INTRODUCTION
Rationale
English has emerged as a global language, essential for international communication in fields like medicine, science, and business, making its study crucial for national development The emphasis on teaching English to young learners has increased significantly, with many schools worldwide, including those in Vietnam, making it a compulsory subject To enhance the quality of English education, it is vital to improve teaching methods and language proficiency by using real-world contexts and authentic materials, ensuring that students grasp the subject in a more engaging and understandable manner.
To effectively teach English to children, educators must understand the unique characteristics and learning styles of young learners, which significantly influence second language acquisition Vygotsky (1962) emphasized that children learn through social interaction, constructing knowledge with the help of adults His concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) highlights the importance of guidance from more knowledgeable individuals, enabling children to acquire new skills more easily (Berk 2001; Vygotsky 1962) Thus, young learners require assistance when tackling new tasks and mastering familiar ones The adult's role is crucial in this learning journey, as teachers support children by scaffolding their experiences through various strategies, akin to temporary construction structures (Wood, Bruner, and Ross 1976) Supporting Vygotsky's views, Bruner (1983) asserted that children learn most effectively in collaborative environments.
According to Bruner (1983, 1990), adults play a crucial role in children's cognitive development through scaffolding, using language as a vital tool to mediate their understanding of the world and assist them in problem-solving.
Scaffolding, as defined by Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976), refers to the support provided by an adult that allows learners to focus on tasks within their capability while managing more complex elements Originally described by Bruner (1975) in the context of parent-child or tutor-student interactions, scaffolding involves offering tailored assistance based on the learner's progress Today, the concept extends to include prompts and hints in educational tools that facilitate learning.
Scaffolding techniques are essential in early childhood education, as they enable teachers to guide learners within their zone of proximal development, facilitating greater understanding and mastery of tasks By implementing these strategies, educators support children's construction of knowledge and skill development, leading to enhanced problem-solving abilities and independence It is crucial for teachers to remain responsive to children's feedback and adapt their teaching methods accordingly While scaffolding has been widely discussed among scholars globally, research on this topic in Vietnam is limited This thesis aims to explore various scaffolding strategies used with young children and how English primary teachers apply these techniques to foster language development.
―AN INVESTIGATION INTO TEACHERS‘ PERCEPTIONS AND USE OF SCAFFOLDING IN TEACHING ENGLISH AT SOME PRIMARY SCHOOLS
Research aims
This study explores teachers' perceptions of scaffolding in English instruction for young learners, examining its practical application in primary classrooms in Hue city It aims to identify the challenges teachers face when implementing scaffolding techniques and offers effective strategies to enhance instructional support.
Research questions
The research is aimed at solving these following questions:
1.What are English teachers‘ perceptions of the use of scaffolding in primary English classrooms?
2.How is scaffolding used by teachers in teaching English to young learners? 3.What are difficulties faced by teachers when using scaffolding in teaching English to young learners?
Significance of the research
This study aims to enhance the literature on scaffolding and its characteristics, providing valuable insights for future research It seeks to equip English teachers with a deeper understanding of the critical role scaffolding plays in teaching English to children Additionally, the research offers practical suggestions for primary school teachers on effective scaffolding strategies in the classroom Ultimately, this research fosters knowledge development and encourages the adoption of innovative teaching techniques for young English learners.
Research scope
This study aims to investigate English primary school teachers' perceptions of scaffolding and its application in classrooms, while also examining the challenges teachers encounter in their teaching practices Data was collected from English teachers at various primary schools in Hue City.
Structure of the research
This thesis consists of five chapters with the structure as follows:
Chapter 1: Introduction – Deals with the background and the rationale for the research, the aims, the research questions, the scope, as well as the significance and the structure of the thesis
Chapter 2: Literature Review – Reviews materials related to the field of the study, including key definitions and concepts relating to this study and presents previous research projects conducted by different scholars
Chapter 3: Research Methodology – Provides description of the basic research methods, participants in the study, produces of the research and data collection
Chapter 4: Findings and Discussion – Reports the findings and detailed discussions of the findings from the investigation
Chapter 5: Conclusion- Summarizes the result of the study and offers some suggestions for enhancing usage of scaffolding by teachers in some primary classrooms
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This chapter introduces the theoretical foundations of scaffolding, particularly emphasizing Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory and the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) It further explores various definitions of scaffolding, alongside key features and strategies that educators employ when teaching English to children Additionally, the chapter reviews prior studies to establish a framework for the current research.
Scaffolding and its theoretical concepts
Scaffolding refers to a temporary framework made of steel, wood, or bamboo, designed to support construction workers and materials during the building process This interlocking structure is essential for facilitating construction tasks and can be dismantled once the project is completed and no longer needed.
In education, scaffolding refers to the continuous support provided to learners by experts, a concept linked to Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who emphasized the importance of social interaction in cognitive development Although Vygotsky did not use the term "scaffolding," his work laid the groundwork for Social Development Theory, highlighting that learning occurs first at the social level before being internalized by individuals His sociocultural theory posits that human intelligence originates within society and culture, underscoring the critical role of social interaction in cognitive development Vygotsky asserted that learning happens on two levels: first through interaction with others and then through integration into personal understanding.
6 individual‘s mental structure In addition, Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition (Vygotsky,
1978), as he believed strongly that community plays a central role in the process of
Vygotsky (1978) emphasizes that significant learning in children takes place through social interactions with knowledgeable tutors, such as parents or teachers This process, known as cooperative or collaborative dialogue, involves the tutor modeling behaviors and offering verbal instructions As children engage with these actions or guidance, they strive to comprehend and internalize the information, which ultimately helps them to regulate and enhance their own performance.
2.2.2 The notion of the ZPD
To understand Vygotsky's theories on cognitive development, it is essential to grasp the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Vygotsky (1978) defines ZPD as the gap between an individual's current developmental level, assessed through independent problem-solving, and their potential development, which can be achieved with guidance from adults or collaboration with more skilled peers.
This concept highlights the distinction between a child's independent capabilities and their potential when supported by a knowledgeable mentor.
Figure 2.1 Zone of Proximal Development
From http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
Vygotsky (1978) identifies the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) as the critical area where targeted instruction can significantly enhance a child's skill development As students acquire new knowledge, their ZPD evolves, necessitating continuous, personalized scaffolded instruction to meet their changing needs For instance, a child may struggle to complete a jigsaw puzzle independently but, through guidance from a parent, can master the skill, which will benefit their ability to tackle future puzzles.
Figure 2.2 The interaction between the teacher/ parent and learner/ child
From:http://leakygrammar.net/2012/01/08/lanugage-notes-16-sociocultural- theory-and-the-zone-of-proximal-development/
In summary, effective learning takes place when students engage within their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and benefit from interactions with more knowledgeable adults who help expand their understanding and knowledge.
Scaffolding
The original idea of scaffolding comes from the work of Jerome Bruner, who defines scaffolding as follows:
The process involves initially creating a supportive environment to facilitate the child's successful integration, followed by a gradual withdrawal of assistance as the child gains the necessary skills to take on the role independently.
Scaffolding in education involves offering contextual support to enhance understanding through simplified language, teacher demonstrations, visual aids, cooperative learning, and hands-on activities.
2003, p 345) The teacher of second language learners has to facilitate that support Then, "as students become more proficient, the scaffold is gradually removed" (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2002, p 85)
Scaffolding is an instructional method where teachers assist students in mastering tasks or concepts that they cannot yet understand independently This approach involves providing help only with skills that exceed the student's current capabilities, ensuring that instruction aligns with each learner's individual and collective zone of proximal development (ZPD) Scaffolding is effective within the ZPD, as it targets the learner's competency level while introducing slightly more challenging material The ultimate goal of this learning process is to foster independent learning, leading to a gradual withdrawal of teacher support as students gain the ability to complete tasks on their own.
Scaffolding, as defined by Wood (1988: 96), is a tutorial behavior characterized by being contingent, collaborative, and interactive It is contingent because actions depend on and influence one another It is collaborative as the outcome, whether a conversation or problem-solving, is achieved jointly Lastly, it is interactive, involving the active engagement of two or more individuals.
Scaffolded instruction fosters a supportive learning environment where students feel encouraged to ask questions and give feedback while mastering new material By implementing scaffolding in the classroom, educators shift into a mentoring role, enhancing the overall learning experience.
The teaching approach emphasizes the role of the instructor as a facilitator of knowledge rather than a traditional content expert, encouraging students to engage actively in their learning process By sharing the responsibility for teaching and learning, students utilize scaffolding techniques that challenge them to advance beyond their existing skills and knowledge This collaborative interaction fosters a sense of ownership over their educational experience.
Implementing scaffolding becomes essential when a student struggles with a task or concept While scaffolding is commonly used in one-on-one interactions, it can also be effectively applied to an entire class According to Ellis and Larkin (1998), as referenced in Larkin, a straightforward structure for scaffolded instruction can enhance learning outcomes.
First, the instructor does it
The instructor demonstrates the process of completing a challenging task, such as utilizing a graphic organizer For instance, by projecting or distributing a partially filled graphic organizer, the instructor encourages students to articulate their thought processes, explaining how the organizer visually represents the connections between the information presented.
Second, the class does it
The instructor and students then work together to perform the task For example, the students may suggest information to be added to the graphic organizer
As the instructor writes the suggestions on the white board, students fill in their own copies of the organizer
Third, the group does it
Students collaborate in pairs or small groups to fill out a graphic organizer, which may be partially completed or entirely blank To help students master more complex content, multiple scaffolds can be provided at various stages of the learning process.
Fourth, the individual does it
In the independent practice stage, students showcase their mastery of tasks by effectively completing graphic organizers that illustrate the relationships among information This phase provides essential practice, enabling students to perform tasks quickly and automatically.
Scaffolding originally referred to the support provided by a more knowledgeable individual, such as a parent or teacher, to assist learners in progressing through tasks (Bruner, 1975; Wood et al., 1976) A key element of scaffolding is the expert's role, who possesses both content knowledge and teaching skills This expert not only motivates learners by offering tailored support to help them achieve their goals but also employs strategies like modeling, emphasizing essential task features, and posing reflective questions (Wood et al., 1976).
The concept of scaffolding, as outlined by Langer & Applebee (1986), Palincsar (1998), Reid (1998), and Stone (1998), emphasizes the critical role of the adult while also highlighting several other essential components of scaffolded instruction.
A common goal is essential in scaffolded instruction, as it fosters intersubjectivity between the adult and child, allowing them to collaboratively redefine tasks for shared ownership This shared understanding is crucial, especially when tasks exceed the child's individual capabilities The adult's role is to ensure the learner is engaged and motivated, encouraging them to embrace challenges and take risks in their learning journey.
An essential aspect of scaffolding is the adult's ability to offer tailored support, which is informed by a continuous assessment of the child's understanding This ongoing diagnosis allows the adult to effectively facilitate the child's learning process.
Consistently assessing a child's progress allows for tailored support that aligns with their specific needs at each stage of task mastery (Wood et al., 1976) Consequently, interactions vary significantly in both content and form, not only among different individuals but also for the same individual over time (Hogan & Tudge, 1999).
Previous studies on scaffolding
Influenced by Vygotsky's cognitive development theory, scaffolding has become a focal point in studies examining classroom interactions between teachers and students Vygotsky (1978) introduced the term "scaffolding" to describe the support provided by an expert to a novice within the "zone of proximal development." This interaction enables novices to learn effectively from experts In language classrooms, teachers are viewed as the experts who offer scaffolded assistance to their students, the novices Since its introduction, the concept of scaffolding has been further explored and refined by various scholars and researchers.
Aljaafreh and Lantolf (1994) conducted a study examining the interactions between a tutor and three students, each receiving individualized weekly writing tutorials They introduced a regulatory scale that outlined various scaffolding behaviors, consisting of 12 levels This scale ranged from the tutor providing examples of correct writing patterns to students independently identifying and correcting their errors.
The tutor systematically applied scaffolding techniques, progressively decreasing assistance as students demonstrated their ability to complete tasks independently The study highlighted a clear transition in scaffolding behaviors, moving from implicit support to explicit guidance.
Linda J Dorn and Carla Soffos (2001) explored how teachers in Arkansas support young learners in writing Their research emphasizes that writing instruction should build on children's existing knowledge Teachers are encouraged to offer both assisted and unassisted learning opportunities, where students first complete tasks with guidance and then independently This structured writing environment facilitates the transfer of knowledge, skills, and strategies from supported to independent learning.
The concept of scaffolding in teacher-student interactions has gained traction in Thailand, as highlighted by Khamwan (2007), who examined the impact of interactional strategy training This study focused on scaffolding as a key strategy to enhance the effectiveness of teacher-student interactions Results indicated that implementing scaffolding led to longer and more meaningful student responses to teacher questions, with an average of two interaction turns every three minutes Additionally, students demonstrated improved comprehension of lessons and felt more empowered to seek clarification when needed, resulting in increased participation in classroom discussions.
In her 2004 thesis, "A Sociocultural Analysis of Learning English in Unassisted and Assisted Peer Groups at University in Vietnam," Le explored the role of peer interactions in both assisted and unassisted learning environments The study focused on mediation through psychological and material artifacts, aiming to identify key pedagogical issues related to English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in group work settings Findings revealed that more proficient students, particularly senior students in assisted groups, engaged in meaningful dyadic interactions, enhancing the learning experience.
18 student From observations, it is found that students from both groups had learned new words associated with discussion
A study by Hoang (2013) examined the impact of scaffolding on peer interaction among second-year English majors The results indicated that students preferred scaffolding during peer interactions, as it made them feel more at ease in sharing ideas and supporting one another, in contrast to feeling insecure and hesitant when speaking to teachers or addressing the class.
In summary, research highlights the beneficial impact of scaffolding by teachers in second language instruction Given the limited studies on scaffolding in teacher-student interactions, this research aims to emphasize its potential effectiveness in enhancing students' speaking abilities.
Summary
This chapter provided an overview of relevant theories underpinning this research, highlighting Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and the Zone of Proximal Development Key definitions of scaffolding were also discussed, alongside a review of previous studies pertinent to the topic The forthcoming chapter will focus on the research methodology.
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter outlines the research methodology employed in the study, utilizing both quantitative and qualitative approaches It clearly details the participants involved, the instruments used, data collection procedures, and the analytical tools applied to interpret the data.
Research design
This study employs a mixed-method research approach, integrating both quantitative and qualitative methods, as recommended by Condelli and Wrigley (2004) The quantitative aspect, utilizing questionnaires, effectively gathers information from a large group of teachers regarding their perceptions of scaffolding in English teaching (Creswell, J W., 2013) However, this approach has limitations in explaining the collected data In contrast, qualitative research aims to uncover deeper insights, as noted by Greenhalgh (2006) Through audio recordings and interviews, the qualitative component of the study explores teachers' perceptions and practices of scaffolding in primary school English instruction, providing a richer understanding of the topic.
As a result, the combination of both quantitative and qualitative data enriched the overall picture of results that the study hopes to provide.
Participants and research sites
In a study conducted in Hue city, 50 primary school English teachers participated in a questionnaire to explore their perceptions of scaffolding Additionally, 10 teachers were interviewed for deeper insights, and 5 teachers were randomly selected to allow recording of their teaching sessions.
Instruments for data collection
This research utilized three distinct methods—questionnaires, interviews, and audio recordings—to address three key research questions, aiming to produce valid and reliable data The integration of these instruments was designed to enhance the robustness of the findings, as detailed in Table 3.1, which outlines the data collection process for the study.
Table 3.1 Summary of data collection tools
To clarify the primary teachers‘ perceptions and reality of using scaffolding in teaching English in classes
30 questions with five- point scale
To identify the usage of scaffolding in teachers- students interaction and how teachers use it
To get deeper understanding about the usage, the advantages and disadvantages as well as the difficulties teachers face when using scaffolding
Questionnaires are commonly utilized to explore individuals' attitudes, behaviors, and activities related to specific events, as noted by Wiker (2001) They are widely recognized and valued for their objectivity, as they lack verbal or visual cues that could sway respondents' answers.
―quickly and relatively cheaply‖ to collect information (Bell, 1993)
In this research, 50 copies of questionnaire were directly delivered to 50 English teachers from some primary schools in Hue such as Quang Trung, Le Loi,
The study focused on primary schools in Vy Da, Thuy Bieu, Vinh Ninh, Thuan Thanh, Thuan Hoa, Phu Cat, Phu Hoa, Ngo Kha, Ly Thuong Kiet, Hue Star, and Tran Quoc Toan Data gathered from questionnaires were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) to quantitatively assess teachers' perceptions of scaffolding in teaching English to young learners.
The questionnaire consists of 30 items rated on a five-point scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree It is organized into three main categories: the perceptions of English primary teachers regarding scaffolding in English instruction, the advantages and disadvantages of employing scaffolding, and the methods teachers utilize scaffolding in their English classrooms.
The article explores teachers' perceptions of scaffolding in English language instruction, focusing on specific questions that highlight their views on its effectiveness Key inquiries reveal insights into the advantages and disadvantages of scaffolding, as reflected in various items These perceptions are critical for understanding how scaffolding impacts teaching practices and student learning outcomes in English education.
19, 20, 21, 22, 28, and 29 address teachers‘ perceptions towards how scaffolding is used by teachers in teaching English Table 3.2 below summarized items of each cluster in the questionnaire
Teachers‘ perceptions towards scaffolding in teaching
14, 15, 23, 24, 27 Teachers‘ perceptions towards advantages and disadvantages of using scaffolding
30 Teachers‘ perceptions towards how scaffolding is used by teachers in teaching English
To make sure that all the necessary information would be gained, all the questionnaires were also translated into Vietnamese
Questionnaires are commonly utilized to gather diverse data from numerous participants; however, their accuracy can be limited due to a lack of detailed information To address this issue, researchers often conduct interviews to obtain more comprehensive insights.
In this research, individual interviews were preferred over group interviews to collect personal responses and insights in a confidential setting This approach fosters an environment where participants can express their true opinions freely, ultimately leading to deeper understanding and valuable insights (Brown, 1988, p.49).
This research utilized interviews to address gaps left by the questionnaire method, featuring five open-ended questions designed to gain deeper insights from ten teachers regarding their experiences with scaffolding in English teaching Conducted in Vietnamese to enhance comfort and expression, the interviews employed both tape recording and note-taking for accurate data collection, focusing on the usage, advantages, disadvantages, and challenges faced by teachers in implementing scaffolding techniques.
To have a deep insight on how teachers apply scaffolding into teaching English to young learners, the researcher also made audio recording According to
Li Wei and Melissa Moyer (2008) highlight that audio recording facilitates repeated and deferred observation, enabling researchers to substantiate their analytic claims with detailed transcriptions of both verbal and nonverbal behaviors In a study involving 50 teachers who completed a questionnaire, the researcher randomly selected 5 teachers to record their teaching sessions The aim was to investigate the use of scaffolding techniques in teaching English to young learners and to explore the extent of their implementation.
23 they used it This method helped the researcher collect more data which are not reflected through the questionnaire.
Data analysis
The data collected from various sources were processed using both quantitative and qualitative methods Quantitative data from questionnaires were analyzed with SPSS software, resulting in clear presentations through tables, percentages, and figures Additionally, qualitative data obtained from interviews and audio transcriptions were analyzed thematically, providing a comprehensive understanding of the findings.
Summary
This chapter outlines the research design, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative approaches through three distinct research methods It details the participants and research sites involved in the study, and clearly presents the data collection instruments utilized, including questionnaires, interviews, and audio recordings.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Introduction
This chapter outlines the findings derived from questionnaires, interviews, and audio transcriptions, thoroughly discussing both qualitative and quantitative data in relation to existing literature.
Primary English teachers‘ perceptions of scaffolding
The questionnaire comprised 30 items rated on a five-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), and was administered to 50 primary English teachers Responses were analyzed using SPSS, and a reliability test was conducted, yielding a Cronbach's Alpha coefficient of α = 879 This indicates that the measuring scale demonstrates good reliability and validity.
A Descriptive Statistic Test was conducted to investigate participants' perceptions of scaffolding in teaching English to young learners in primary schools, with the findings detailed in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 The mean score of the questionnaire
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation
The descriptive statistics reveal that the mean score of the questionnaire was 3.95 with a standard deviation of 0.389, significantly exceeding the average score of 3 on a five-point scale (t= 71.778, df= 49, p= 00) This indicates that teachers have a positive perception of scaffolding in English teaching at primary schools.
The questionnaire was divided into three key areas: teachers' perceptions of scaffolding in English instruction, the advantages and disadvantages of implementing scaffolding, and the methods teachers employ to utilize scaffolding effectively in their teaching practices.
25 teaching English Each cluster was analyzed by the Descriptive Statistic Test and the One Sample T- Test in order to clarify the viewpoints
To explore primary English teachers' perceptions of scaffolding in their teaching practices, interviews were conducted with 10 educators from various primary schools in Hue city The discussions centered on the effectiveness of scaffolding, its advantages and disadvantages, the strategies employed, and the challenges faced by teachers when integrating scaffolding into their lessons.
4.2.1 Primary English teachers’ perceptions towards scaffolding in teaching English
To explore primary English teachers' perceptions of scaffolding in English instruction, a Descriptive Statistic Test was conducted to analyze the cluster The findings are detailed in Table 4.2, which presents the results of this analysis.
Table 4.2 The mean score of cluster 1 Descriptive Statistics Cluster 1
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation
The Descriptive Statistic Test indicated a mean score of 3.92 for the cluster, significantly surpassing the average score of 3 on a five-point scale This finding highlights that primary teachers have a highly positive perception of using scaffolding in English classrooms To confirm the significance of this difference, a One Sample T-Test was conducted.
This article examines three sub-clusters related to teachers' perceptions: socio-cultural theory, the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), and scaffolding in English language teaching Each of these sub-clusters was analyzed to provide a comprehensive understanding of their impact on educational practices.
Descriptive Statistic Test to examine primary English teachers‘ perceptions towards socio-cultural theory, the notion of ZPD, and scaffolding in teaching English
4.2.1.1 Primary English teachers’ perceptions towards socio-cultural theory
The cluster was analyzed by the Descriptive Statistic Test to examine primary English teachers‘ perceptions towards socio-cultural theory The result of the test was reported in table 4.3
Table 4.3 The mean score of cluster 1.1
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation
The Descriptive Statistic Test indicated that the mean score of the cluster was 4.12, surpassing the average score of 3 on a five-point scale This suggests that primary English teachers have a highly positive perception of socio-cultural theory To confirm that the mean score of 4.12 was significantly different from the average score of 3, a One Sample T-Test was employed.
The One Sample T-Test results revealed a significant difference between the mean score of primary English teachers' perceptions towards socio-cultural theory and the accepted mean of 3.0 With a sample mean of 4.12 (SD = 0.046), the findings indicated a strong positive perception among teachers, as evidenced by the t-value of 63.6, degrees of freedom (df) of 49, and a p-value of 0.00 These results affirm that primary English teachers hold more favorable views towards socio-cultural theory than the established benchmark.
The Frequency Test was employed to evaluate the percentage of socio-cultural theory, with Table 4.4 providing a summary of responses categorized into five key scales: Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree.
Table 4.4 Summary of primary English teachers’ responses to each item in cluster 1.1
Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
1 Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition in students
2 The teacher‘s role is very important in a child‘s learning process
A significant 76% of primary English teachers recognized the crucial role of teachers in a child's learning, with an additional 10% strongly agreeing Furthermore, 78% of teachers acknowledged the importance of interaction in cognitive development, aligning with Vygotsky's theories, as 44% agreed and 34% strongly agreed This indicates that most teachers possess a solid understanding of social cultural theory.
4.2.1.2 Primary English teachers’ perceptions towards the notion of ZPD
The Descriptive Statistic Test was also run to analyze the primary English teachers‘ perceptions towards the notion of ZPD The results were shown in Table 4.5
Table 4.5 The mean score of cluster 1.2 Descriptive Statistics Cluster 1.2
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation
The table indicates that the mean score of the cluster is 4.01, which exceeds the midpoint of 3 on a five-point scale This finding demonstrates that primary English teachers generally hold positive perceptions of the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
The One Sample T-Test confirmed that the mean score of primary English teachers' perceptions towards the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) was significantly higher than the accepted average of 3.0, with a mean score of 4.01 (SD = 53) The statistical analysis yielded a t-value of 53.5 (df = 49, p = 00), indicating a notable difference In summary, primary English teachers hold perceptions of the ZPD that exceed the established mean.
The Frequency Test assessed primary English teachers' perceptions of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) The findings were summarized using percentages, categorizing responses into Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, and Strongly Disagree.
Agree and Disagree The summary was reported in table 4.6
Table 4.6 Summary of primary English teachers’ responses to each item in cluster 1.2
Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
1 Scaffolding must operate within children‘s ZPD 0% 0% 20% 66% 14%
2 The learner can learn within the ZPD under the guidance or scaffolding of the teacher
3 The ZPD is always changing as children expand and gain knowledge
Primary English teachers‘ use of scaffolding
To gain insight into the scaffolding techniques used by primary English teachers, audio recordings were utilized as an effective tool Five teachers participated in interviews and conducted five English lessons, providing valuable data for analysis.
Recording 1: Unit 4: I can… Lesson 1- Words (First Friends 2)
Recording 2: Unit 3: Dinnertime! Lesson 3- Song (period 1) (Family and Friends 3)
Recording 3: Unit 4: Tidy up! Lesson 4- Phonics (period 1) (Family and Friends 4)
Recording 4: Unit 3: Let‘s buy a present! Lesson 6- Listening and speaking (period 1) (Family and Friends 5)
Recording 5: Unit 4: What‘s the time? Lesson 1- Story (Family and Friends 5) All of the lessons were recorded
Activating students' prior knowledge is a key strategy that effectively scaffolds their learning Observations indicate that teachers frequently conduct activities to review previous lessons before introducing new content For instance, the sequences from recording 4 illustrate how educators implement daily reviews of earlier material.
Sequence 01: Unit 3: Let’s buy a present! Lesson 6- Listening and speaking
01 T: Now look at the flashcards and say the words One word two times
T showed the flashcards to review words related to presents
02 Ss: Present, present Tie, tie Chocolate, chocolate Sweets, sweets…
03 T: Very good Now do you want to play a game?
05 T: Ok the game is ―What‘s missing?‖ Look at the pictures How many things are there?
In this activity, participants are instructed to observe and memorize five items Upon the command "Close your eyes," they will shut their eyes while one item is discreetly removed When prompted with "Open your eyes," they must identify the missing item This engaging exercise tests memory and attention skills.
The teacher effectively scaffolded students' learning by activating their prior knowledge with a warm-up activity called "What's missing?" She initiated the game by assessing students' vocabulary related to various types of presents, encouraging them to repeat words from flashcards As the game progressed, students engaged in a more challenging level, enhancing their vocabulary and critical thinking skills.
In a captivating exercise, students were tasked with observing a series of items before closing their eyes to recall what their teacher had removed As the activity progressed, the number of items increased, allowing the students to effectively master their vocabulary through repetition and active engagement.
Teachers can effectively introduce new lessons by connecting them to students' prior knowledge, as highlighted by Tharp and Gallimore (1998), who emphasized that comprehension involves integrating new information into existing mental frameworks.
Sequence 02: Unit 4: Tidy up! Lesson 4- Phonics
01 T: Everybody, do you want to play a game?
03 T: We will play the game- Pelmanism Look at the screen How many numbers are there?
In this engaging game, participants are divided into two teams, A and B, and presented with ten numbers, consisting of five pictures and five words Teams take turns selecting two numbers at a time, aiming to find matching pairs A successful match earns the team one point, while an unsuccessful attempt allows the opposing team to play The game continues until all pairs are found, with the team accumulating the most points declared the winner.
In this lesson, teachers utilized the game Pelmanism to reinforce prior knowledge, seamlessly transitioning students into new content This engaging activity fostered connections between past and present lessons while creating a fun atmosphere that heightened student interest and motivation.
In primary English classes, teachers employed various scaffolding strategies, one of which was the use of realia and visuals For instance, in sequence 03, the teacher effectively utilized food realia to facilitate an engaging game, demonstrating the practical application of this method in enhancing student learning.
01 T: Before starting our lessons, we‘re going to play a game Would you like to play a game?
03 T (take out a basket of foods): Now look at these and remember Remember!
04 T (show the realias one by one): What‘s this?
05 Ss (look and say): Bread, orange, apple, yogurt, carrot, fish, rice, tomato, pear
06 T: Excellent Here are some kinds of food in the basket Ok Now I divide class into 2 teams (use gestures to spit class) - Tom and Jerry I want 4 students for
07 T (use gestures): Make a line, please!
In this engaging classroom activity, the teacher initiates a fun game by prompting students with "I like! I like!" followed by the class responding with "What do you like?" For instance, when the teacher mentions "I like bread," selected students are tasked with retrieving the correct item from the board The objective is for teams to collect the most objects, fostering a competitive yet enjoyable learning environment Are you ready to participate?
Concrete objects significantly enhance student engagement during lessons, allowing children to connect words with tangible items This hands-on approach promotes practical language use and fosters deeper understanding.
Moreover, as in the sequences from recording 3 and 5, visual supports such as flashcards, posters and pictures were all used to introduce vocabulary or teach a story
By this way, teacher helped student to make a connection between words and pictures which supported their understanding a lot
Sequence 04: Unit 4: Tidy up! Lesson 4- Phonics
T showed the phonic cards and asks
17 T: Look at these pictures What‘s this?
19 T: Yes, it‘s a bin Now listen and repeat Bin
T showed the picture in the front (nonverbal cue to prompt)
T had students repeat in groups and individually
Sequence 05: Unit 4: What’s the time? Lesson 1- Story
01 T: Well done, children Today we will read a story (stick a poster on the board) Now look at the picture Who are the people in the picture?
02 S3: Alice, Rosy, Dad, Mum, Billy
03 T: Very good Now look at the picture 1 Where are Alice and Lucy?
05 T: Good Look at picture 3 (Point to the clock to the left) What time is it?
07 T: Yes It‘s eleven o‘clock (Point to the clock to the right) And what time is it?
09 T: Next, picture 5 Where are Mum and Billy?
In sequence 04, three phonic cards—bin, fig, and tin—were effectively utilized to present vocabulary to students, aiding teachers in vocabulary assessment activities In sequence 5, a poster was introduced as a visual aid to engage students with the story's characters, serving as an excellent illustration for teaching narratives This approach allowed students to visualize the characters and settings, enhancing their comprehension and providing support for challenging reading materials.
In the context of scaffolding instruction, a significant collaborative interaction emerged between teachers and students during specific dialogues This was exemplified in lesson 3 of unit 3, "Dinnertime," and lesson 6 of unit 3, "Let's Buy Presents!" which effectively showcased the dynamic engagement between educators and learners.
Sequence 06: Unit 3: Dinnertime! Lesson 3- Song
41 T: Now look at the picture carefully and answer my questions Ok look at this (point to the woman) Who‘s this?
43 T: Good And look at the girl What has she got?
44 S4: She‘s got milk and fish
45 T: Very good She‘s got milk and fish And what does Mum say to the girl?
46 S5: Eat your figs and drink your milk
47 T: Good Eat your figs and drink your milk (say and mime the action at the same time)
Sequence 07: Unit 3: Let’s buy presents! Lesson 6
21 T (show picture of task 1): Look at the picture How many children are there?
23 T: Very good There are four children Who are they?
27 T: What can you see from each picture? Picture a
29 T: Yes, art But what‘s in the picture?
31 T: Good Paints… so paints for art
In sequence 06, the teacher engaged students by asking them to examine a picture and posed a question, prompting a response from S3 Following feedback, another question was asked, leading to S4's reply and further dialogue Similarly, in sequence 07, the teacher and students discussed the picture related to the task to clarify essential information before the listening activity This preparation enabled the children to predict the content they would hear, facilitating easier task completion.
Questions served as an effective scaffolding strategy to assess students' understanding and enhance their comprehension after reading a story, as demonstrated in the selected sequence from recording 5.
Sequence 08: Unit 4: What’s the time? Lesson 1- Story
27 T: Ok So do you enjoy this story?
29 T: Listen and answer my questions What does Alice want to do?
31 T: What does Rosy‘s father do?
33 T: Very good Who gets up at seven o‘clock?
35 T: Who has dinner at seven o‘clock?
37 T: Can the girls listen to music?