Average number of shadowing practices per learner
AVERAG E NUM BER O F PRACTI CES O F A
Average number of practice per learner
We can see that in the first cycle, each learner practiced shadowing around
7 times on average This number slightly increased into 7.6 times per learner in the next cycle and then went up dramatically to 11.3 times in the last one
Following an increase in practice frequency, learners' reflection logs indicated significant positive changes after each cycle Initially, reflections focused on reasons for not practicing and the challenges faced; however, after the second cycle, learners reported improved understanding of producing English vowels and consonants, as well as identifying intonation, stress patterns, and rhythm in sentences Although some expressions of boredom remained in their logs during the second cycle, these were eventually replaced by the term "improvement" by the end of the three cycles.
The positive changes observed in learners' logs were a result of three key actions implemented during the cycles of instruction Firstly, focused support from the teacher after the initial cycle was crucial, aligning with Yates and Zielinski’s (2009) assertion that adult learners benefit from targeted guidance to enhance their English pronunciation awareness Secondly, the introduction of a strict follow-up plan after the second cycle significantly increased the frequency of learners’ practice in the third cycle, challenging Collins’ (2004) notion that adult learners are inherently self-directed and highly motivated This suggests that not all adult learners, particularly those from Asian backgrounds, are self-motivated to acquire new knowledge, as noted by Han (2012), who described Asian students as often being more passive recipients due to Confucian heritage influences Lastly, transitioning from one-on-one classes to group learning in the third cycle made pronunciation lessons more engaging and boosted learners’ confidence, corroborating Cercone’s (2008) findings that adult learners thrive in collaborative, interactive environments.
The three-cycle action research demonstrates that implementing shadowing exercises for teaching pronunciation to Vietnamese adult learners online requires focused teacher support and instructions, fostering group learning to enhance interaction, and establishing a strict follow-up routine to motivate learners These strategies are essential for effectively applying shadowing exercises in this context The subsequent section will present the changes observed in learners' pronunciation of segmental and supra-segmental features following a three-month training course.
4.3 Segmental and supra-segmental features improved after three months of shadowing training
4.3.1 Changes in learners’ segmental features
In the data analysis phase, all learners' pretest and post-test recordings were analyzed and transcribed using Praat The resulting images were compared side by side to assess changes in pronunciation of consonants and vowels It is important to note that the pre-test and post-test were identical, with the only difference being that the pre-test was conducted prior to the first cycle of action research, while the post-test followed the third cycle Thus, the comparison effectively examined two versions of the same speech.
Only segmental features that adversely impact learners' intelligibility were identified and classified This selection process relied on human raters, as they proved to be more effective than machine ratings in assessing intelligibility, a point elaborated on in the previous chapter.
According to Lane (2021), the features affecting consonant pronunciation intelligibility can be categorized into three groups: (i) reducing sounds, which involve omitting initial, middle, and ending consonant sounds, as well as reducing sounds in consonant clusters; (ii) adding sounds, which refers to the addition of one or more sounds to a word; and (iii) new sounds, which involve replacing English sounds with familiar Vietnamese sounds The frequency of each pronunciation feature is summarized in Table 4.1 below.
Table 4.1 Pronunciation features that affected learners’ intelligibility
Participants Types of pronunciation features
Frequency of the features Pretest posttest
Reducing sounds Adding sounds New sounds
Reducing sounds Adding sounds New sounds
Reducing sounds Adding sounds New sounds
Reducing sounds Adding sounds New sounds
Reducing sounds Adding sounds New sounds
Reducing sounds Adding sounds New sounds
The analysis reveals that sound reduction is the most prevalent intelligibility-affected pronunciation feature among Vietnamese adult learners, encompassing both the reduction of ending sounds and sounds within clusters Additionally, sound replacing and sound adding are observed, though they occur less frequently than sound reduction These findings align with previous research by Ha (2015) and Yates and Zielinski (2019) Furthermore, the data indicates a significant decrease in the total number of intelligibility-affected features among the six participants following the course, with a mean pre-test score of 58 and a post-test score reflecting a reduction of approximately 24%.
The changes in pronunciation features following the training course are clearly illustrated in the column chart 4.2, which presents the converted figures from the table.
Changes in segmental features after the training course
Overall, four of the six participants have experienced a drop in the total number of intelligibility-affected features in their pronunciation after the course
After training, participants showed a significant change in the intelligibility-affected features of their pronunciation, indicating increased awareness and efforts to address their pronunciation issues Notably, learners P1, P2, and P4 exhibited the highest rates of sound reduction in their pretests, which decreased considerably in their post-tests Conversely, these learners also demonstrated an increase in sound addition, suggesting they recognized the importance of final sounds in English and attempted to compensate by incorporating familiar Vietnamese consonants like /s/ or /r/ Similarly, P5 and P6, who frequently added sounds in their pretests, made efforts to eliminate this pronunciation habit in their post-tests.
The study focused on minimizing difficult-to-pronounce sounds, specifically omitting /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ entirely As a result, participants demonstrated a decrease in sound additions in their post-tests while simultaneously increasing instances of sound reductions (refer to appendix 8).
Research suggests that while many individuals may take only three months to establish lasting habits (Lally et al., 2009), adult learners often require more time to see significant changes in their pronunciation Yates and Zielinski (2009) observed that although adults can benefit from pronunciation instruction and practice, noticeable improvements do not occur immediately, highlighting the importance of patience in the learning process (p 15).
The analysis of vowel pronunciation revealed notable sound substitution features, including the replacement of /ổ/ with /e/, /eɪ/ with /e/, and /əʊ/ with /ɒ/ Initially, these substitutions posed challenges for raters in understanding the speaker; however, comprehension improved with repeated exposure as raters adapted to the substitution patterns Jenkins (2000, cited in Low, 2010a) observed that consistent regional vowel qualities are acceptable, as listeners can deduce the speaker's vowel inventory when produced consistently Since the identified sound substitutions did not significantly impair the intelligibility of learners' pronunciation, detailed data on these features are not included in this chapter For further insights, refer to appendix 11, which contains images of learners' recordings analyzed using Praat.
This section highlights the significant improvements in learners' pronunciation of segmental aspects after three months of shadowing practice The most notable change was an increased awareness of features that hinder intelligibility, particularly in consonant production While there were some substitutions in vowel production, these did not significantly impact intelligibility, suggesting that learners should prioritize mastering consonant pronunciation over vowels Next, the article will discuss the changes in learners' pronunciation of supra-segmental aspects following the training course.
4.3.3 Changes in learners’ supra-segmental features
As mentioned in chapter 2, the three supra-segmental aspects investigated in this study were intonation, stress and rhythm The picture 4.1 below showed how these features made visible by Praat
Picture 4.1 Speech analyzed using Praat
Picture 4.1 illustrates a Praat-generated analysis consisting of three key components: the upper section displays the waveform of the speech, the middle section presents the spectrogram, and the lower section contains the script The waveform reveals the stress patterns and rhythm of the speech, while the spectrogram highlights variations in pitch (indicated by the blue line) and loudness (shown by the yellow line), aiding in the identification of sentence pitch patterns The script details the spoken words, allowing the rater to analyze thought groups for rhythm and note the speaker's pronunciation features Additionally, the “(…)” symbol denotes sound omissions, and the “/…/” symbol indicates sound substitutions.
The images generated by Pratt are instrumental in identifying supra-segmental features such as stress, rhythm, and intonation Specifically, stress, which refers to the emphasis placed on a syllable through increased loudness, duration, and pitch, can be observed in the waveform of the word "several" depicted in picture 4.1 This visualization clearly illustrates how the stressed syllable "se-" stands out compared to the others in the word.
In the analysis of syllable stress, the syllable "se-" in the word "several" is notably more pronounced than the "-ve" and "-ral" syllables, indicating correct pronunciation by the learner Conversely, the waveform analysis of the word "address" reveals discrepancies in stress placement, suggesting a need for further examination of pronunciation accuracy.
Script put on the first syllable of the word This was incorrect because as we all known,
“address” is stressed on the second syllable Therefore, this word was unintelligible for the listener
The waveform not only aids in identifying word stress but also allows us to analyze the stress patterns within an utterance To achieve this, we must first segment the script into thought groups, which are meaningful grammatical and semantic units (Yoshida, 2016, p.95) Next, we identify the dominant stressed syllable in each thought group to reveal the stress pattern For example, in the sentence “Several theories address this issue,” there are three thought groups: (1) “Several theories,” (2) “address,” and (3) “this issue.” In this instance, the stressed syllable “se-” in “several” is articulated with a higher pitch, greater loudness, and longer duration compared to other syllables in that thought group.
In the study of speech patterns, the dominant stressed syllables can significantly affect comprehension For instance, in the word "several," the "se-" syllable carries the primary stress, similar to "ad-" in "address" and "is-" in "issue." When these words are pronounced with incorrect stress patterns, the listener may struggle to understand the intended meaning This example effectively demonstrates how the stress phenomenon can be analyzed using Praat software.
Rhythm is closely linked to the stress pattern in language, as it is perceived through the regular occurrence of a 'foot,' which consists of one stressed syllable followed by unstressed syllables In English, a 'foot' is defined as a group of sounds that includes one stressed syllable up to the next stressed syllable For instance, the sentence “Several theories address this issue” contains four distinct feet.
Several theories address the issue of rhythmic patterns, highlighting that the consistent recurrence of feet at regular intervals, as indicated by the red line, is sufficient to establish an intelligible rhythm Notably, it is not essential for the timing of each foot to be identical, as regularity alone is adequate for creating a coherent rhythmic structure (Grabe & Low, 2008; Low, 2016).
Intonation is a crucial supra-segmental aspect of English, with the tone unit serving as its fundamental building block (Low, 2015) Tone units can be identified through external criteria, such as changes in pitch, pauses, anacrusis, and lengthened final syllables Internally, a tone unit consists of a mandatory nucleus and optional elements including the pre-head, head, and tail The nucleus represents the highest pitch prominence, while the pre-head includes unstressed syllables before the first stressed syllable The head encompasses the first stressed syllable leading up to the nucleus, and the tail contains the syllables following the nucleus For example, in the sentence “Several theories address this issue,” there is no pre-head, and the nucleus is marked by the stressed syllable "Se-."
In the word "several," the highest pitch level occurs at the beginning, leading to a falling intonation throughout the sentence The Praat intonation line, represented by the blue line, confirms this falling pattern Consequently, analyzing the blue line in Praat is sufficient for determining a sentence's intonation.
The data analysis involved utilizing Praat to examine both the model recordings and the participants' recordings Following this analysis, a comparative assessment was conducted to identify differences in the learners' production of suprasegmental features compared to the model speaker's output (Refer to Appendix 10)
Introduction
Background of the study
English is increasingly becoming the dominant language globally, particularly in fields such as science, business, and technology (Halliday, 2006) In many Asian countries, including Vietnam, English is the primary foreign language essential for professional growth, with most jobs requiring English certification and proficiency being a key factor in promotions (Carter, 2001) A 2019 survey by FPT Education revealed that employees who are proficient in English tend to earn higher incomes compared to those who only speak their native language (FPT Education, 2019).
The elevated status of English in Vietnam has significantly enhanced the teaching and learning of the language within the formal education system and beyond On September 30, 2008, the Vietnamese Prime Minister approved Decision No 1400/QD-TTg, which outlines the National Plan for "Teaching and Learning English."
The initiative "Learning Foreign Languages in the National Formal Educational System from 2008 to 2020" aimed to enhance foreign language teaching and learning across the general educational system and to develop language programs for vocational schools, colleges, and universities This initiative, initially set to conclude in 2020, has now been extended to 2025, as confirmed by the Vietnamese government in 2017 Additionally, numerous English centers and foreign joint venture language schools have been established nationwide, contributing to the growth of language education in Vietnam.
The English proficiency of Vietnamese workers is notably low, with only 5% able to communicate fluently in the language (The Nguoi Lao Dong, 2019) This issue can be attributed to a disconnect between English teaching methods and testing practices in Vietnam's educational system While the teaching approach emphasizes communication, assessments tend to prioritize lexico-grammatical knowledge, leading to an overemphasis on grammar, reading, and writing skills at the expense of listening and speaking abilities (Van, 2010; Vu).
In many English classes, the neglect of pronunciation teaching significantly impacts learners' confidence and their ability to improve listening and speaking skills Research indicates that good pronunciation enhances these skills, while poor pronunciation can hinder their development.
In numerous English teaching programs, pronunciation remains an overlooked skill, as highlighted by various studies (Gilakjani et al., 2011; Hismanoglu & Hismanoglu, 2013; Ketabi & Saeb, 2015, as cited in Vu, 2016) Teachers often neglect to prioritize English pronunciation in their instruction (Brown, 1992; Claire, 1993; Fraser, 2000; Yates).
Learning English pronunciation poses significant challenges for learners, particularly in Vietnam, as noted by various researchers (Zielinski, 2009; Pourhosein, 2012; Gilakjani et al., 2011) To improve English communication among Vietnamese workers, it is essential to enhance the teaching and learning of English pronunciation This thesis aims to identify effective approaches to support adult learners in mastering English pronunciation in Vietnam.
Rationale for the study
This study was deemed valuable for three key reasons Firstly, teaching and learning English pronunciation presents significant challenges for Vietnamese speakers (Cunningham, 2009) Despite numerous studies addressing the difficulties faced by Vietnamese individuals in mastering English pronunciation (Nguyen, 2007; Ha, 2007; Lin, 2014; Nguyen, 2015; Vu), there remains a need for further exploration in this area.
Despite limited research on pronunciation training techniques for Vietnamese adult learners, this study investigates the effectiveness of the shadowing exercise as a tool for improving pronunciation Developed by Professor Alexander Arguelles in 1998, shadowing involves learners quickly and accurately repeating what they hear Originally designed for simultaneous interpreter training, this technique has gained recognition as an effective method for enhancing pronunciation skills in Japan and other Asian countries Notably, in 2010, Omar & Umehara demonstrated its success in helping retired Japanese adult learners improve their pronunciation through this exercise.
The 'shadowing' technique is highly effective for Japanese adult learners struggling with English pronunciation, particularly in mastering English rhythms (p 228) As a result, many universities and high schools in Japan have incorporated shadowing into their language programs (Horiyama, 2012) This widespread adoption in Japan highlights the need to explore the application of shadowing in the Vietnamese context.
Previous research on shadowing exercises primarily focused on advanced and intermediate learners, leaving elementary adult learners under-explored This study addresses that gap by examining the effectiveness of shadowing exercises in enhancing pronunciation skills among adult learners at the beginner level of English.
In Vietnam, it has been noted that pronunciation received limited focus in face-to-face classes (Vu, 2016) Additionally, adult learners often navigate complex lives and juggle various roles (Smith & Strong, 2009) As a result, online learning environments are more conducive to the needs of adult learners compared to traditional classroom settings (Cercone).
Despite the limited research on the implementation of shadowing exercises for online pronunciation teaching in Vietnam, this study aims to address that gap, highlighting its significance and potential impact on language education.
Aims of the study
This thesis explores the implementation of the shadowing exercise as a technique for teaching pronunciation to elementary Vietnamese adult learners of English The goal is to provide students with a proven method to enhance their pronunciation independently, outside the formal classroom setting To achieve this, the study aims to assess the effectiveness of the shadowing exercise in improving pronunciation skills, focusing on both segmental and supra-segmental aspects after three months of practice.
Second, this study also aims to develop suitable approaches to effectively use the shadowing exercise to teach pronunciation to elementary Vietnamese adult learners in the online environment
The third objective of this study is to assess learners' perceptions of the effectiveness of the shadowing exercise in enhancing their pronunciation, with the goal of exploring the potential for widespread implementation of this online training method across Vietnam.
Research questions
This study directly aims to find the answers to the following questions:
1 How can shadowing exercises be used to teach pronunciation to elementary Vietnamese adult learners in the online environment?
2 What segmental and supra-segmental features are improved (if any) after three months of shadowing training?
3 What do participants think about the effectiveness of the shadowing exercise in improving their pronunciation?
Scope of the study
This study focused on elementary Vietnamese adult learners of English, addressing a gap in existing research that predominantly involved intermediate or advanced learners To enhance the effectiveness of the online shadowing training course, which lasted three months, the study aimed to help participants develop new pronunciation habits Research indicates that it typically takes at least three months for individuals to establish lasting habits (Lally et al., 2009) Throughout the training, shadowing exercises were the sole practice method employed to ensure the reliability of the collected data.
Significance of the study
This study demonstrates the effectiveness of the shadowing exercise in enhancing adult learners' pronunciation skills It serves as a valuable guideline for Vietnamese teachers and adult learners seeking to utilize shadowing techniques for online English pronunciation improvement.
This study aims to enhance the existing literature on English teaching and learning, specifically focusing on the implementation of the shadowing exercise to improve English pronunciation skills.
Thesis structure
The thesis is structured into five chapters, beginning with Chapter I, which introduces the study's background, rationale, aims, scope, and significance Chapter II reviews relevant literature on teaching English, focusing specifically on pronunciation, spoken English, adult learners, and the shadowing exercise In Chapter III, the methodology, data collection, and analysis procedures are detailed Chapter IV presents and discusses the study's findings, while Chapter V concludes with a summary of key findings, contributions, implications, limitations, and suggestions for future research.
Literature Review
Spoken English and principles of teaching spoken English
Pronunciation plays a crucial role in spoken language (Wei, 2006), making it imperative that English pronunciation instruction aligns with spoken English teaching methods Consequently, this thesis will detail the definitions, characteristics, and principles essential for effectively teaching spoken English.
2.1.1 Definition and characteristics of spoken English
Spoken English refers to the dynamic process of producing and processing the English language during face-to-face interactions, where meaningful sounds are articulated and listened to (Horowitz & Samuels, 1987) This form of communication is characterized by its immediacy, directness, and reliance on context, highlighting the essential role of verbal exchanges in conveying information effectively.
Spoken English possesses six distinctive features that set it apart from written English Firstly, it is time-bound, meaning that the conversation occurs in real-time with participants present only during the interaction Secondly, spoken English is spontaneous, as speakers often think and articulate their thoughts simultaneously Thirdly, it is heavily context-bound, with meanings that may only hold true within the specific speaking context Fourthly, prosodic elements such as intonation, stress, and rhythm are unique to spoken language and absent in written form Fifthly, spoken English tends to be less formal, incorporating fillers, slang, and even swear words that are rarely found in written texts Lastly, it exhibits flexibility, allowing speakers to modify their utterances while speaking.
2.1.2 Principles of teaching spoken English
When teaching spoken English, five key principles should be followed First, it's essential to provide students with understandable model language in meaningful contexts, as this aids in developing productive skills (Green & Oxford, 1995; Tuyet Anh, 2015) Second, ample practice opportunities in meaningful contexts significantly enhance language acquisition and fluency (Nunan, 1999; Geyser, 2006) Third, the focus should be on fluency rather than accuracy, as the goal is to develop communicative competence (Carter & Nunan, 2001; Bian, 2013) Fourth, maintaining student motivation is crucial, as higher motivation leads to increased speaking opportunities in class (Harmer, 2015) Finally, recognizing and accommodating learners' differences allows teachers to create more effective teaching strategies (Kham khien, 2010).
English, once limited to specific countries, has now become a global language, leading to the emergence of various perspectives on its use The three most prominent views are English as an International Language (EIL), World Englishes (WE), and English as a Lingua Franca (EFL) While these paradigms may seem distinct, they support one another (Low, 2016) This section will explore all three perspectives, ultimately selecting the most inclusive viewpoint as the foundation for this thesis.
English is recognized as an international language (EIL) for three key reasons Firstly, it boasts a vast and diverse user base, with nearly 2 billion speakers worldwide, including over 1 billion non-native speakers (Crystal, 2021; McKay, 2012) Secondly, English serves as a crucial medium for communication in multilingual countries (McKay, 2002) Lastly, its capacity for 'acculturation' allows English norms to adapt to the cultural contexts of non-native users (Low, 2016) These factors collectively reinforce the perception of English as an international language, solidifying its status as the predominant paradigm in the field of English teaching (Low, 2016).
Kachru's influential three-circle model of World Englishes, developed in 1985, categorizes English-speaking countries into three groups based on historical context, status, and functions of English The Inner Circle includes countries like the USA, UK, Canada, and Australia, where English is the first language and serves as the 'norm providing' standard for all English users The Outer Circle comprises nations such as Malaysia, Singapore, and India, where English is a second language and is considered 'norm-developing,' allowing users to create their own English norms Lastly, the Expanding Circle consists of countries like China, Japan, and Greece, where English is essential for social development but is learned as a foreign language, making it 'norm dependent' on the standards set by the Inner Circle.
Although the Kachru’s circles model plays an essential part in the view of
WE, it is not synonymous with the WE view itself Bolton (2016 as cited in Low,
The term 'World Englishes' can be understood from two perspectives: a narrow view, which focuses on the study of English as conceptualized by Kachru and his colleagues, and a broader view that encompasses various approaches to English studies globally This wider perspective includes disciplines such as corpus linguistics, sociology of language, dialectology, and research on pidgins and creoles, as well as Kachruvian linguistics, lexicography, critical linguistics, and the emerging field of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) Importantly, the World Englishes paradigm does not contradict the English as an International Language (EIL) paradigm; rather, it complements and enriches it.
The concept of English as a Lingua Franca (EFL) represents a modern approach within the framework of World Englishes (WE), emphasizing its role as a contact language for communication among non-native speakers EFL challenges the traditional notion that only native speakers have the authority to dictate the rules of English usage, reflecting a shift towards a more inclusive understanding of the language's role in global communication.
EIL, WE, and EFL collectively illustrate the global prevalence of English, each offering a unique perspective on its usage and characteristics EIL provides a broad overview, while WE and EFL focus on the specific changes in English across different regions This highlights the importance of English in today's world and challenges the notion that native speakers solely dictate English norms Consequently, this perspective shifts the focus of teaching and learning English pronunciation, with EIL being adopted as the inclusive viewpoint for this study.
Pronunciation
This section delves into the specific aspect of spoken English known as pronunciation, building on the previous discussion of its definition, characteristics, and teaching principles It outlines the definition of pronunciation, its key elements, and the principles for teaching and assessing pronunciation from the perspective of English as an International Language (EIL).
Pronunciation can be understood in two ways: mechanically and functionally Mechanically, it refers to a set of habits in producing sound (Pourhosein, 2012), while functionally, it encompasses the manner in which we articulate words (Yoshida, 2016) and how we generate sounds to convey meaning in speech (Yates &).
Zielinski, 2009, p.11), or a little more specific as ‘the production of sounds, stress patterns, rhythmic structures, and intonations of a language’ (Brown, 2014, p
Pronunciation is fundamentally the "foundation of messaging in speech," as defined by Pennington and Rogerson-Revell (2018), emphasizing that it involves not just sound production but effective communication While various definitions exist, they complement each other, leading to a more comprehensive understanding In this study, pronunciation is defined as "the set of habits of producing sounds, stress patterns, rhythmic structures, and intonations of a language for the communicating purpose."
English pronunciation comprises two key elements: segmental and supra-segmental aspects (Wei, 2006; Pourhosein, 2012) Segmental aspects include the twenty-eight sounds of English, encompassing both consonants and vowels In contrast, supra-segmental aspects involve the musical qualities of language, such as intonation, phrasing, stress, timing, and rhythm Among these, intonation, rhythm, and stress are identified as the three most critical factors that facilitate effective communication (Brown, 2014; Wei, 2006; Low, 2016; Yoshida, 2016; Pennington and Rogerson-Revell, 2018) Consequently, this study will focus exclusively on researching intonation, rhythm, and stress as the primary supra-segmental aspects.
2.2.1.1 Segmental aspects of English pronunciation
English speech sounds are categorized into vowels and consonants based on the flow characteristics of the airstream According to Low (2015), all English sounds originate from the lungs and are produced during exhalation She provides a clear classification of these speech sounds.
Vowels are sounds created when air flows freely from the larynx to the lips, and in English, there are 20 distinct vowel sounds, including 12 single vowels and 8 diphthongs The production of these vowels can be altered by adjusting the position of the jaws, tongue, and lips Therefore, it is essential to describe vowels not only by their length and voice quality but also by the specific positions of the mouth, tongue, and lips.
Figure 2.1 (Low, 2016, p.33) provides a comprehensive overview of vowel classification by detailing the 12 single vowels based on mouth position, tongue position, lip position, and duration of production.
Figure 2.1 Vowels quadrilateral showing the 12 monophthongs found in English
The production of vowels involves three distinct mouth positions: closed, middle, and fully open For instance, the /i:/ sound is articulated with the lips nearly together, indicating a closed position In contrast, the /ɒ/ sound is produced with the lips wide apart, representing a fully open position The /e/ sound is generated with the lips in a relaxed, half-open state, corresponding to the neutral or middle position of the mouth.
Tongue position is described by its horizontal and vertical placement, indicating how far forward or backward it is and how close it is to the roof of the mouth For instance, the vowel sound /i:/ is articulated with the tongue raised high and moved forward, while the vowel sound /ɒ/ is produced with the tongue positioned low and moved backward.
Vowel sounds in English can be categorized based on lip position, specifically rounded or unrounded Notably, there are four vowel sounds that are articulated with rounded lips: /u:/, /ʊ/, /ɔː/, and /ɒ/.
Vowels can be categorized based on their production length as short or long, with phoneticians often using the terms 'tense' for long vowels and 'lax' for short vowels These terms reflect the muscle strength needed to produce long vowels, which typically require more energy than their short counterparts In transcription, long vowels are denoted with a colon, such as /i:/, while short vowels lack this notation, like /ɪ/ Generally, long vowels are pronounced for a longer duration than short vowels However, vowel length can be influenced by stress; short vowels may sound longer in stressed syllables, whereas long vowels may appear shorter in unstressed syllables.
The vowel quadrilateral includes an important feature: the consistency of a vowel's quality, which helps classify vowels as monophthongs or diphthongs Monophthongs maintain the same quality throughout their pronunciation, while diphthongs exhibit a change in quality, represented by two symbols in their transcription Diphthongs begin with one vowel sound and glide into another, but they are perceived as a single phoneme rather than two distinct sounds When pronouncing diphthongs, emphasis is placed on the first vowel, which can lead to confusion for learners who may only articulate the initial part of the diphthong.
The table 2.1 below (as mentioned in Yates & Zielinski, 2009, p 58) shows the 8 diphthongs found in English
Table 2.1 The eight diphthongs found in English
/ə/ + / ʊ/ /əʊ/ (as in phone) /ɔ/ + /ɪ/ / ɔɪ/
/a/ + / ʊ/ /aʊ/ (as in loud) /a/ + /ɪ/ /aɪ/
Consonants are sounds created when airflow is obstructed by various articulators To classify a consonant, we typically use a three-part label that outlines its key features: voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation.
Regarding the voicing, consonants are classified into voiced and voiceless
A consonant produced when the vocal folds vibrate is called voiced consonant, otherwise it is a voiceless one In English, there are sixteen voiced consonants and ten voiceless ones
Consonants are categorized not only by their voicing but also by the location of airflow obstruction, known as the place of articulation According to Cruttenden (2008, pp 26–27), consonants can be classified based on their specific place of articulation.
- Bilablial consonants: consonants made when the two lips coming together For examples: /p, b, m/
- Labiodental consonants: consonants produced with lower lip coming into contact with the upper front teeth, like /f/ and /v/
- Dental consonants: consonants pronounced when the tongue tip or blade touches the upper front teeth Examples: /θ/ and /ð/
- Alveolar consonants: consonants made when the tongue tip or blade touches the alveolar ridge Examples: /t, d, s, z/
Palato-alveolar consonants are produced when the tongue blade makes contact with the back of the alveolar ridge, just behind it, approaching the hard palate Notable examples of these consonants include /ʃ/ and /dʒ/.
- Palatal consonants: consonant produced when the front of the tongue articulates with the hard palate Example: /j/
- Velar consonants: consonants created when the back of the tongue touches the soft palate Examples: /k/ and /g/
- Glottal consonant: consonant produced when an obstruction or narrowing of the articulators causing the back of the tongue to come into contact with the glottis Example: /h/
Adult learners
This section shifts focus to adult learners, a crucial aspect of this study It will first define who adult learners are, highlight their characteristics, and discuss how these traits influence the design of online courses Subsequently, it will address the challenges they face in learning pronunciation and propose effective principles and approaches for teaching pronunciation Finally, the section will conclude by examining the unique pronunciation features specific to Vietnamese adult learners, who are the subjects of this research.
Adults are often described as experienced individuals who navigate complex lives and fulfill various roles (Smith & Strong, 2009) The term "adult learners" refers specifically to individuals aged 25 and older, distinguishing them from younger learners These adult learners come from diverse educational and cultural backgrounds and possess a wealth of responsibilities and job experiences (Southern Regional Educational Board, 2015).
Adult learners, typically individuals of working age or older, play diverse roles in society While this definition may appear broad, it effectively encompasses the demographic traits relevant to this study To provide a clearer understanding of adult learners, the following section will explore their psychological characteristics and the implications of these traits for designing effective online courses.
2.3.2 Characteristics of adult learners and implications for online learning design
This section highlights the key characteristics of adult learners and offers practical suggestions for incorporating these traits into online course design The study emphasizes the importance of understanding these features, as the data collection phase is conducted through an online training course.
Adult language learners exhibit distinct strengths and weaknesses compared to younger learners They are often highly self-motivated and goal-oriented, enabling them to focus and persist towards their objectives (Collins, 2004) Additionally, their wealth of real-life experiences can facilitate faster learning of new concepts (Smith & Strong, 2009) However, adult learners may face challenges such as a fear of losing face, making them more hesitant to embrace new ideas and risk making mistakes (Cercone, 2008) Furthermore, age-related memory decline can also impede their ability to acquire new knowledge (Cercone, 2008).
According to Collin (2004), Cercone (2008), and Smith and Strong (2009), effective online course design for adult learners should incorporate several key characteristics Cercone emphasizes the importance of using large, easy-to-read fonts in clear, bold colors, as well as incorporating a variety of graphics, images, and tables to enhance information presentation Additionally, information should be chunked into manageable segments of 5-9 bits to facilitate better retention among adult learners.
To effectively cater to adult learners, it's crucial to acknowledge the diverse individual differences within any group Personalizing learning experiences is essential, which requires online course instructors to implement several strategies: allowing students to progress at their own pace to fully master the content, enabling them to revisit previous lessons at their convenience, and providing access to a broad range of web resources for enhanced learning opportunities (Cercone, 2008).
Active involvement in the learning process is essential for adult learners to enhance their understanding of knowledge Therefore, online course instructors should encourage learners to establish their own learning objectives, engage in analysis, synthesis, and problem-solving, and promote self-reflection through activities such as journaling or maintaining reflection logs (Collin, 2004).
Scaffolding is essential for adult learners, enabling them to engage in activities they cannot accomplish independently Teachers should offer support through coaching or study teams, provide models of best practice behavior for comparison, and supply resources to aid students in completing tasks (Cercone, 2008).
Before starting a course, conducting a needs assessment and a student self-assessment is essential (Smith & Strong, 2009) Additionally, teachers should familiarize themselves with students' personal and professional backgrounds, enhance interaction with learners throughout the course, and offer regular feedback (Cercone, 2008, p.139).
It is crucial for learners to understand their learning objectives both prior to and during the course to effectively guide their own educational journey (Collins, 2004) This awareness ensures that the learning experience is directly aligned with their specific concerns and interests.
Adult learners are often self-motivated, so it is essential for teachers to clarify the relevance of the skills and knowledge being taught, as well as their practical benefits Incorporating real-life examples when introducing new concepts is highly recommended, as it encourages students to integrate their newly acquired knowledge into both their professional and personal lives (Smith & Strong, 2009).
Adult learning thrives in a supportive, collaborative, and respectful environment It is essential to treat all learners equally during the educational process, fostering social interactions and collaborative activities Creating a safe and comfortable space allows learners to express themselves freely and feel respected (Cercone, 2008).
2.3.3 Teaching pronunciation to adult learners
In addition to implementing Celce-Murcia et al.'s (2010) five-step communicative framework for teaching pronunciation, the researcher has also integrated the principles and approaches tailored for adult learners as suggested by Yates and Zielinski.
This study combines the general framework proposed by Celce-Muricia et al (2010) for teaching pronunciation across all age groups with the specialized principles and approaches of Yates and Zielinski (2009), which focus on adult learners By employing Yates and Zielinski’s methods, the research aims to adapt Celce-Muricia et al.’s framework specifically for effective pronunciation instruction tailored to adult learners.
2.3.3.1 Principles of teaching pronunciation to adult learners
Shadowing exercises
This section provides a comprehensive overview of the shadowing exercise, including its definition, usage, and proper working procedures Additionally, it explores the application of shadowing in teaching pronunciation to adult learners, aligning with the previously discussed frameworks, principles, and approaches.
2.4.1 What is the shadowing exercise?
Shadowing is a language learning technique introduced by Professor Alexander Arguelles in 1998, where learners listen to and imitate speakers from short video clips or audio recordings This method involves repeating the lines of dialogue alongside the characters, enhancing both listening and speaking skills Originally utilized for training simultaneous interpreters, shadowing has gained popularity as an effective tool for language acquisition and pronunciation practice across various countries.
2018), especially in Asian ones (Hamada, 2021)
In order to distinguish between Shadowing and Repeating exercise which is also widely used in teaching pronunciation, Hamada (2021) created two illustrations representing the basic differences between the two
(1) Shadowing is not as easy as it seems
(2) Shadowing is not as easy as it seems
Figure 2.2 An illustration of shadowing
(1) Shadowing is not as easy (2) Shadowing is not as easy
Figure 2.3 An illustration of repeating exercise
Figure 2.2 illustrates that students begin to repeat the first word immediately upon hearing it and continue this repetition throughout the text In contrast, Figure 2.3 indicates that students only start to repeat the words after the sound stimulus has ceased following each chunk (Hamada, 2021).
2.4.2 The shadowing exercise in English language teaching
Recent studies have highlighted the effectiveness of the shadowing exercise in English language teaching, demonstrating its positive impact on learners' overall language skills, including listening, reading, and speaking (Chung, 2017; Iwamuro et al., 2015).
Practicing shadowing exercises significantly enhances English learners' pronunciation, particularly in articulating sounds more clearly (Hamada, 2021) Research indicates that shadowing can improve supra-segmental features such as intonation (Iwamuro et al., 2015; Someya, 2019) and rhythm (Okada, 2002; Omar & Umehara, 2010) However, it is important to note that shadowing alone cannot transform a non-native speaker into a fluent speaker without an accent, as demonstrated by Foote and McDonough's (2017) study, which showed improvements in comprehensibility and fluency but no change in accentedness after eight weeks of practice Despite this limitation, shadowing remains a valuable tool for enhancing pronunciation and developing essential language skills like listening, speaking, and reading.
2.4.3 Ways to use shadowing exercises in pronunciation teaching
Yoshida (2016) suggested one way that teachers can use shadowing exercise to teach pronunciation This procedure includes nine steps:
Step 1: Find a short film clip (less than two minutes) with a simple, natural- sounding, self- contained conversation, then, find or write transcript for the clip
Step 2: Give students some clues about what’s happening in the scene Don’t just jump into the video because students need to understand what is being presented
Step 3: Play the clip For the first time, the students should just watch and get the general idea of the dialog, the characters and the situation
Step 4: Show the students the transcript, then go over any unfamiliar words and expressions Talk about what’s happening and make sure the students understand the dialog
Step 5: Watch the clip again This time, give students something specific to listen to, for example, the pauses, the intonation, linking sounds, etc.—and have them mark that feature on the script It works best if the students have a specific focus Teachers should not expect students to notice everything at once
If there’s time, play the clip again
Step 6: Have the students compare their markings with a partner, then talk together as a class about what they found and why it sounded that way (For example, they might find that a speaker’s intonation on a WH- question went up instead of down because she was asking the question for the second time because he didn’t hear the man’s answer for the first time
Step 7: Have students practice reading the conversation with a partner, encourage them to try to say it just the way the characters in the video did, with the same pauses, intonation, and emotions, etc
Step 8: Play the clip again and ask the students to try to read the dialog along with the characters in the film This will work best if the characters are speaking slowly Teacher should let the students do this exercise again if there is time Step 9: Review the conversation in a later class by practicing it again
Yoshida's (2016) shadowing practice procedure offers clear and detailed guidance aligned with effective pronunciation teaching principles for adult learners However, its focus on face-to-face classes makes it less suitable for this study, which targets an online learning environment Consequently, the study also considers Kadota and Tamai's (2004) six-step shadowing practice procedure, illustrated in Table 2.3 below.
Table 2.3 Six Steps of Shadowing Training for Beginners
1 Listening Listening to the audio without the script, and trying to roughly grasp the content and the speech style
2 Mumbling Shadowing without the script focusing on the heard sound rather than reproducing pronunciation
Shadowing with the script focusing on the meaning of the script
4 Prosody Shadowing Shadowing focusing on prosodic features, such as the stress, rhythm, intonation, speed, pause, etc
Shadowing with the script focusing on the parts listeners find difficult
6 Content Shadowing Shadowing focusing on the content without reading the script
The shadowing procedure is particularly suited for online training courses due to its emphasis on learner autonomy However, Yates and Zielinski (2009) highlight that adult learners require focused support and instruction, making this approach challenging for beginners To address this issue, the researcher has integrated two recommended procedures to develop a more effective shadowing method for the study's participants.
Table 2.4 Tailored Six Steps of Shadowing Training for Elementary Adult learners
Listening to the audio without the scripts and trying to get the general idea of the audio (who is the speaker(s); the situation, and general meaning of the audio)
To enhance comprehension of the audio, revisit it while following along with the scripts Take the time to research unfamiliar words and their pronunciations, ensuring that the learner fully grasps the audio content and is familiar with the correct pronunciation of each term.
3 Listening for supra-segmental features
Listening again and mark pauses/ intonation/ linking, etc., (depending on learner’s problems) on their script
Reading the scripts out loud along with the audio, focusing on the parts learners find difficult
Shadowing and mumbling along the audio without the scripts, focusing on target sounds or supra-segmental features being practiced
Shadowing along the audio without the scripts, trying to imitate and sounding as exact like the audio as possible
In this customized approach, students have the opportunity to listen to model audio at least three times before engaging in shadowing, focusing on specific pronunciation features during each session This method enhances their awareness of these features, gradually integrating them into their language skills (Yoshida, 2016) Additionally, research indicates that speech habits in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) are developed through both conscious linguistic knowledge and repetitive, intentional practice (Lally et al., 2009) Consequently, following the focused listening sessions, learners can apply their newly acquired knowledge through practical exercises in the final three steps of the procedure.
When selecting material for shadowing practice, it is essential to consider four key aspects: the length of the material, the genre or type, the difficulty level, and the playing speed These factors play a crucial role in ensuring effective and engaging shadowing sessions.
To enhance learning, it is essential for students to listen to the model at least three times before engaging in practice, making short clips of less than two minutes particularly effective (Yoshida, 2016).
Chapter summary
This chapter has extensively reviewed literature on spoken English, pronunciation, adult learners, and shadowing exercises, establishing English as an International Language (EIL) as the primary focus of the study It emphasizes a shift in English and pronunciation teaching from achieving native-like competence to fostering intelligible competence The chapter highlights key pronunciation elements, teaching frameworks, principles, and approaches designed to assist adult learners in developing clearer pronunciation Additionally, it outlines the characteristics of adult learners and the shadowing procedure they can employ to reach their intelligibility goals.
This chapter identifies three significant gaps that the study aims to address: first, while the effectiveness of the shadowing exercise has been primarily examined in face-to-face classes, research in online environments remains limited Second, previous studies predominantly focused on advanced or intermediate language learners, with little attention given to elementary language learners, particularly adults Lastly, earlier research has emphasized concrete results regarding the effectiveness of shadowing, often neglecting learners' perspectives on its impact.
Building on the theoretical framework established in this chapter, the upcoming section will provide a detailed discussion on the selection of research methods, the research subjects, and the procedures for data collection and analysis.