% of students reached this vocabulary level, highlighting the challenge of acquiring 8,000 to 9,000 word families Effective vocabulary learning strategies are essential for achieving this goal The study found that HUFL students commonly employed strategies such as using bilingual dictionaries, recalling parts of speech, learning idiomatic expressions, taking class notes, studying textbook vocabulary, and utilizing media Despite having some knowledge of these strategies, students struggled to apply them effectively in vocabulary assessments.
In general, it could be easy to understand the relationships between the frequency of vocabulary learning strategies use and vocabulary size and reading comprehension through the table below
Table 4.8 The relationships between Vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) and
Vocabulary size (VS) and Reading comprehension (RC)
(word families) N of Ss RC (score) N of Ss
Table 4.8 clearly demonstrates the relationships between the frequency of vocabulary learning strategy use, vocabulary size, and reading comprehension Most students recognized the significance of these strategies in enhancing their vocabulary, as evidenced by the majority expressing that vocabulary learning strategies were very important Additionally, the findings indicated that the frequency of strategy usage among students was relatively average.
Looking at the correlations between vocabulary size and reading comprehension results in above-mentioned table, a moderate correlation was found
The study revealed a correlation between students' vocabulary size and their performance in reading comprehension tests Among the 47 students with vocabulary sizes ranging from 3100 to 5000 word families, 70 students scored below 6 In contrast, 42 students with 5100 to 7000 word families had only 19 achieving scores between 6 and 8 Additionally, of the 20 participants with 7100 to 9000 word families, only 5 scored between 8 and 9 At the highest level (>9000 word families), there was just one student nearing this range, yet surprisingly, 6 students scored above 9 in the reading comprehension test.
A student's ability to read effectively is significantly influenced by various factors, with vocabulary size being a crucial element in developing reading comprehension Research consistently supports the strong relationship between vocabulary and reading skills, indicating that vocabulary is one of the best predictors of reading success (Bernhardt & Kamil, 1995; Laufer, 1992; Nation, 2001, 2006; Qian, 1999, 2002; Ulijn & Strother, 1990) Therefore, it is essential for students to acquire a sufficient vocabulary to read and comprehend academic texts effectively The importance of vocabulary size in enhancing students' reading comprehension abilities is undeniable, as emphasized by Anderson and Freebody.
In 1981, it was noted that a reader's vocabulary significantly influenced their ability to comprehend text, with many students struggling due to limited vocabulary A larger vocabulary size generally correlates with improved reading comprehension However, merely knowing many words does not ensure efficient reading; effective vocabulary learning strategies are essential Therefore, students should integrate these strategies into their vocabulary learning to expand their vocabulary size and enhance their reading comprehension skills.
In short, the above-mentioned results showed the positive relationships between the frequency of vocabulary learning strategies use and vocabulary size and reading comprehension.
Chapter summary
This chapter summarized the findings from questionnaires and tests on vocabulary size and reading comprehension, highlighting the relationships between vocabulary learning strategies, vocabulary size, and reading comprehension skills.
This chapter effectively addressed two research questions, while the third revealed only the connections among vocabulary learning frequency, vocabulary size, and reading comprehension The conclusions and implications of this study will be discussed in the subsequent chapter.
