INTRODUCTION
Background of the study
Disfluencies are common in human speech, as noted by Clark (2002), and can indicate when a speaker is struggling Gile (2009) highlights that many student interpreters fail their professional tests due to insufficient proficiency in their working languages rather than a lack of interpreting skills This challenge affects both interpretation and speech production, making fluency crucial for ensuring high-quality message delivery from source to target language Target-text fluency is also vital, as listeners often assess the interpretation's quality based on performance rather than direct comparisons with the source text Speech production involves complex processes that require smooth execution at multiple levels, yet disfluencies, defined by Fraundorf et al (2018) as disruptions in speech flow, are inevitable While some studies suggest that disfluencies can aid comprehension, many student interpreters struggle with pauses that may hinder their performance Tree (1995) found that about 6% of spoken words are affected by disfluencies, which are prevalent across languages, including sign language This research aims to explore the timing of pauses when interpreting between English and Vietnamese and understand the reasons behind students' hesitations, ultimately helping them refine their real-time interpretation skills.
Rationale
As an interpreting student, I understand the critical importance of recognizing the reasons behind pauses during interpretation Many interpreters, including myself, have experienced moments that required us to stop, yet numerous individuals struggle to articulate their justifications for these pauses This lack of awareness often stems from insufficient attention and research on the subject, highlighting the need for greater understanding among both students and professionals in the field.
I, much like others, had little or no knowledge about pauses initially Yet, after carrying out a lot of research on the subject, I discovered a considerable amount of novel and insightful findings, and thus I wanted others to learn more about pauses also Others picked up on this knowledge and employed it to dispel their grave reservations regarding pauses and interpretation Another significance to enhancing our understanding of pauses is that if interpreters can eventually grasp the concept of pauses in interpreting, they will be more likely to manipulate and exploit them to their advantage.
My research aims to identify the causes of the pausal phenomenon in interpretation and provide valuable insights for both novice and experienced interpreters These findings will support individuals looking to enhance their skills and credentials in the interpreting field Additionally, I seek to contribute to the limited reference material on pauses in interpretation, which has not received significant attention This study will also explore the perceptions of HUFLIS students regarding pauses, and I anticipate that the results will generate new data for future research, highlighting the necessity for a more detailed discussion on this topic.
Aims of the study
This study aims to explore the time variations in pauses when interpreting between English and Vietnamese, as well as to identify the factors contributing to students' hesitations during their performance By understanding the reasons behind these pauses, the hope is that students will improve their real-time interpreting skills.
This study seeks to answer two research questions:
1 What are the differences between student interpreters' pauses and hesitations when they interpret from Vietnamese into English versus from English into Vietnamese?
2 What are the causes of students ' pauses and hesitations when conducting
Scope of the study
This study, conducted at the University of Foreign Languages and International Studies, examines the frequency of pauses in interpretation among 35 senior students specializing in this field It aims to identify the factors contributing to these pauses and provides insights into the reasons behind them.
Significance of the study
This study on pauses as disfluencies provides valuable insights into their occurrence and impact on performance, which could lead to a sustained competitive advantage in the field of interpretation Understanding the nuances of pauses will enhance our ability to navigate and improve communication effectiveness.
This study aims to enhance the skills of both novice and experienced interpreters by offering insights into producing higher-quality interpretations Additionally, it will explore previously overlooked aspects of interpretation, allowing student interpreters to better understand the role of pauses and how to effectively manage them during their work.
Additionally, the overview presented in this research will push for a fresh
Thesis Overview
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION This chapter provides the background of the study, rationale, aims of the study, research questions, scope of the study, significance of the study and the overall structure of the study.
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter discusses consecutive interpreting, definition of pauses, impacts of pauses and explanations for pauses. Chapter 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This chapter describes the methodology used in this study, consisting of subject selection, data acquisition method and data analysis method.
Chapter 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION This chapter will give a thorough discussion of the pauses' frequency, length characteristics, and the reasons behind them.
Chapter 5: CONCLUSION This chapter will include responses to the study's research questions Pedagogical implications, limitations, and suggestions for further research are also included.
LITERATURE REVIEW
What is consecutive interpreting
Consecutive interpreting (CI), as defined by Russell (2005), occurs when an interpreter conveys the spoken message in the target language after the speaker pauses During this process, the interpreter takes notes on what the speaker communicates, typically using a pen and notebook while seated close to the speaker This method allows for accurate oral translation immediately following segments of speech.
CI, or Consecutive Interpretation, involves a comprehensive process that can be divided into stages According to Dam (1993), these stages include reception, where the interpreter listens to the original speech, and production, where the interpreter conveys the message in the target language Alternatively, Jones (1998) identifies four stages: hearing, comprehending, assessing, and reexpressing This process is a form of verbal communication, where the interpreter listens to the source language input and accurately recalls it in another language Furthermore, interpreters often process the source language information in parallel, which enhances their ability to retain details and improves their performance in tasks that require verbal working memory (Dong and Lin, 2013).
Consecutive interpreting, as defined by Gile (1995), involves two key stages: comprehension, which includes listening and note-taking, and speech creation, or reformulation Additionally, Weihe (2007) emphasizes that successful consecutive interpreting demands a range of skills, such as short-term memory, effective note-taking, topic identification, the ability to rearrange information in the target language, and the capability to address a public audience.
Consecutive Interpretation (CI) occurs when an individual with limited English proficiency speaks, and the interpreter subsequently conveys the message to the English speaker This process involves pauses between each party's remarks, allowing the interpreter to listen before interpreting For longer speeches, interpreters take systematic notes to ensure accuracy, while brief passages can be interpreted with or without notes, depending on the interpreter's discretion (Pửchhacker 2016).
What are pauses in consecutive interpreting?
Research has significantly advanced the understanding of pauses in interpreting, highlighting a variety of studies focused on disfluencies in both novice and professional interpreters However, a unified definition of "pause" remains elusive Hargrove and McGarr (1994) describe pauses as periods without acoustic signal lasting at least 200-270 milliseconds, while Simone (1990) characterizes them as variable-length gaps between linguistic units, akin to suprasegmental components Furthermore, Gósy (2007) defines pauses as interruptions in speech flow that do not add propositional meaning to an utterance.
Disfluencies are defined as pauses that occur during speech execution (Postma et al., 1990) These disfluencies can appear in target language output, reflecting a type of linguistic production According to Chu (2017), fluency in language is characterized by a smooth, rapid, and uninterrupted flow of speech.
Cenkova (2014) defines pauses as interruptions in speech flow, marked by notable changes in intonation and rhythm, which are perceived similarly by both interpreters and listeners Stuckenberg and O'Connell (1988) categorize pauses as disturbances in speech flow, while Hargrove and McGarr (1994) specify that pauses last at least 200-270 milliseconds without an auditory signal Additionally, Hieke (1981) examines pauses in speech production, highlighting hesitations as essential for effective communication.
In the 1950s, Godman-Eisler conducted research on speech production, distinguishing between two types of pauses: breathing pauses, which occur due to the speaker's need for breath, and hesitation pauses, which arise from the cognitive effort required for language formulation.
Pauses in speech can be categorized into two main types: filled pauses (FP) and unfilled pauses (UP) This classification, first introduced by Maclay and Osgood in 1959, has influenced extensive research in the field Similarly, Mead (2000) identifies quiet and filled pauses as the most common forms, while Cecot (2001) supports this classification by affirming the existence of FP and UP.
Nonetheless, research shows that there are additional varieties, as Simone
In 1990, it was proposed that hesitation pauses, which occur at non-grammatical junctures, can be classified into filled and unfilled pauses Additionally, Simone suggested two further categories: individual pauses, which are infrequent silent intervals driven by communicative intent or external factors, and functional pauses, which occur at grammatical boundaries, such as between words and sentences.
In his 1982 study, Duez analyzes silent and non-silent pauses in various speech contexts, including political and casual interviews as well as meticulously planned speeches He categorizes pauses into silent, filled, false starts, repetitions, prolonged syllables, and articulated sequences, highlighting their role in directing audience attention While filled pauses often indicate reluctance, the reasons for silence are varied, aligning with Grosjean's (1980) view on discourse organization, the speaker's physiological needs, and perceptual processes Additionally, pauses associated with disruptions or disfluency are linked to their placement and occurrence in multiple interpretations, as noted by Pradas Macías.
Research indicates that pauses in speech, particularly those lasting over 2 seconds, are significant for communication Filled pauses, such as "uh" and "um," suggest to listeners that the speaker has more to say and are often associated with hesitation during decision-making (Finlayson & Corley, 2012) In contrast, silent pauses, which can occur without verbal fillers, represent any interruption in speech flow and can be caused by various factors (Pradas Macas, 2006).
Fang and Zhang (2021) investigated long pauses of 5 seconds or more, analyzing their grammatical context Their findings revealed that these extended silences were more common at grammatical junctures compared to non-grammatical points Participants who paused for an extended period were often taking extra time to consider the translation of the subsequent clause or sentence.
2.2.3 Impacts of pauses on interpreting performance
Whether the use of pauses serves is purposeful and serves any communicative purpose remains unanswered and uncertain.
The perception of pauses and their impact on interpreting performance varies among professionals in the field Fluency is crucial for assessing interpretation quality, as research highlights its significance in natural speech However, excessive disfluencies can harm speech fluency and potentially hinder language comprehension.
According to Goldman-Eisler (1958), silent pauses during speech enhance comprehension by allowing listeners to acquire information, as it becomes more difficult to anticipate initial words after a pause Hargrove and McGarr (1994) further emphasize that pauses help in structuring discourse and highlight key information within a sentence Research by Tissi (2000) supports this notion, indicating that pauses significantly clarify and make the speaker's message more intelligible to the audience.
Clark and Tree (2002) detail how filled pauses in English align with phonology, prosody, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics These pauses serve various interpersonal functions, categorizing them as interjections alongside expressions like "ah" and "oh." Additionally, the research by Arnold et al supports these findings.
Disfluencies, such as fillers like "uh," can significantly influence the understanding process in spoken communication, as suggested by research from 2004 and 2007 These verbal pauses signal reluctance and enable listeners to make informed predictions about upcoming statements.
Brennan and Williams (1995) highlight that listeners are highly sensitive to the use of fillers in speech They tend to perceive speakers as less confident when there is a pause before an answer, regardless of whether a filler is used This evaluation is primarily influenced by the fluency of the speaker's performance.
Speakers may not always use disfluencies intentionally for communication, as these speech interruptions can also arise from delays in speech planning While listeners might interpret these disfluencies in a way that aids understanding, the claim that they are used purposefully is difficult to verify According to Finlayson and Corley (2012), this assertion remains largely accepted, not necessarily because it is accurate, but due to the challenges in confirming it Additionally, Clark and Wasaw (1998) suggest that pauses can hinder the fluency of spontaneous speech.
What makes interpreters pause during their CI performance?
The reasons why pauses occur in interpretation may vary Previous studies have examined the reasons for pauses in consecutive and simultaneous interpreting.
In 1974, Baddeley and Hitch redefined short-term memory by introducing the concept of working memory (WM), emphasizing its role as a cognitive component that integrates storage, processing, and executive control WM is essential for higher-level cognitive tasks, including language processing and production, as it enables the brain to sequentially manipulate information while managing complex cognitive activities Essentially, working memory allows individuals to retain and process specific data relevant to their current tasks.
Note-taking is essential for interpreters in both professional and academic contexts, as it enhances their ability to deliver accurate interpretations Effective note-taking involves capturing key concepts and relationships, which supports memory retention for subsequent discourse A well-structured note-taking system enables interpreters to analyze the source speech more effectively, leading to improved short-term memory processes By providing a clear framework of the original speech or ideas, notes help organize thoughts rather than presenting them as a disorganized collection of information (Gillies, 2017).
Interpreting, whether consecutive or simultaneous, inherently involves anxiety, with experts noting that managing stress is crucial for effective performance The complexity of interpreting tasks demands significant cognitive and psychomotor skills, making it a challenging endeavor Research indicates that non-cognitive factors, such as the emotional state of interpreters, can negatively impact their cognitive abilities, particularly when interpreting from a foreign language (Luck & Vogel, 2013) Consequently, anxiety is a common experience among students, often leading to less fluent interpretations, even in their native language Evidence further supports that the act of interpreting induces worry and tension in interpreters (Kurz, 2003).
Anxiety significantly affects fluency in target language delivery during interpreting, as outlined by the attentional control hypothesis (Eysenck et al., 2007), which explores the relationship between anxiety and cognitive function This connection is crucial, given that interpreting is recognized as a highly anxiety-inducing task, as noted by Jimenez and Pinazo (2001).
Anxiety significantly impacts various cognitive functions such as memory, concentration, and critical thinking, making it challenging for students to process information and recall essential knowledge Many students report experiencing fears related to mispronunciation, misinterpretation, and judgment, which heighten their anxiety during interpretation tasks This anxiety often leads to difficulty focusing and can result in prolonged pauses, even when students are well-prepared Research has consistently highlighted anxiety as a critical factor affecting second language acquisition and interpretation performance, demonstrating that excessive worry can hinder these skills.
2.3.4 Unfamiliar vocabulary in source speech
He (2007) identified several factors contributing to filled pauses in sequential interpreting, including high information density, unfamiliar proper nouns, grammatical differences between the source text (ST) and target text (TT), and external distractions like noise or poor speaker English Similarly, Cecot (2001) attributed pauses to the interpreter's lexical and syntactic on-line planning and comprehension difficulties This complexity makes it challenging for interpreters to differentiate between the causes of hesitations Additionally, research shows that the reorganization of the ST structure during interpreting leads to increased disfluencies, particularly when dealing with complex lexical choices (Schachter et al., 1991) Such disfluencies are more likely to occur before words that have low contextual likelihood (Beattie & Butterworth, 1979).
Previous studies on pauses in interpreting
2.4.1 Previous studies on pauses in interpreting
Mead's study involved 15 final-year students at S.S.Li.M.I.T., Forlì, all native Italian speakers, who recorded two consecutive interpretations—one in Italian and one in English—using the same conference recordings Participants received a briefing on the texts before listening, and after each interpretation, they provided explanations for their hesitations while their pause times were individually measured The results indicated that pausing constituted a significant portion of total speaking time, with English displaying a higher frequency of both filled and total pauses compared to Italian, supporting the idea that fluency is greater in the A language (Italian) than in the B language (English) Notably, filled pauses were more common than silent pauses, and the explanations for hesitations were categorized into formulation, notes, logic, no reason, and others.
In a 2011 study by Toth, seven trainee interpreters and seven freelance conference interpreters were analyzed, focusing on Hungarian as their A language and English as their B language The trainees interpreted a five-minute English text into Hungarian, while the professionals rendered the same text, with both outputs recorded and transcribed The study found that restarts were the most common disfluency among trainee interpreters, followed by prolongations and false word activations In contrast, professional interpreters exhibited prolongations as the most frequent disfluency, followed by restarts and false word activations Overall, disfluencies were primarily caused by restarts and repeats, with similar patterns observed in both spontaneous speech and simultaneous interpretation (SI) The analysis highlighted that the highest occurrences of disfluencies were linked to issues of lexical access, false word activations, and a mismatch between lexical access and articulatory planning, while environmental factors, mental energy, and ear-voice span contributed to restarts and lengthenings in simultaneous interpreting.
Zhao (2022) conducted a study involving 53 senior interpreting and translation majors, primarily female, who were native Mandarin speakers and had learned English since elementary school The research aimed to examine how cognitive traits, including language proficiency, working memory, and anxiety levels, influenced speech disfluencies during target language delivery Participants underwent four tests: a Language Proficiency Test assessing Listening, Reading, and Writing skills; a Working Memory Test requiring sentence construction from a list of Chinese words; an Anxiety Questionnaire measuring self-efficacy anxiety and state-trait fear; and an Interpreting Test where their responses were recorded and evaluated by professional interpreters The findings indicated that higher disfluency rates correlated with poorer interpretation performance, highlighting the impact of cognitive factors on interpreting skills.
Michela Cecot (2001) investigated the significance of pauses in simultaneous interpreting, focusing on its oral component The study involved 11 professional Italian interpreters, some of whom spoke English as their B or C language, tasked with interpreting two English texts into Italian These texts were read by a native English speaker at varying speech rates to analyze pause occurrences in both source and target texts The research documented and categorized differences in pause duration and function based on existing psycholinguistic and rhetorical literature After the interpretation, the interpreters responded to questions regarding the role of pauses.
Interpreters often mirror the speaker's pattern of unfilled pauses, leading to disfluencies in simultaneous interpretation caused by the challenges of on-line planning and time constraints Research indicates that women exhibit a higher frequency of disfluencies compared to men, largely due to their faster speech rates, which result in shorter pauses and increased disfluency occurrences To enhance comprehension, interpreters should cultivate public speaking skills that help manage breathing pauses, minimize audible breathing, and synchronize silent breathing with syntactic boundaries.
Fang and Wang (2022) conducted a study in which the duration of the interpreting training at an Australian university was the criterion used to split the
The study involved 20 postgraduate student interpreters divided into two groups: Group A consisted of ten novice interpreters with two and a half months of training in Mandarin/English interpreting, while Group B included ten advanced interpreters who had undergone one and a half years of postgraduate instruction Gender and age were not considered in the selection process, but a high level of English proficiency was essential for participation.
Participants engaged in an English vocabulary exam, completed three English-to-Mandarin ST activities, and took part in a retrospective interview following each ST task A brief break was provided after each interview, and data were collected on an individual basis during each session.
This study explored the strategies used by student interpreters when encountering unfamiliar English words To minimize errors in their target language output, both first-year and advanced interpreters sometimes opted for omission of unknown terms The research indicated that first-year interpreters achieved a high accuracy rate when they made inferences based on various knowledge cues.
Overall, given that these studies have provided many unique ways to investigate and employ pauses and have provided highly insightful results concerning pause and fluency.
Despite the promising findings from previous studies, significant gaps remain in the research Firstly, there is a lack of investigation specifically focusing on the relationship between pauses and dysfluency Secondly, the existing studies have not explored the underlying reasons for the pauses made by students or test-takers.
METHODOLOGY
Research Context and Participants
The study involved 35 senior interpreting majors from the University of Foreign Languages and International Studies at Hue University, each having completed a minimum of five interpreting courses prior to the assessment of their performances The interpreted speeches analyzed in this research were derived from their sixth course, "Basic Skills in Consecutive Interpreting." All participants are native Vietnamese speakers with English as their second language.
Research instruments
3.2.1 Students' recorded speeches in consecutive interpreting
Analyzing organically occurring social interactions captured through audio requires conducting the analysis in the same medium This process is inherently time-consuming and complex due to the large volumes of data involved Direct analysis from audio recordings allows researchers to code data straight from the raw voice tapes, enabling them to account for important vocal elements such as intonation, loudness, and speed Utilizing audio-editing software facilitates the selection and coding of specific segments for further analysis, enhancing the overall research quality.
Flip, previously known as Flipgrid, is an engaging video-based application designed to foster dialogue across digital platforms, making it an ideal tool for classroom interaction.
Setting up and utilizing Flip is a rather simple procedure A teacher may easily sign up using a Microsoft or Google account by visiting Flip (opens in a new tab).
To initiate a Topic, click on "Add a Topic" and assign it a title Next, incorporate a video, such as a YouTube clip, and include a "Prompt" that outlines the situation and the expected response If the lecturer wants students to join using usernames rather than email addresses, input their emails accordingly This can be done by adding each student and providing them with the necessary link and code, along with a password if needed.
After clicking "Create Topic," one will be presented with a shareable link that one can copy and quickly select the platform to which it will automatically distribute the content.
Upon logging in, students can access the Topic to view the video and submit their responses using their "myjoincode." The video responses will then appear on the website below the initial Topic Prompt Other students can comment on these responses using text, with permissions set and managed by the instructor as desired.
Allowing students to respond to questions without standing in front of the group can significantly increase their engagement Teachers can assess these video-based answers at their convenience, enabling them to rewatch the content and better understand how to assist each student without requiring them to repeat their responses in front of classmates.
Using this tool for assessment is straightforward and adaptable for educators, promoting student reflection and self-evaluation It enhances students' digital literacy skills and encourages them to express their thoughts more openly.
This valuable educational tool enables repeated recording of films, allowing nervous children who may feel excluded in class to engage in learning activities By providing them with the necessary time and space to respond at their own pace, it fosters their participation and confidence in the classroom.
Interviews serve as a flexible data-gathering method where two individuals engage in a discussion about a specific topic, enabling deeper exploration of concepts and responses According to Merriam and Tisdell (2015), qualitative design can significantly enhance researchers' understanding by providing valuable insights from diverse respondent groups.
Interviews enhance the reliability of information by allowing for clarification and elaboration on responses, making them more accurate compared to other methods like questionnaires This interactive format enables researchers to pursue leads and provide explanations, giving interviewees the opportunity to elaborate on their answers.
Also, the language used during an interview can be adjusted to the interviewee's educational level to avoid misinterpretations or misleading queries.
According to Hennink et al (2011), researchers must understand the meanings and interpretations behind participants' responses regarding their behaviors, events, and objects This understanding allows interviewers to effectively explore the interviewees' thoughts, feelings, and opinions Additionally, the relationship between the researcher and participant facilitates the collection of valuable supplementary data.
Another merit of the qualitative interview is that it can be recorded or videotaped, which helps with the transcription, coding, and analysis of the data
Semi-structured interviews are highly valued for their flexibility, allowing researchers to adjust the conversation's direction based on the interviewee's responses This adaptability encourages participants to share more personal insights, enhancing the quality of qualitative data collected Additionally, the subjective nature of these interviews enables interviewers to explore the underlying thoughts and feelings of respondents, providing deeper understanding of the subject matter.
The Semi-Structured Interview (SSI) is advantageous for researchers seeking deeper insights beyond superficial answers, facilitating a realistic understanding of thoughts and sentiments It enables close examination of dialogues and initial reactions, leading to complex findings The interactive nature of the SSI encourages free responses from interviewees, while essential questions guide the discussion on relevant study topics This flexibility allows interviewers to explore multiple themes or issues within the same interview, enhancing the depth of the investigation.
Recording an interview, whether through audio or video, allows the interviewer to focus entirely on the conversation, eliminating the distraction of note-taking This approach enhances the experience for both the respondent and the interviewer, fostering a more engaging and fluid dialogue.
Recording interviews offers significant advantages over traditional note-taking, as it enables the review of the interviewer's performance for future training purposes (Sullivan, 2010) This practice facilitates constructive feedback, enhances the interviewer's skills, and leads to more informed and productive interviews in the future Additionally, audio recordings provide a reliable reference for improving interview techniques.
3.2.3 Verbatim Transcription for interview data
Transcription, fundamentally, is the conversion of recorded audio (typically uttered words) into a text format that can be employed to investigate a specific occurrence or event (Duranti, 2006).
Verbatim transcription of data is essential for preserving the original meaning and context of interviews, as well as the environment in which they were conducted Written transcripts of audio recordings are easier to read and understand than their audio counterparts Academic researchers favor written versions of qualitative interviews because they facilitate coding and enable statistical and automated sentiment analysis.
Procedures
Participants took a two-part exam translating speeches between Vietnamese and English The instructor set up a Flipgrid group for students to familiarize themselves with the platform Prior to the test, students received training on recording and uploading videos to the class link provided by the instructor, ensuring all technical issues were addressed before the official exam.
Participants joined a Google Meet session to listen to a speech from an English faculty lecturer, taking notes during the presentation After the speech, the lecturer ended the meeting, allowing each student 10-15 minutes to create, record, and upload their interpretations on Flipgrid Following this, they returned to the same Google Meet link to begin the second half of the test, with the same procedure as the first half.
Five students participated in a semi-structured interview to explore their performance hesitations Prior to the interview, the interviewer outlined the research's context and importance, ensuring participants understood their confidentiality and anonymity Consent was obtained from each respondent before recording began.
Each participant was interviewed individually for approximately 30 minutes with open-ended questions about why they halted during their performance,which provided the interviewer with discernment about what the respondents
All videos obtained from Flip were converted into mp3 files and processed using Audacity, a free and open-source audio editing software The analysis followed the criteria established by Lee (2012) to identify salient pauses, defined as those lasting 2 seconds or longer, encompassing both filled and silent pauses Audacity was also employed to code these identified pauses according to their duration.
Reliability and validity
Testing for reliability is crucial as it reflects the consistency of a measuring instrument's components While reliability is vital for research, it must be accompanied by validity to be meaningful A test cannot be deemed reliable unless it also demonstrates established validity.
To ensure validity and reliability, the test was developed by a PhD from the English faculty, who meticulously guided participants through the recording and uploading procedures Despite the virtual format, students were constrained by a limited timeframe to complete the test.
Students had 15 minutes to record and upload their interpretations of a ten-minute speech, simulating real-time interpretation To ensure authenticity, they were required to show their faces during the recording, eliminating the possibility of someone else taking the test Additionally, all recordings would be transcribed verbatim and verified for accuracy by a colleague in the Translation and Interpretation Division.
To maintain the integrity and reliability of the study, the interviewer thoroughly explained the context and questions to each participant before the interview began, ensuring clarity Ethical safeguards were implemented to protect the privacy of the research subjects, with all responses recorded under the assurance of confidentiality and anonymity Participants were informed that their identities would remain undisclosed to anyone not involved in the study, reinforcing their trust in the research process.
Data analysis
Each recording is meticulously coded to facilitate the separate calculation of silent and filled pauses After coding, the average length of both types of pauses per minute will be determined for each recording This analysis will include a comparison of pauses between students' English-Vietnamese and Vietnamese-English interpretations Silent and filled pauses will be calculated independently, while any pauses that include both types will be classified as filled pauses Finally, the total pause duration and average pausing time per minute will be computed for each interpretation.
The recordings will be transcribed verbatim and double-checked by a colleague in the Translation and Interpretation Division for accuracy.
The interviews underwent thematic coding, beginning with the identification of emergent themes from the transcripts Additionally, subjects' explanations for pauses were documented and categorized into four distinct groups.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The differences between student interpreters' pauses and hesitations when
All surveyed participants exhibited pauses during their interpretation between English and Vietnamese, regardless of the direction of translation These pauses occurred consistently whether interpreting from Vietnamese to English or vice versa While it seems that a completely fluent output without pauses is unattainable, the reasons and effects of these pauses on participants' overall performance remain inconclusive, as multiple factors can contribute to why an interpreter pauses during the translation process.
Pauses in speech, particularly those lasting over 2 seconds, indicate dysfluency and are known as salient pauses, often arising from uncertainty in word choice A study found that 91.67% of student interpreters exhibited significant pauses while interpreting from Vietnamese to English, while 100% displayed salient pauses when interpreting from English to Vietnamese This suggests that student interpreters are more likely to make salient pauses when translating English into Vietnamese, which contrasts with their fluency in their native language Furthermore, pauses are a common feature in the performances of trainee interpreters, indicating that disfluency is present regardless of whether they are speaking in their mother tongue or second language.
Figure 1 Average pause durations of individual students (seconds per minute)
The average duration of pauses for the first 18 participants is illustrated in Figure 1 Notably, 55.56% of students exhibited longer pause lengths during their E-V (English to Vietnamese) interpretation compared to 44.44% during their V-E (Vietnamese to English) interpretation.
Figure 2 Average pause durations of individual students (seconds per minute)
Among the 18 students analyzed, the majority exhibited longer pause times when interpreting from language B to language A, with 61.11% of pauses occurring in this direction compared to 38.89% for language A to language B A significant distinction was observed in the pause times between Vietnamese and English translations for this group, unlike the earlier group of 18 participants where the differences were minimal, except for one student.
The analysis reveals that the average pause duration in E-V interpretations surpasses that of V-E interpretations When considering the data presented in Figure 1, it is clear that E-V performances significantly outperform V-E performances in both frequency and average pause time.
In a study analyzing the average durations of salient pauses among students during English to Vietnamese (E-V) and Vietnamese to English (V-E) interpretations, it was found that 63.11% of participants exhibited longer average salient pauses while interpreting from English Notably, two students recorded an average salient pause duration of zero when interpreting from Vietnamese to English The data indicates that certain students had significantly longer pauses during E-V translations compared to V-E translations; however, the overall difference in interpretation quality between the two directions was minimal Subject 10 was particularly noteworthy, displaying the longest average salient pause duration but producing English output without pauses exceeding two seconds, suggesting a higher level of fluency and performance compared to peers, allowing him to navigate language challenges more effectively.
Figure 4 Average durations of salient pauses of individual students (seconds per minute) (Participants 19-36)
The analysis indicates that 77.78% of students exhibited a longer average salient pause duration in E-V interpretation compared to only 22.22% in V-E interpretation, highlighting a significant disparity This suggests that the 18 participants faced greater challenges with unfamiliar terminology and structure during V-E interpretation Notably, one participant demonstrated fluent translation with no salient pauses, emphasizing the variability in performance among the group.
The mean pause duration of salient pauses varied enormously between V-E and E-V interpretation in 38.89% of the participants (subjects 19, 20, 22, 24, 30,
Participants in the study, particularly those identified as subjects 25, 27, 28, and 36, demonstrated a significantly lower average output length, suggesting a higher fluency in English compared to their peers Additionally, the findings indicate that students tended to translate from English to Vietnamese, characterized by longer pauses during interpretation.
Respondents' interview responses differed from the experimental findings regarding pause lengths during language translation While the experiment indicated that students made longer pauses when translating from English to Vietnamese, interviews revealed that 60% of participants preferred to pause more frequently and for extended periods when interpreting English For instance, one respondent noted that "E-V interpretation was simpler than V-E," while another mentioned pausing to consider unfamiliar technical terms This aligns with Mead's 2000 study, which found that students demonstrated greater fluency in their native language, producing fewer and shorter pauses when interpreting from English to Vietnamese.
Comparing student interpreters' pauses and hesitations when they interpret
Statement Min Max Mean Median SD
Due to a small sample size (N=3), it was crucial to assess the distribution of variable X to select an appropriate statistical method A Shapiro-Wilk test revealed significant departures from normality in the mean lengths of pauses during students' English-Vietnamese (E-V) and Vietnamese-English (V-E) interpreting performances (W = 0.927, p = 028 for E-V; W = 0.877, p = 001 for V-E) Consequently, the non-parametric Wilcoxon signed-rank test was employed to compare the pauses made by students interpreting from English to Vietnamese and vice versa.
Table 2.Students’ E-V versus V-E interpreting performance: Comparing pauses
Note Wilcoxon signed-rank test.
Table 2 reveals significant differences in the pauses experienced by students during English-to-Vietnamese and Vietnamese-to-English interpretation, with the Wilcoxon signed-ranks test yielding W = 436 and p = 006, indicating a large effect size (r = 554) This suggests that students encountered longer and more pronounced pauses when interpreting English into Vietnamese, contrary to previous research that generally indicates interpreting into one's native language (L1) is less cognitively demanding.
Causes of pauses in Consecutive Interpretation
Table 3.Motivations for pauses in Consecutive Interpretation
Memory 4 - I was having trouble recalling the information to render, although an interpreter had to remember what they just heard (S1)
- My biggest barrier was my memory. (S3)
Note-taking 3 - When I took notes and reread them, I found it arduous to comprehend and interpret them (S2)
- I paused to systemize my notes (S4)
Anxiety 5 - Among the numerous explanations for pauses are anxiety and stress (S5)
- I would frequently pause whilst interpreting since I was so anxious and stressed out (S3)
Unfamiliar vocabulary/sentence structures in source texts
5 - When rendering, pauses arose when I stumbled across unfamiliar words (S5)
- There were a large number of new terms, some of which I had no knowledge of (S3)
All five students identified anxiety and unfamiliar vocabulary as the primary reasons for their pauses during translation, highlighting these factors as more significant than memory and note-taking issues Additionally, 60% of the students paused to reread and process their notes, while 80% reported difficulties in recalling recent translations This underscores the impact of stress and the challenge of new terminology on the translation process.
Interpreting is one of the most challenging language professions, heavily reliant on working memory Both novice and experienced interpreters struggle with the need to retain and recall words for accurate interpretation Memory often becomes the first hurdle for interpreter students, as research indicates that their ability to remember is crucial for effective interpretation and the amount of information they can extract from the source language Interviewees acknowledged their efforts to remember speech specifics to avoid linguistic errors, yet disfluency often occurred as they paused to retain necessary information for translation The combination of memorization and interpretation proves to be extremely demanding, often leading to misinterpretations of the original message Students recognized the importance of understanding memory's influence on interpreting to enhance their performance Furthermore, the inability to recall recent details caused pauses, as confirmed by several respondents, including S3, who mentioned difficulties with memory, and S1, who expressed challenges in recalling information for rendering.
Memory quotient plays a crucial role in consecutive interpreting, as individual memory capacity affects the time needed to recall information Test-takers S1, S2, S3, and S5 noted that increased information loss led to longer pauses, as they aimed to retain the essence of the original message S1 emphasized the importance of remembering what was just heard, acknowledging that excessive or prolonged pauses could diminish the fluidity and quality of their delivery The interpreters struggled to manage pauses, often losing focus on details while trying to recall specifics, ultimately attributing their pauses to memory challenges.
Memory is crucial for effective interpreting, as it governs the processes of decoding input, understanding meaning, and retaining information (Yenkimaleki & Heuven, 2017) There is a reciprocal relationship between working memory and interpretation, indicating that interpreters can improve their output quality by enhancing their memory skills Students emphasized the importance of memory in their work, dedicating significant time to its improvement They noted that pauses during interpretation often stem from a lack of memory training, while fluent re-interpretation occurs when they can easily recall information, resulting in fewer or no pauses.
Notes play a crucial role in conference interpreting (CI), as evidenced by the fact that all senior interpreting students at HUFLIS reported using them to aid in interpretation and retain source language information However, it is essential for interpreters to focus on capturing ideas and concepts rather than transcribing words, as notes should serve merely as memory aids Over-reliance on notes can hinder fluency, causing students to pause and struggle with comprehension For instance, one student noted the difficulty in interpreting their hastily written notes, which led to confusion Additionally, students who failed to develop a coherent note-taking system often spent excessive time trying to decipher their notes, resulting in prolonged pauses As one student candidly admitted, their notes lacked organization, highlighting the importance of effective note-taking strategies in CI.
Taking an excessive or insufficient amount of notes can create challenges for interpreters When notes are overly detailed or lack logical structure, it becomes difficult for interpreters to grasp the essential information For instance, one interpreter mentioned, "I only noted a few specifics when the speaker talked too quickly."
Additionally, careful note-taking is frequently utilized as an additional tool required to read the notes, the less effort will be available for target-text output.
S1, S4, and S5 emphasized the importance of pausing during their reading to fully comprehend the material and avoid misinterpretation They acknowledged taking notes but struggled to remember the connections between phrases, necessitating breaks to clarify their understanding of the text's relationships.
Effective note-taking is crucial for consecutive interpreters, as individualized notes facilitate quick retrieval of speech for translation Inexperienced student interpreters often struggle with managing their capacity, leading to poorly recorded notes and subpar interpretation quality Research by Cardoen (2012) indicates that novice students frequently lack both the tools for effective note-taking and the ability to synthesize and condense discourse simultaneously Many participants reported a lack of a systematic approach to note-taking, which resulted in extended time spent on interpretation As one respondent noted, “I couldn't recall the message because the notes weren't taken in very logically.”
Effective note-taking is essential for interpreters, as it allows them to efficiently locate and reference specific elements of the text A key principle in note-taking is to capture concepts rather than verbatim words, focusing on the essence of the message However, novice interpreters often find that excessive note-taking can distract from active listening, leading to an emphasis on surface-level details rather than deeper meanings This is why it's crucial for students to pause and explore the underlying connotations of the text, ensuring they deliver accurate and meaningful translations.
Novice interpreters often experience high levels of anxiety, which can lead to speech disfluencies (Cho and Roger, 2010) All five respondents in the study reported that their nervousness caused them to take prolonged pauses during speech production, highlighting the significant impact of stress and anxiety on their fluency As one participant expressed, "I was too anxious," illustrating the detrimental effects of anxiety on their performance.
Participants expressed the need to take breaks to alleviate anxiety and stress before resuming their translation work, as they wanted to ensure that their emotional state did not negatively impact the quality of their output.
Nevertheless, one of the most often studied emotional factors in the literature on interpretation is anxiety Respondent 3: “The biggest reason was anxiety for me.”
Respondent 4: "In moments of stress/anxiety, I paused to organize thoughts for easier rendition."
Research indicates a significant relationship between foreign language (FL) anxiety and academic performance, with Chiang (2010) finding that increased anxiety correlates with lower midterm scores This suggests that lower FL anxiety may enhance exam performance Additionally, stress and anxiety are key psychological factors that can hinder cognitive function Eysenck et al (2007) highlight that state anxiety negatively impacts cognitive abilities by affecting the bottom-up attentional system, with greater tension leading to more substantial disruptions in focus.
4.3.4 Unfamiliar vocabulary/sentence structures in source texts
All 5 respondents said in the interview that whenever they stumbled across unfamiliar words, they tended to pause to put their thoughts together and find the word in the target language, even if they were not able to find the right word By way of illustration, S1 shared: "paused when I had no idea of the words' meanings." Likewise, in English, they also have to pause to find an alternative. Similarly, because the sentence structure of Vietnamese and English is not the same, students must pause to think about how to translate the sentence most naturally while staying true to the meaning of the sentence They all said their pauses were longer when faced with structures that were too strange or too difficult "They employ pauses when they need to ponder, but contemplating would invariably take longer than two seconds, which caused disfluency in the output," S1 stifled Pauses commonly appear at the beginning of longer phrases as longer phrases require longer pauses to digest and produce In addition, the students added that they had times when they paused for a long time because they were not able to figure out what that word in the target language was As a case in point, S2 uttered: “I was clueless about how to render those unfamiliar words into the target language.”
Disfluencies in speech indicate that speakers struggle to find the right words, leading to pauses during communication These pauses often occur when individuals need extra time to formulate their responses, especially when retrieving less familiar vocabulary Respondents noted that a limited range of specialized terms contributes to their hesitations when encountering new words in tests.
If conceptual preparation were straightforward and speakers could quickly determine their message and delivery, students would not experience delays before formulating their thoughts This ease would reduce the difficulties test-takers face in reformulating their ideas The characteristics of lexical elements can impact the occurrence of hesitation during this process In interpreting, language reformulation involves rephrasing a message from the source language (SL) into the target language (TL).
CONCLUSION
Summary of Findings
5.1.1 What are the differences between student interpreters' pauses and hesitations when they interpret from Vietnamese into English versus from English into Vietnamese?
A study of final-year interpreting students at HUFLIS revealed that all participants paused while interpreting between English and Vietnamese, particularly when rendering into English However, not all students paused when interpreting from Vietnamese to English, indicating a tendency to produce more noticeable pauses during English-to-Vietnamese tasks The findings suggest that despite Vietnamese being their primary language, students exhibited less fluency when interpreting into it, with both the frequency and length of salient pauses being more pronounced in this direction.
5.1.2 What are the causes of students ' pauses and hesitations when conducting Cl practice?
Research, experimentation, and interviews have led to conclusions about why students pause while interpreting The primary reason identified by interviewees is limited working memory, with 80% of respondents indicating that this constraint often causes them to pause They expressed difficulty in recalling small details, highlighting the significant impact of working memory on their performance.
A recent study revealed that 60% of students struggled with note-taking due to a lack of a systematic approach, often pausing to interpret their own notes Anxiety emerged as a significant factor, with all interviewed students reporting that stress hindered their focus and required them to pause during their work Additionally, students frequently encountered unfamiliar vocabulary and sentence structures, leading to further hesitations as they sought the right words This vocabulary barrier affected all participants, highlighting the challenges faced in effective note-taking.
Although there are variations in the frequency and duration of significant pauses when interpreting between English and Vietnamese, the reasons behind the pauses made by final-year interpreters at HUFLIS remain consistent.
Pedagogical Implications
Incorporating pauses into university lectures can significantly enhance students' understanding of their role in communication, as they often perceive pauses and fluency only superficially By exploring the deeper implications of pauses together, both lecturers and students can uncover their origins and effects, leading to more fluent oral renditions Mastering the art of pauses allows students to engage listeners, emphasize key points, express emotions, and regain control during presentations Additionally, providing feedback on pause usage during in-class translation practice can accelerate students' grasp of these concepts.
Understanding the significance of pauses is crucial for students, as fluency is a key criterion in assessing delivery quality By mastering pauses, student interpreters can enhance their interpretations and feel more comfortable during presentations It’s important for students to overcome their reluctance to fully engage in practice sessions and to welcome feedback from lecturers and peers, as this can lead to valuable insights Additionally, actively seeking clarification from professors about pauses and encouraging questions in class will deepen their understanding of the topic.
Limitations of the Study
The limitations of the present study are primarily due to constraints in the methodology, particularly the small sample size, which hinders the ability to draw statistically significant conclusions A larger sample size is essential for achieving reliable results and identifying more generalized themes regarding the causes of pauses among student interpreters.
One limitation of this study is that the quantitative data derived from students' video-taped interpretations on Flipgrid were based on a single interpreting test, focusing on both Vietnamese to English and English to Vietnamese interpretations This one-time data collection method may not adequately reflect the performance and pauses of student interpreters during consecutive interpreting (CI) practice in either language direction Consequently, the findings and conclusions should be interpreted with caution.
Suggestions for Future Research
To enhance the validity of future studies, it is advisable to invite a larger pool of respondents for interviews, allowing for a broader range of responses and the identification of common themes reflective of the general population Additionally, acknowledging the limitations of the current study can pave the way for extending the implications of the research findings Future investigations could also consider replicating the study in different environments, regions, or cultural contexts to enrich the understanding of the results.
Future research should focus on a larger sample of student interpreters engaged in various instances of consecutive interpreting (CI) practice By analyzing more recorded interpretations, researchers can better determine the frequency of pauses during interpretations into language A compared to language B.
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Câu 1: Anh/chị có quen thuộc với hay đã từng nghe qua khái niệm ngừng, ngắt trong phiên dịch không ạ?
Câu 2: Anh/chị có để ý đến việc bản thân ngừng, ngắt trong quá trình làm bài kiểm tra phiên dịch không ạ?
Câu 3: Anh/chị có thể chia sẻ thêm về tần suất cũng như độ dài mỗi lần anh/chị nghĩ mình ngừng, ngắt trong lúc phiên dịch không ạ?
Khi thực hiện hai bài kiểm tra dịch thuật, tôi nhận thấy rằng việc ngừng và ngắt nhiều hơn xảy ra khi dịch tiếng Anh sang tiếng Việt Nguyên nhân là do sự khác biệt về cấu trúc ngữ pháp và văn hóa giữa hai ngôn ngữ, đòi hỏi tôi phải suy nghĩ cẩn thận để truyền đạt ý nghĩa một cách chính xác và tự nhiên.
Câu 5: Theo anh/chị, những nguyên nhân nào làm cho anh/chị ngừng, ngắt khi phiên dịch 2 bài đó ạ?
Trong quá trình phiên dịch, có nhiều nguyên nhân khiến tôi phải ngừng hoặc ngắt quãng, như sự khó khăn trong việc hiểu ngữ cảnh hoặc từ vựng phức tạp Những nguyên nhân này có thể khác nhau khi tôi kiểm tra dịch từ tiếng Việt sang tiếng Anh so với ngược lại, do sự khác biệt trong cấu trúc ngôn ngữ và văn hóa giữa hai thứ tiếng Việc nắm bắt ý nghĩa chính xác và truyền tải thông điệp một cách tự nhiên là điều quan trọng, và điều này đôi khi làm tôi phải tạm dừng để suy nghĩ kỹ lưỡng hơn.
Câu 8: Anh/chị có thắc mắc hay muốn chia sẻ thêm điều gì liên quan đến việc ngừng, ngắt trong phiên dịch sau khi làm bài kiểm tra không ạ?
Appendix 2 Average durations of pauses of individual students (seconds per minute)
Appendix 3 Average durations of salient pauses of individual students (seconds per minute)