An investigation into communication strategies learners of english use to overcome communication difficulties in english speaking classes at some

As a result of the positive effects on using and learning language, communication strategies may be employed by both native speakers of English and learners of English as SL or FL.. The

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale of the Study

The Communicative Approach to language teaching has been a prominent feature in Second Language (SL) or Foreign Language (FL) contexts This approach leads to developing learners‟ communicative competence That is, learners develop the ability to use language appropriately in a given situation (Larsen-Freeman,

1986, p.123) To develop learners‟ communicative competence is a complex process in which learners need to acquire what are suggested by Canale & Swain (1980, p 28), namely grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence and strategic competence Of the four competences, strategic competence plays an important role in maintaining communication using the target language despite the imperfect linguistic competence and other factors, such as fatigue and distraction (Savignon, 1983, p.40) Communication strategies are considered as central to the strategic competence According to Canale and Swain (1980, p 30), Communication strategies are defined as “verbal and non-verbal communication strategies that may be called into action to compensate for breakdowns in communication due to performance variables or to insufficient competence” These strategies consist of approximation, word coinage, circumlocution, literal translation, language switch, appeal for assistance, mime, topic avoidance, and message abandonment That is to say, when encountering communication difficulties, such as the lack of required words and structures, speakers use communication strategies to get their intended meanings across These strategies may be topic avoidance, message adjustment, paraphrase, lexical

approximation, word coinage and mother tongue switching

In addition to the positive effects on using language, the issue of the extent to which communication strategies contribute to learning language has attracted attention among researchers Although there have been arguments for and against their contributions to language learning, the arguments in favor have outweighed

the ones against According to Faerch and Kasper (as cited in Ellis, 1985, p.187), some communication strategies have a potential effect on learning, like paraphrase and word coinage, while some others don‟t, such as topic avoidance and message adjustment Corder (1982, p.104) argues that successful borrowing is likely to be incorporated into the language user‟s interlanguage competence if the borrowed

item is accepted as well-formed by the interlocutor in the target language

As a result of the positive effects on using and learning language, communication strategies may be employed by both native speakers of English and learners of English as SL or FL In addition, communication strategies are characterized as problematic and potentially conscious ( Faerch & Kasper, 1984, p 47); therefore, they have really been helpful to learners of English as SL or FL, in which their interlanguage does not necessarily provide enough linguistic resource to express intended messages As Corder (1981, p.104) states, communication strategies are concerned with the relationship between ends and means It is assumed that native speakers have a balance between ends and means; that is, they always have the linguistic resources to get their intended meaning across, whi le non-natives are assumed to have a misbalance; that is, they may not convey their intended meaning for which they have no enough linguistic means Therefore, non-native speakers resort to communication strategies to solve the problem It is the imperfect linguistic repertoire that has caused difficulties for learners in all aspects, especially in speaking and listening skills The most common difficulties learners of English have faced in the course of language production and reception are the lack

of words, structures, ideas, confidence, problematic speaking and limited listening ability These were confirmed by the study of learners‟ difficulties in speaking by Nguyen (2008) in which some common difficulties are lack of words, ideas, ways of expressing ideas and pronunciation In addition, as a teacher of conversational English classes at Foreign Language Centers, I have found that almost all my learners wish to be able to communicate fluently in English, but when they are engaged into the interactions, they encounter some communication difficulties that

situation, I used the results from questionnaires (for 30 learners) for my Master course assignment (Bach et al 2009) on designing syllabus for English conversational classes at my Foreign Language Center to give me the understanding

of difficulties the learners encountered in speaking The findings show lacks of vocabulary (100%), structures (80%), ideas (90%), problem with pronunciation (100%) and interpreting other people‟s ideas (70%) These difficulties clearly have

a considerable influence on communication, but fortunately I find that the learners have made considerable efforts to keep speaking in such situations Intuitively, the learners may use some communication strategies to get their messages across despite insufficient linguistic repertoire

With such an important role in learning and communication in English, the area of communication strategies has been the focus of attention to researchers on Second Language Acquisition A great number of earlier empirical research on communication strategy domain reflect more or less different research contexts and approaches (Varadi & Tarone, Bialystok & Paribakht (see Ellis, 1 985 for a review); Dornyei & Scott, 1995b; Wanaruk, 2003; Jingjing, 2006; Chanawong, 2007; Ting

& Lau, 2008; and Mei & Nathalang, 2009)

In the context of Vietnam, several studies were done in relation to the area of communication strategies The study of “An investigation into language learning strategies by second year English majors in English speaking classes at Hue College

of Foreign Languages” by Tran (2007) involves learning strategies in which part

of communication strategies, such as switching to mother tongue, getting help, using mimes and gestures, word coinage, circumlocution and so on was investigated In addition, hesitation strategies, one of communication strategies, are focus of the study of “Second-year English Major‟ hesitation strategies in speaking classes in Hue University College of Foreign Languages” by Nguyen (2008)

Although the studies mentioned above deal with communication strategy use assessment, almost all of them are limited to types of students in formal institutions; e.g colleges, in foreign contexts The studies in Vietnamese contexts focus on only

small part of communication strategy taxonomy In addition, regarding research methods, the above studies adopt task-based technique to generalize their findings This task-based method is used to generalize learners‟ strategy use over a certain task, rather than a variety of tasks the learners have performed in speaking classes Oxford (1996, p.39) points out that task-based method, as one of the limitations of use, is less useful for identifying “typical” strategies of an individual than questionnaire This reality inspires me to investigate communication strategy used

by learners in quite an informal educational context- Foreign Languages Centers- with an innovative research methodology to cope with difficulties in speaking classes

Undoubtedly, English has played an important role in society in the international integration era in Vietnam As a result, the need for learning English has increased in the recent time Foreign Language Centers seem a convenient place for everyone interested in English from students to workers The Centers offer learners a variety of types of general English courses from elementary to advanced levels Recently, the Centers have been making a dramatic shift to conversational English classes to satisfy immediate needs for using English The fact is what learners want in the conversational classes and what they can do are a gap This gap

is due to insufficient linguistic system that inhibits learners from making effective conversations Surprisingly, until now little has been known about what communication difficulties the learners at the Centers face and how to cope with them to keep the interactions going on With the concern about the situation, thi s study will provide the understanding about how learners deal with the communication difficulties using communication strategies at the Centers

In the light of such a situation, this study is to investigate communication strategies learners of English use to overcome communication difficulties in speaking classes at some Foreign Languages Centers Moreover, this study provides suggestions for teachers to train their students and to enhance the use of

communication strategies, leading to great contributions to learning English successfully

1.2 Aims of the Study

The main aim of the study is to investigate what communication strategies learners of English use to overcome communication difficulties at speaking classes

in Foreign Languages Centers In addition, as the function of communication strategies is to manage problems during the communication, difficulties faced by the learners in classrooms are also worth examining Finally, some suggestions will

be made to promote the use of communication strategies in speaking classes, enhancing the effectiveness of communication

1.3 Research Questions

In order to achieve the above aims, this study seeks to find out the ans wers to the following questions regarding learners of English at Foreign Languages Centers

in Hue

1 What difficulties do English learners encounter in speaking classes?

2 What types of communication strategies do they use to overcome those difficulties?

3 What are the suggestions made by teachers to incorporate communication strategies into speaking classes?

1.4 Significance of the Study

The study is expected to be beneficial to learners of English in general and to those of Foreign Languages Centers in particular by improving communicative competence using communication strategies Also, it is a reference material for teachers who are interested in the incorporation of communication strategies into teaching speaking skill

1.5 Structure of the Study

This study consists of 5 chapters Chapter 1 deals with the rationale, aims , research questions and significance of the study Chapter 2 is concerned with literature review Chapter 3 involves research methodology Chapter 4 concerns findings and discussion Chapter 5 presents conclusion of this study

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Chapter 2 looks at previous studies concerning communication strategies This literature survey helps indicate the gap on which the present study is based In addition, it provides the theoretical framework for this project Finally, the tentative profile of Vietnamese learners in Foreign Languages Centers is mentioned

2.1 Previous Research on Communication Strategies

So far, there have been a great number of studies on varied aspects of learners‟ communication strategy use found in the body of literature The following studies are mentioned because of their relevance to the present study These studies are reviewed with the inclusion of types of subjects and data elicitation methods Dornyei & Scott (1995b) discovered over 60 differe nt types of communication strategies used by 44 Hungarian EFL learners The data were collected through three oral tasks, along with retrospectation to identify as many specific strategies as possible These tasks were cartoon descriptions, definition refo rmation and guided role-play Wanaruk‟s study (2003) examined communication strategies used by 75 English learners of Science and Technology The data were elicited from oral interviews-questions on family, studies, cooperative education program, hometown, free time and university Communication strategies employed by non-major English postgraduates at Beijing Normal University involving conversations with native teachers of English were the focus of Jingjing‟s study (2006) Chanawong‟s study (2007) investigated the use of communication strategies by 37 first-year medical students The data were collected by multiple methods: (1) oral interviews - background questions, disaster in Thailand and picture descriptions, (2) questionnaire, and (3) retrospective interviews The generalized findings of this study were mainly based on oral tasks Ting and Lau‟s study (2008) examined the use of communication strategies among Malaysian learners of English as a second language in simulated telephone conversations involving enquiries about products

or services Mei & Nathalang (2009) examined communication strategies used by

non-English major students in China Two types of oral tasks, namely, one -way (concept identification) and two-way task (role-play) were used to elicit data

The topic of communication strategies has also attracted the attention of Vietnamese researchers The study of “An investigation into language learning strategies by second year English majors in English speaking classes at Hue College

of Foreign Languages” by Tran (2007) involved learning strategies in which part

of communication strategies, such as switching to mother tongue, getting help, using mimes and gestures, word coinage, circumlocution and so on was investigated In addition, hesitation strategies, one of the communication strategies, were focus of the study of “Second-year English Major‟ hesitation strategies in speaking classes in Hue University College of Foreign Languages” by Nguyen (2008)

In general, these studies on communication strategies focus on types of students in tertiary institutions in foreign contexts, and little has been known about communication strategy used by Vietnamese students In the light of such a situation, the present study is to depict a complete picture of communication strategy use assessment in relation to various types of learners and research contexts The next section will provide a theoretical framework used to examine issues on communication strategies under investigation

2.2 Definition of Communication Strategies

It is hard to give a thorough definition on which communication strategy researchers have had an agreement Therefore, the notion of communication strategies has been defined in different perspectives and in different ways in the literature so far Some following definitions provide an understanding of the concept of communication strategies on which the present study will be based These definitions are characterized by two defining criteria: problem-orientedness and potential consciousness, and by two perspectives: Psycholinguistic and interactional

Communication strategies are seen as attempts to bridge the gap between the linguistic knowledge of the L2 learner and the linguistic knowledge of the learner’s interlocutor in real communication situations (Tarone, 1981, p 288)

Communication strategies are described as systematic techniques employed

by a speaker to express his meaning when faced with some difficulty (Corder, 1981, p.103)

Communication strategies, central to strategic competence, are defined as the strategies used to compensate for inadequate resources - such as linguistic rules- and for other factors- such as fatigue, distraction and inattention Communication strategies include paraphrase, circumlocution, repetit ion, hesitation and avoidance (Savignon, 1983, pp.40-41)

Communication strategies are defined as potentially conscious plans for solving what to an individual presents itself as a problem in reaching a particular communicative goal (Faerch & Kasper 1983, as cited in Brown, 2007, p.137)

All the above definitions reflect the same two criteria to distinguish communication strategies from other verbal strategies These are problem-orientedness and potential consciousness According to Faerch and Kasper (1984, p 47), the criterion of problem-orientedness accounts for the use of communication strategies by learners when they face difficulties, such as the lack of vocabulary, in expressing themselves Problems regarding the use of communication strategies are referred to as problems with linguistic or sociolinguistic structure (Tarone, 1980; Faerch and Kasper, 1984) Corder (1981, p.104) explains that the use of communication strategies involves the relationship between means and ends That

is, unlike native speakers of English, language learners have a mismatch between what they express and how they express it; therefore, they resort to communication strategies to get their meaning across In Faerch and Kasper‟s definition, the other criterion is referred to as potential consciousness They argue that when faced up with difficulties in communication, the speaker is first aware of which strategies to employ to solve the problems and subsequently the automatic use of such strategies

may lead to the state of potential consciousness In short, the defining features mentioned in most discussion of communication strategies are potentially conscious and problem-oriented (Ellis, 1985, p.180)

In addition, the above definitions account for two perspectives on conceptualizing communication strategies: psycholinguistic and interactional In the psycholinguistic view, Faerch and Kasper (1984, pp 46-47) argue that speech production process involves planning phase and execution phase Communication strategies are employed in the phase of planning in which the appearance of difficulties prevents the initial intended plan In other words, the use of communication strategies is viewed as a mental process in which individual language speakers experience their own problems in expressing themselves and so employ communication strategies to overcome the problems without considering the participation of the interlocutor Tarone (1980) conceives of communication strategies from the interactional perspective This perspective is regarded as when the speaker wishes to communicate a concept to the listener and believes that linguistic or sociolinguistic structure being used is not shared by the listener, so the speaker has two options: (1) Seeking alternative meaning structure to expres s the concept or (2) avoiding the concept (p 419) In other words, Tarone (1980, p 419) views communication strategies as “a mutual attempt of two interlocutors to agree

on a meaning in situations where requisite meaning structures do not seem to be shared” This interactional view allows for the inclusion of various repair mechanisms “to clarify the intented meaning rather than simply correct linguistic form” (ibid) Skehan (1998, p.19) suggests that speakers and their interlocutors resort to communication strategies, such as comprehension checks and clarification requests, to have a successful conversation in the context of the appearance of difficulty

As mentioned above, one of the two defining features of communication strategies is problem-orientedness Problems regarding the use of communication strategies have been referred to differently as problems with “linguistic and/or

sociolinguistic structure” (Tarone, 1980, Faerch & Kasper, 1984) Nevertheless, these problems have not been discussed clearly and comprehensively In an attempt

to clarify problems in relation to the use of communication strategies, Dornyei and Scott (1995b, p.159) suggest 4 types of problems which communication strategies

are used to handle; namely, resource deficits, own-performance problems, performance problems and processing time pressure Resource deficits involve gap

other-in speakers‟ lother-inguistic repertoire preventother-ing them gettother-ing their meanother-ing across Own-performance problems are related to the realization of something the speaker said is not correct or just partly correct, leading to the use of self-repair, self-phrasing and self-editing mechanisms Other-performance problems are concerned with something perceived problematic in the listener‟s speech, either because it is thought to be incorrect or due to a lack of understanding something fully, linked to various meaning-negotiation strategies Processing time pressure refers to the speaker‟s struggle for more time to process and plan speech, such as gaining time to think of what to say, to find the right word and to express their mind, leading to the use of time-gaining strategies, e.g fillers Clearly, these problems are suggested in relation to speakers and listeners‟ problems

The problems proposed by Dornyei and Scott (1995b) underlie the present study which investigates communication problems which may lead to the learners using strategies to cope with them in speaking classes The model of these problems

is used in the present study for a number of reasons For one thing, it seems that most problems in speaking classes are related to five types of problems For another thing, understanding these problems can help predict types and frequency of the use

of communication strategies among learners to cope with the problems

As communication strategies have been viewed on different dimensions, it is

a good way to combine these various conceptualizations for this study Accordingly, the present study is to investigate communication strategies under both psycholinguistic and interactional perspectives learners use to cope with

communication difficulties proposed by Dornyei and Scott (1995b) to get their messages across

2.3 Taxonomy of Communication Strategies

While the section above has provided a multidimensional definition of communication strategies, it is necessary to make a detailed identification of these strategies In this section, some communication strategy taxonomies in the literature are presented to provide the basis for the development of taxonomy used for t his study

So far many researchers have attempted to classify communication strategies which language learners use under different categorizations However, these different taxonomies incorporate more or less the same strategies The following part is a presentation and discussion of three communication strategy taxonomies proposed by several major scholars from three perspectives: interactional, psycholinguistic and integrated perspective

2.3.1 Tarone’s (1980) Interactional Taxonomy

Tarone classifies communication strategies under broad categories: Paraphrase, Transfer and Avoidance The following is an illustration of these strategies:

A Paraphrase

- Approximation: The learner uses a single target-language (TL) vocabulary item

or structure, which the learner knows is not correct, but which shares enough

semantic features in common with the desired items to satisfy the speaker (e.g Pipe for Water pipe)

- Word coinage: The learner makes up a new word in order to communicate a

desired concept (e.g Air ball for Balloon)

- Circumlocution: The learner describes the characteristics or elements of the

object or action instead of using the appropriate TL structure (e.g She is, uh,

smoking something I don’t know what its name is That’s uh, Persian, and we use

in Turkey, a lot of)

B Transfer

- Literal translation: The learner translates word for word from the native

language (NL) (e.g He invites him to drink for They toast one another)

- Language switch: The learner uses the NL term without bothering to translate

(e.g Balon for Balloon or Tirtil for Catepirllar)

- Appeal for assistance: The learner asks for the correct term or structure (e.g

What is this?)

- Mime: The learner uses nonverbal strategies in place of a meaning structure (e.g

clapping one’s hands to illustrate applause)

C Avoidance

- Topic avoidance: This occurs when the learner simply does not talk about

concepts for which the vocabulary or other meaning structure is not known

- Message abandonment: This occurs when the learner begins to talk about a

concept but is unable to continue due to lack of meaning structure, and stops utterance

Tarone (1980, p.420) considers communication strategies as interactional procedure, since they are employed for a joint negotiation of meaning between the speaker and the listener However, Dornyei and Scott (1995b, p 155) state that Tarone never lists fully specific communication strategies which reflect the interactional view, such as clarification request and comprehension check In Tarone‟s taxonomy, paraphrase is understood as using alternative, acceptable target language item to reword the message in which there is the lack of the intended item (Tarone 1977, as cited in Bialystok and Frohlich, 1980, p.4) Paraphase is made up

of approximation, word coinage and circumlocution The next Faerch & Kasper‟s taxonomy mentions paraphrase which is seen as description or exemplification

2.3.2 Faerch & Kasper’s (1984, as cited in Ellis, 1985) Psycholinguistic Taxonomy

This taxonomy is organized on the option as to whether the learner reduces

or achieves his or her intended communicative goal An illustration is made of specific communication strategies as follows:

A Reduction strategies: These are attempts to do away with a problem They

involve the learner giving up part of his original communicative goal

1 Formal reduction strategies: These involve the avoidance of L2 rules of which

the learner is not certain (e.g tentative hypotheses) or which he can‟t readily gain

access to (e.g He made him to go …. > He asked him to go ….)

2 Functional reduction strategies: These involve the learner avoiding certain

speech acts or discourse functions, avoiding or abandoning or replacing certain

topics, and avoiding modality markers (e.g He plays … > He does sport)

B Achievement strategies: These are activated when the learner decides to keep to

the original communicative goal but compensates for insufficient means or makes the effort to receive the required items

1 Compensatory strategies

a Non-cooperative strategies: These are compensatory strategies which do not

call for the assistance of the interlocutor

i) L1/L3-based strategies: The learner makes use of a language other than the L2

- Code-switching: The learner uses a form in the non-L2 language (e.g I don‟t

have any Geschwester.)

- Foreignizing: The learner uses a non-L2 language form but adapts it to make it

appear alike a L2 form

- Literal translation: The learner translates an L1/L3 form

ii) L2-based strategies: The learner makes use of alternative L2 forms

- Substitution: The learner replaces one L2 form with another (e.g animal for

rabbit )

- Paraphrase: The learner replaces an L2 item by describing or exemplifying it

(e.g He cleaned the house with a … > It sucks in air)

- Word coinage: The learner replaces an L2 item with an item made up from L2

forms (e.g picture place for gallery )

- Restructuring: The learner develops an alternative constitute plan (e.g I have two

…. I have a brother and sister)

iii) Non-linguistic strategies: The learner compensates, using non-linguistic means

such as mime or gesture

b Cooperative strategies: These involve a joint problem-solving effort by the

learner and his interlocutor

i) Direct appeal: The learner overtly requests assistance (e.g What is this?)

ii) Indirect appeal : The learner does not request assistance, but indicates the need

for help by means of a pause, eye gaze, etc

2 Retrieval strategies: These are used when the learner has a problem locating the

required item but decides to persevere rather than use compensatory strategies

a Waiting: The learner waits for the item to come to him

b Using semantic field: The learner identifies the semantic field to which the item

belongs and runs through items belonging to this field until he locates the item

c Using other languages: The learner thinks of the form of the item in another

language and then translates it into the L2

In comparison to Tarone‟s taxonomy, this typology is viewed as a more comprehensive and detailed construct For example, the strategy of appeal for assistance in Tarone‟s taxonomy is further specified into direct appeal and indirect appeal in this model These two pioneering taxonomies provide the theoretical basis for subsequent research on communication strategy issues The next section refers

to another taxomy by Dornyei and Scott (1997, p 197) as a summary of earlier typologies

2.3.3 Dornyei and Scott’s (1997) Integrated Taxonomy

According to Dornyei and Scott (1995b, p.159) communication strategies are employed by learners to handle problems Therefore, they classify communication strategies according to the way the strategies cope with the problems, namely direct, indirect, and interactional strategies Direct problem management involves the use of alternative meaning structure to communicate the intended meaning, such as using circumlocution in the compensation for the lack of

a word Indirect problem management concerns the use of means without providing alternative meaning structure, such as fillers, hesitation and repetition These means create conditions for achieving the intended communicative goal Interactional strategies-based problem management is related to the use of meaning-negotitation means to achieve the mutual understanding between the speaker and the listener In addition, they also suggest types of communication problems: Resource deficit, own-performance problems, other-performance problems and processing time pressure The following taxonomy is a combination of various e arlier ones, along with some added new strategies

I Direct Strategies

A Resource deficit-related strategies

- Message abandonment: The learner leaves a message unfinished because of

some language difficulty

- Message reduction: The learner reduces the message by avoiding certain

language structures or topics considered problematic in language or by leaving out some intended elements for a lack of linguistic resource

- Message replacement: The learner substitutes the original message with new one

because of not feeling capable of executing it

- Circumlocution: The learner exemplifies, illustrates or describes the properties of

the target object or action Several illustrative approaches may be combined

- Approximation: The learner uses a single alternative lexical item, such as

superordinate or a related term, which shares semantic features with the target word

or structure

-Use of all-purpose words: The learner uses some general words, such as stuff,

thing, things, do, make (e.g I can‟t work until you repair my ….thing)

- Word coinage: The learner creates a nonexisting L2 word by applying a supposed

L2 rule to an existing L2 word

- Restructuring: The learner abandons the execution of a verbal plan because of

language difficulties, leaves the utterance unfinished and communicates the intended message according to an alternative plan

- Literal translation: The learner translates literally a lexical item, an idiom, a

compound word or structure from L1 to L2

- Foreignizing: The learner uses L1 word by adjusting it to L2 phonology

- Code switching: The learner uses a L1 word without bothering to translate

- Use of similar-sounding words: The learner uses a word which the speaker is not

sure of, which sounds more or less like the target word

- Mumbling: The learner swallows or mutters inaudibly a word whose correct form

that learner is unsure about

- Omission: The learner leaves a gap when not knowing a word and carries on as if

it had been said

- Retrieval: The learner attempts to retrieve a lexical item

- Mime: The learner uses nonverbal strategies in the place of a meaning structure

B Own-performance problem-related strategies

- Self-rephrasing: The learner repeats the term, but not quite as it is, but by adding

something or using paraphrase

- Self-repair: The learner corrects what he or she said

C Other-performance-related strategies

- Other-repair: The learner helps the interlocutor correct what he or she said

II Interactional Strategies

A Resource deficit-related strategies

- Appeal for help: The learner asks for a correct word or structure

B Own-performance problem-related strategies

- Comprehension check: The learner asks questions to check that the interlocutor

can follow him or her

- Own-accuracy check: The learner checks that what he or she said was correct by

asking a concrete question or repeating a word with a question intonation

C Other-performance problem-related strategies

- Asking for repetition: The learner requests repetition when not hearing or

understanding something properly

- Asking for clarification: The learner requests explanation of an unfamiliar

meaning structure

- Asking for confirmation: The learner requests confirmation that he or she heard

or understood something correctly

- Guessing: The learner makes guess which is similar to a confirmation request, but

the latter implies a greater degree of certainty regarding the key word, whereas guessing involves real indecision

- Expressing non understanding: The learner expresses that he or she did not

understand something properly either verbally or nonverbally

- Interpretive summary: The learner paraphrases the interlocutor‟s message to

check that the learner has understood correctly

III Indirect Strategies

A Processing time pressure-related strategies

- Use of fillers: The learner uses gambits, such as Well, let me think and as you

know, etc to fill pauses, to stall, and to gain time in order to keep the

communication channel open and maintain discourse at times of difficulty

- Repetition: The learner repeats a word to gain time to think

- Hesitation: The learner uses words like er …er…, uhm …uhm to gain time to

think

B Own-performance problem-related strategies

- Verbal strategy marker: The learner uses verbal marking phrases before a

communication strategy to signal the word or structure does not carry the intended meaning perfectly in the L2 code

C Other-performance problem-related strategies

- Feigning understanding: The learner makes an attempt to carry on the

conversation in spite of not understanding something

It is easy to recognize a great number of strategies which are the same as in the earlier taxonomies However, one new contribution to the existing taxonomies is the addition of communication strategies under the category of interactional strategies, such as asking for clarification and comprehension check This is an attempt to extend the number of actual communication strategies illustrating Tarone‟s interactional perspective In addition, Dornyei and Scott (1995b, p 160) justify that although strategies, such as fillers, repetition and hesitation, do not really manage the problems, as they do not provide alternative meaning structures , they create conditions for achieving communicative goal; thus, they are considered as communication strategies

In summary, the taxonomies mentioned above are organized according to certain perspectives The psycholinguistic model accounts for the operation of Faerch & Kasper‟s taxonomy and the strategies involve production process, while Tarone‟s taxonomy is based on interactional perspective Similarly, learners and their interlocutor‟s contributions underlay the Dornyei and Scott‟s construct Although different researchers provide various taxonomies of communication strategies under different classifications, the underlying structures of the taxonomies are the same In the light of these taxonomies, a taxonomy is developed in this study The following section is a typology of communication strategies used for this study

2.4 Taxonomy of Communication Strategies Used in This Study

The aim of the study is to investigate communication strategies learners employ when they are faced up with difficulties in the course of interactions Clearly, different researchers use their different typologies on the basis o f different purposes To facilitate the investigation and analysis of the use of communication strategies, an adapted integrated taxonomy will be proposed in this project

This following taxonomy is classified under two broad categories: Psycholinguistic and interactional communication strategies These two categories are organized according to types of resources on which the strategies are employed: (1) L1-based, (2) L2-based, (3) non-linguistic resources-based, (4) time-gaining devices-based, (5) avoidance strategies and (6) meaning-negotiation devices-based strategies

Specific communication strategies from the models presented earlier are selected for a number of reasons For one thing, these strategies are assumed to possibly occur in English speaking classes based on the researcher‟s teaching experience and observations For example, “code-switching” is included in the taxonomy since learners share the same mother tongue (Vietnamese), whereas

“Foreignizing” is excluded since English and Vietnamese are different in pronunciation For another thing, these strategies may be surface strategies which

are observable or measurable through learners‟ utterances containing those strategies For example, “circumlocution” is observable thanks to indicators

identifying that strategy, e.g It is a kind of …and it looks like … in the speech,

whereas “Feigning understanding”- making an attempt to carry on the conversation

in spite of not understanding something- is not observable This is convenient for analyzing the data on the performance of three oral tasks in this study

A Psycholinguistic Communication Strategies: Learners experience their own

problems in oral communication and then they themselves cope with the problems using these strategies to get their messages across

1 L1-based strategies: The learner makes use of a language other than the L2

- Code-switching: The learner uses a form in the non-L2 language

- Literal translation: The learner translates word for word from the native

language

2 L2-based strategies: The learner makes use of alternative L2 forms

- Circumlocution: The leaner uses a L2 phrase to describe or exemplify the L2

item This strategy is classified into features: physical (e.g size, shape, color and material), functional, constituent, locational, historical and other features (Paribakht, 1985)

- Word coinage: The learner uses L2 resources available (not thanks to L1 transfer)

to create a new word in order to communicate a desired concept

- Approximation: The learner uses a L2 word, which the learner knows is not

correct, but it shares enough semantic features in common with the desired concept

- Self-repair: The learner corrects what he has said (e.g I like pop music, oh I mean

rock music)

- Restructuring: The learner develops an alternative constituent structure

3 Non-linguistic resource-based strategies: The learner uses non-linguistic

resources (e.g mime, gesture, etc.) to make the meaning clearer

- Mime/gesture: The learner uses nonverbal strategies to replace the desired item or

uses nonverbal ones as well as verbal output to communicate the desired item

4 Time-gaining devices-based strategies: The learner uses fillers, hesitation and

self-repetition to gain time to think of a word or an idea

- Self-repetition: the learner repeats a word to gain time to think

- Fillers: The learner uses expressions such as well, as you know, I think, let me

think, etc to gain the time to think

- Hesitation: The learner uses words such as er …er….or …, uhm … uhm… to

gain the time to think

5 Avoidance strategies:

- Topic Avoidance: This occurs when the learner simply does not talk about

concepts/topics for which the vocabulary or meaning structure is not known

- Message abandonment: This occurs when the learner begins to talk about a

concept but is unable to continue due to lack of meaning structure, and stops utterance

mid-B Interactional Communication Strategies: Learners attempt to solve problems

with their interlocutors in oral communication to achieve a mutual understanding

Meaning Negotiation Devices-Based Strategies

- Appeal for assistance: The learner asks for the correct item directly or indirectly

- Clarification request: The learner asks the interlocutor for the statement

clarification by using Again, please; Pardon; What do you mean? You mean …?

- Comprehension check: The learner checks the interlocutor‟s understanding by

using some expressions such as Right? Ok? Do you understand?

- Confirmation check: The learner repeats what the interlocutor has said to check

the understanding

The taxonomy adopted for this study reflects a combination of psycholinguistic and interactional perspectives In addition, surface (observable or measurable) communication strategies are incorporated into this typology This may facilitate the analysis of data gathered regarding the use of communication strategies, especially data collected from the performance of three oral tasks

2.5 Communication Strategies and English Speaking Proficiency

It is a good way to understand the relationship between communication strategies and English speaking proficiency by looking at what components constitute English speaking ability Bygate ( 1987, p 3) argues that although it is necessary to master a specific amount of grammar and vocabulary knowledge, there are many other things in relation to speaking, such as adapting utterances to the situation and adjusting messages as the unexpected problem emerge in communication Canale and Swain (1980, p 28) propose theoretical framework for communicative competence, namely grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competences, which accounts for what makes up communicative ability in general, especially English speaking proficiency Grammatical competence is the ability to know vocabulary, rules of morphology, syntax, sentence-grammar semantics and phonology Sociolinguistic competence is the ability of formulating and interpreting utterances appropriately in terms of sociocultural considerations Discourse competence is the ability to connect a series of sentences or utterances to form a meaningful whole Strategic competence is the ability to compensate for inadequate linguistic repertoire in communication through the use of communication strategies Based on the model of communicative competence by Canale and Swain, one of the components underlying English speaking proficiency

is communication strategies Canale and Swain (1980, p 30) and Savignon (1983,

p 40) state that communication strategies are employed to handle breakdowns in communication due to inadequate linguistic competence It is clear that English speaking proficiency is made up of communication strategies

2.6 Importance of Communication Strategies in Language Teaching and Learning Processes

The issue of whether or not communication strategies make contributions to learning and teaching language has still been controversial among Second Language Acquisition researchers Contrasting views on the effect of the strategies come from different perspectives Therefore, firstly it is necessary to understand how second language learning occurs and then on the basis of the interpretation of the learning theories, the extent to which and in what ways communication strategies contribute

to learning are discussed

How language learning process occurs is explained by the learning theory of Faerch and Kasper (1980, as cited in Ellis 1985, pp.170-171) They consider learning process as a three-stage one: Hypothesis formation, hypothesis testing and automatization The former involves the learner making use of L2 or L1 resources available to form a hypothesis The middle is concerned with the learner testing the hypothesis in terms of correctness in communications or educational contexts, e.g

in exercises The latter is related to practising the accepted hypothesis The stages of the process are repeated until a hypothesis is accepted The learning process is believed to stop when no hypothesis is formulated In addition, Ellis (1985, pp.164 -165) accounts for what constitutes L2 knowledge Declarative and procedural knowledge are two types of L2 knowledge The latter is classified into social processes/strategies and cognitive strategies/processes The cognitive processes involve learning, automatizing new L2 knowledge and using L2 knowledge (including communication strategies) Thus, these processes are concerned with learning and using language In short, these theories of learning suggest learning process involves learning and language use The extent to which communication strategies contribute to learning is considered under the domain of learning and using language

As for the concept of communication strategies, many attempts to draw a distinction between learning strategies and communication strategies have been made As Brown (2007, p.132) states, “learning strategies relate to input- to processing, storage, and retrieval; that is, to taking messages from others Communication strategies pertain to output- how we productively express meaning, how we deliver messages to others” In other words, learning strategies contribute

to learning and communication strategies contribute to communication Considering Oxford‟s (1990, p.19) learning strategy classifications, compensatory strategies, including communication strategies, are one of the learning strategies Therefore, communication strategies have potential effect on learning as what learning strategies make great contributions to learning; that is, helping communicative competence to flourish

However, Ellis (1985, p.187) argues that communication strategies may prevent acquisition or learning since the learner may be so good at compensating for inadequate linguistic system by using various communication strategies that he or she may not try out new knowledge as a source of learning In fact, the statement is not absolutely true since only some, not all, strategies like reduction strategies may not produce learning Corder (1981, p 104) gives an example that successful borrowing of one item as one of the communication strategies may be included into the speaker‟s interlanguage construct when the item is accepted by the interlocutor

as well-formed in the target language Another example given by Ellis (1997, p.77)

is that switching from L1-based strategies to L2-based ones as a result of progress

in L2 knowledge reflects the learner‟s stage of development

Littlewood (1984, p.87) points out that the role of communication strategies lies somewhere on the continuum of learning-communication It seems that some strategies, such as mime or the use of the native language, are unlikely to produce learning, but they keep the interaction going on Other strategies, such as paraphrase

or adjusting the message, might not enrich the learner‟s linguistic repertoire, but they enable the learner to become more fluent with his or her resources available

Other strategies, like appeal for assistance or word coinage, may help inform the learner about what is appropriate in the target language

As for the domain of communication alone, communication strategies play,

no doubt, an important role in interactions Savignon (1983, pp.40 -41) describes communication strategies as “ones used to compensate for imperfect knowledge of rules – or limiting factors in their application such as fatigue, distraction, and inattention” The use of communication strategies is “to sustain communication through paraphrase, circumlocution, repetition, hesitation, avoidance and guessing,

as well as shifts in register and style” (ibid.) Ellis (1985, p.187) supports this role

by asserting that the function of communication strategies is “keep the channel open”

Another issue of the study of communication strategies is whether it is necessary to train the learner to use these communication strategies As a matter of fact, the issue of teaching communication strategies has caused a controversy among researchers due to different interpretations of their roles Littlewood (1984, p.87) emphasizes the necessity of the training of communication strategies since

“the use of appropriate communication strategies can be regarded as a domain of skill in its own right Therefore, a second language learner who is skilled in this domain may communicate more effectively than learners who are considerably more advanced in purely linguistic terms” However, this view receives Kellerman‟s (1991, as cited in Faucette, 2001, p.2) opposition that “teach the learners more language, and let them look after themselves.” Although it is true that the learner needs more language in terms of education, leaner language as interlanguage is by nature imperfect; that is, no individual learners can have enough linguistic resource for all communicative needs Thus, it is necessary to teach communication strategies in some ways so that the learner, especially less proficient, compensates for imperfect individual competence Above all, the necessity of training the learner in the use of communication strategies is asserted

by many researchers due to their role of “enhancing the effectiveness of

communication or compensating for breakdown” (Canale & Swain, 1980, p 27) or

“helping communicative competence to blossom” (Oxford, 1990, p.19)

2.7 Learners of English at the Centers of Foreign Languages in Vietnam

The need for learning English has increased dramatically in the recent time

in Vietnam as a result of the international integration era More and more Foreign languages Centers have been established to meet such a movement for English learning The Centers offer a variety of language courses from general English, e.g., English A, B and C, to conversational courses and international certificate courses, e.g TOEIC, IELTS and TOEFL The varied programs have attracted various types

of learners, from students to workers Unfortunately, until now little has been known about English learners of Foreign Languages Centers In this study, the researchers attempts to present some preliminary information on these learners in terms of learner background (e.g sex, age and learner types), motivation, course types and language proficiency

I have worked with many Foreign Languages Centers for several years, I find out that most learners are female For example, in one of my classes, among 40 learners are only about 5 males Most of the learners are at the age of 18 to 22 The majority of them are studying at colleges and the minority are high school students and workers With regard to motivation in learning English, the learners come to evening classes for different purposes They wish to improve their language proficiency, to pass their exams, to meet job requirements or just to meet friends As for the course types, depending on their purposes of learning, the learners can take

up various course types, but in my experience, three most popular courses are General English, especially English B, conversational English, and TOEIC The learners attend General English and TOEIC mainly for the requirement of colleges

or workplaces, and conversational courses for the requirement of their jobs or job application Considering language proficiency, almost all of the learners come to the Centers after a long-time learning English (about 8 years) at school and/or centers They wish to be reviewed, supplemented and remember English systematically

Although the information above is preliminary, it helps understand FLC English learners to a certain extent Hopefully, further research may examine the learner profile thoroughly

Summary

In conclusion, this chapter gives an insight into the nature of communication strategies and other related issues In the light of the considerations, it can be seen that communication strategies play an important part in learning and communication Although some strategies may not produce learning, they may enable the interactions to continue Therefore, communication strategies are supplementary to each other in relation to their effect on learning process Additionally, the issue of teaching communication strategies reflects different ideas, but above all it may be believed to be necessary in educational contexts Nevertheless, communication strategies still make no great contribution in the context of teaching and learning English as a foreign language in which accuracy is emphasized Thus, once more, this study will seek to investigate the use of communication strategies in EFL speaking classes with a hope to provoke more attention from researchers and teachers to recognize how important communication strategies are in this context

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOG Y

This study is to investigate communication strategies used by FLC English learners to overcome communication difficulties in speaking classes This overall purpose is achieved by finding answers to these three research questions: (1) What types of difficulties do English learners encounter in speaking classes? (2) What types of communication strategies do they employ to overcome those difficulties? (3) What are suggestions made by teachers to incorporate communication strategies into speaking classes? In order to collect data for this study, a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods was adopted The quantitative method was conducted through the questionnaire and the qualitative method was represented via oral tasks and interviews Moreover, the data was analyzed and interpreted through the use of the Statistics Package for the Social Science (SPSS) software The following section describes the research design for this study in detail

Table 3.1: Profile of Learner Participants Variables Statistics

TOEFL None

3.1.2 Teachers

Another sample of participants were 5 teachers They were selected from 3 Centers They ever taught or are teaching conversational English courses They were interviewed about the issues of (1) perceptions on the importance of communication strategies to learners‟ speaking proficiency; (2) the necessity of teaching communication strategies; (3) suggestions for teaching learners communication strategies

3.2 Research Instruments

3.2.1 Questionnaire

A questionnaire is the most widely used technique for collecting information from subjects It is economical, standardized, confidential and used for specific purposes (McMillan & Schumacher, 1993, p 238) Regarding language learner strategies, the questionnaire is the most common tool for data elicitation and helps

to depict a broad picture of strategy use among learner populations and to establish relationships between various learner factors and their strategy use (see Gao, 2004 for a review) Similarly, Oxford (1996) points out that questionnaires are one of the most efficient and comprehensive techniques to examine learners‟ use of language learning strategies Moreover, they are quick and easy to administer, economical, confidential and self-scoring- providing immediate feedback for learners Therefore, studies of language learner strategy use, i.e vocabulary-learning, listening, speaking, and reading strategies have adopted questionnaires as one of the data-eliciting techniques However, research done on communication strategy has been

by the means of task-based method for data collection Techniques used to elicit data for communication strategy use among English learners include conception identification, picture description, story-telling, role-play, conversations, and interview questions tasks ( see Bialystok & Frohlick, 1980; Paribakt, 1985; Tarone and Yule, 1987; Bongaerts & Poulisse 1989; Dornyei & Scott, 1995b; Wanaruk, 2003; Jingjing, 2006; Ting and Lau, 2008; Ting & Phan, 2008; and Mei & Nathalang, 2009) Chanawong‟ study (2007) examined the use of communication

strategies by 37 first-year medical students through multiple methods: oral interviews/ tasks, questionnaire and retrospective interviews Although this study attempted to include the questionnaire to collect data, the results of this study, like the research above, were generalized based on the results of oral interviews/ task-based method As the task-based method happens, its valuable contributions make it clear to see actual evidence of communication strategy use among English learners

on a specific task However, the generalization of results is limited to a particular task used for study, rather than a variety of possible tasks the learners actually perform Oxford (1996) points out task-based method, as one of the limitations of use, is less useful for identifying “typical” strategies of an individual than questionnaire That is, this method is used to identify strategies used on a specific task over a given time period (p.39) In addition, Oxford et al (20 04) affirm that different strategies are used by learners according to the level of difficulty of a task and that a particular task may not be able to report strategy use in detail (p2.) Above all, the researcher of the present study argues that while tas k-based method still plays some part in the study, showing actual evidence of strategy use, questionnaire is mainly adopted to generalize the findings involving strategy use assessment in detail

The questionnaire designed for this study was based on the theoretical framework (see Chapter 2) The questionnaire consists of two parts: (1) information

on learner profiles, and (2) questions on communication difficulties and communication strategies Part 2 encompasses 6 items on communication difficulties and 17 items on strategies All the 23 items were expressed by statements on aspects in question accompanied by a five-point scale

A five-point scale of the 23 items on communication difficulties and strategies was adapted from Oxford‟s (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning The scale points were (1) Never or almost never true of me, (2) Usually not true of me, (3) Somewhat true of me, (4) Usually true of me, and (5) Always or almost always true of me This scale shows both existence and frequency level of a

language learner strategy, which suits the purpose of this study The contents of question items were developed on the basis of theoretical assumptions and existing studies (Tarone, 1980; Faerch & Kasper, as cited in Ellis, 1985; Dornyei & Scott, 1997; and Oxford, 1990) As little research about communication strategies has been done using questionnaire, the researcher attempted to reword items based on conceptual explanations on strategies in existing taxonomies (see strategy taxonomies in Tarone, Faerch & Kasper and Dornyei & Scott) For example, Tarone (1980, p 429) explains that “topic avoidance occurs when the learner simply does not talk about concepts for the vocabulary or other meaning structure is not known”

Given that definition, the researcher designed an item: I do not talk about a topic or concept if I know that I do not have enough language or lack idea

Table 3.2: Distributions of Questionnaire Items

Strategies

22 Non-linguistic resources 9 Time-gaining devices 11, 23, 16, Avoidance strategies 12, 17 Meaning negotiation