INTRODUCTION
Rationale for the research
Verbs are often regarded as the most crucial part of speech, serving as the core of every sentence by expressing actions or states of being In English, verbs related to speech play a vital role in communication, especially in complex modern societies Reporting verbs, a specific category of verbs, hold significant importance as they convey various meanings As noted by Anna Wierzbicka (1987), reporting is connected to facts and informing, emphasizing the relationship between the speaker and the listener.
Reporting verbs can be categorized into various groups to convey orders, suggestions, and requests This article specifically examines six key verbs: say, speak, tell, talk, inform, and order.
Verbs in both English and Vietnamese are commonly used across various contexts and can exhibit different syntactic patterns, reflecting diverse meanings in everyday communication Although these verbs may share similar syntactic structures, their meanings can vary significantly based on the situational context This overlap in meaning, where multiple words in both languages express the same concept, often poses challenges for English learners when conveying their thoughts, particularly in translating meanings between their native language and English.
As an English teacher, I observed that my students struggle with using reporting verbs such as "say," "speak," "tell," "talk," "inform," and "order" accurately in real-life communication To address this issue, I conducted a study focusing on the syntactic and semantic features of these verbs, comparing them with their Vietnamese equivalents The goal of this research is to help English learners use these verbs correctly and avoid common mistakes.
Aims of the research
This research investigates the essential semantic and syntactic characteristics of six reporting verbs in English and their Vietnamese counterparts The findings aim to assist Vietnamese learners in correctly using these verbs and to provide valuable insights for teaching them in both English and Vietnamese contexts.
Objectives of the research
In order to achieve the aim of the research, three following objectives will be carried out:
- Describing the syntactic and semantic features of the six reporting verbs in English
- Pointing out the similarities and differences between English reporting verbs and their Vietnamese equivalents in terms of syntactic and semantic features
- Suggesting some implications for teaching the six reporting verbs in English and Vietnamese.
Scope of the research
This study examines the syntactic and semantic characteristics of six reporting verbs in English, highlighting their significance Additionally, it compares the semantic features of these English reporting verbs with their Vietnamese counterparts.
To enhance the effectiveness of learning the six reporting verbs, this article offers valuable suggestions for Vietnamese learners of English Additionally, it provides Vietnamese equivalents of these verbs to assist learners in overcoming challenges in speaking and usage.
Significance of the research
This study aims to enhance understanding of the syntactic and semantic characteristics of six reporting verbs in English Additionally, it highlights the similarities and differences between these verbs in English and Vietnamese, providing valuable insights for contrasting the two languages.
The study offers Vietnamese learners a comprehensive understanding of six English reporting verbs, highlighting their differences to aid in selecting appropriate verbs for various meanings in both English and Vietnamese Additionally, the findings serve as a valuable resource for learners and can be utilized as reference material in teaching these reporting verbs at Dang Xa School.
Design of the study
The thesis begins with Declaration, Acknowledgements, Abstract, Contents, Symbols and Abbreviations
The thesis will be divided into five chapters:
The Introduction chapter provides a concise overview of the research, outlining the rationale behind the chosen topic, as well as the aims, objectives, scope, significance, and the structural organization of the thesis.
The second chapter, titled Literature Review, examines prior research in both English and Vietnamese related to the study topic, while also providing a theoretical background that serves as a foundation for the entire research.
The third chapter, Methodology, outlines the research orientations and methods employed in the study In the fourth chapter, Findings and Discussions, a detailed analysis of the syntactic and semantic features of six English reporting verbs is presented, including their sentence patterns and elements, alongside a comparison with their Vietnamese counterparts, highlighting implications for teaching at Dang Xa school The final chapter, Conclusion, encapsulates the key findings, acknowledges the study's limitations, and offers recommendations for future research.
References come at the end of the study.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Review of previous studies
Numerous researchers have explored speech act verbs in both English and Vietnamese Anna Wierzbicka (1987) focuses on the semantic features of various subtypes within the Speaking category, including verbs like TALK, DISCUSS, SHOUT, INFORM, TELL, and ORDER She presents a semantic theory that serves as a lexicographic resource, detailing six key reporting verbs: say, speak, tell, talk, inform, and order These verbs are analyzed for their meanings and everyday usage, although the syntactic properties of each verb have not been fully and systematically examined due to scope limitations.
English dictionaries serve as excellent reference materials for studying the language, including notable titles such as the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (2003), the Oxford Advanced Encyclopedia (2002), the Semantic Dictionary (1987), and the English-Vietnamese Dictionary (2008) These resources provide comprehensive analyses of word classifications, structures, and semantics, along with precise examples to enhance understanding.
In Vietnamese, many authors have done long researches and given out worthy collections such as Lê Biên (1998) with Từ loại tiếng Việt hiện đại and
Nguyễn Kim Thản (1999) in "Động từ trong tiếng Việt" explores the classification of modern Vietnamese words, focusing specifically on the ORDER verb group This group is analyzed in terms of its structures and semantics The findings from these studies provide a foundational background for the theoretical framework of the current research.
Review of theoretical background
Definition of speech act verbs
According to Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary (2005:1636), the verb is
Verbs related to speech are vital in any language, especially in English, as highlighted by Wierzbicka (1987) A glance at daily newspapers reveals that much of the news is comprised of speech acts, with common phrases like “X accuses Y for Z,” “X predicts…,” and “X demands…” dominating headlines This prevalence underscores the idea that public life operates as a vast network of speech acts, with history largely shaped by these verbal interactions Speech act verbs such as suggest, request, and criticize play a crucial role in how we understand and interpret our world.
The nuances of human interaction and relationships are often overlooked, particularly in the context of language learning Specifically, the distinctions between verbs like "say" and "speak," as well as "tell" and "talk," have not been thoroughly explored This lack of systematic investigation leaves non-native English speakers, such as foreigners and migrants, without clear guidance on these important differences.
Despite the abundance of English language resources available in libraries and bookstores, the distinctions between words like "threaten" and "warn," or "suggest" and "demand," are often overlooked These subtle differences can significantly impact interpersonal relationships, potentially leading to serious consequences Understanding these nuances is crucial for effective communication and fostering positive connections with others.
2.2.2 Syntactic features of speech act verbs
Historically, syntactic clues have been used in lexicography to help establish polysemy, and linguists have often suggested that differences in meaning indicate a distinction in syntax This work, however, explores a stronger hypothesis: that syntactic similarities may signify corresponding similarities in meaning Therefore, shared syntactic patterns could indicate shared semantic components If validated, these shared syntactic properties would serve as evidence for the proposed semantic structures.
Wierzbicka (1987) emphasizes the importance of treating syntactic clues with caution, advocating for the empirical establishment of relevant syntactic categories rather than relying on a priori determinations Analyzing the semantic correlate of the pattern “X Ved Y for Z” may yield insignificant findings For instance, verbs such as ask, thank, criticize, beg, reproach, and praise can all fit this syntactic frame, but they may share commonalities that distinguish them from other verbs that do not A closer examination reveals that two distinct syntactic patterns are actually at play, specifically the paraphrase of “X Ved Y for Z.”
The phrases "X Ved Y to do Z" and "X Ved Y for Z" can be rephrased as "X Ved Y for doing Z." The first pattern highlights verbs like ask, beg, and implore (e.g., "X begged Y for Z" becomes "X begged Y to do Z") In contrast, the second pattern focuses on verbs such as reproach, reprimand, rebuke, reprove, praise, criticize, and thank (e.g., "X reproached Y for Z" becomes "X reproached Y for doing Z") This distinction reveals significant semantic correlations.
I know that you don‟t have to do it
2 You (X) have (has) done something bad/good
The pattern "X Ved Y for Z," which can be rephrased as "X Ved Y to do Z," is notably comparable to the similar structure "X Ved to Y for Z," as seen in phrases like "X appealed to Y for Z" and "X applied (to Y) for Z." Both patterns relate to the underlying sentiments of "I want you to do Z" and "I know that you don’t have to do it." However, treating the addressee as an indirect object suggests a more subtle approach When using verbs like ask, beg, and implore, the speaker attempts to persuade the addressee directly In contrast, with verbs like apply or appeal, the addressee is encouraged to reflect rather than act immediately This distinction can be summarized by the semantic formulas: "I say this because I want to cause you to do it" (ask, beg, implore) versus "I say this because I want to cause you to think about it (and do it)" (apply, appeal).
When the addressee phrase is considered a direct object, the impact of the action on the addressee is more significant and immediate compared to situations where the addressee is treated as an indirect object.
2.2.3 Semantic features of speech act verbs
Semantics, a branch of linguistics, focuses on the meaning of language and communication As defined by Hurford and Heasley (1983), semantics is the study of meaning in language, which serves as a vital tool for human interaction Jackson (1988) emphasizes that humans possess the unique ability to communicate through meaningful utterances, allowing them to share thoughts, feelings, and experiences This capacity enables individuals to discuss their world, express desires, and convey information, thereby fostering social relationships.
Hurford and Heasley (1983:5) emphasized that providing information is a courteous act that enhances social relationships and is integral to communication Some linguists have attempted to define semantics, with Morris, as cited by Lyon (1977), initially describing it as the study of the relationship between signs and their corresponding objects He later refined this definition, stating that semantics encompasses the aspect of semiotics that focuses on the meaning of signs across all modes of signification.
Semantics and pragmatics are closely interconnected, with Lyons (1997) suggesting that descriptive semantics is an integral part of pragmatics due to the necessity of considering the context in which expressions are used Smith, as cited by Lyons (1977), emphasizes that semantics examines the relationship between signs and their referents, while pragmatics focuses on how these signs interact with people Leech (1983) highlights that the challenge of differentiating between language and its use often arises from the boundary between semantics and pragmatics Additionally, Hurford and Heasley (1983) note that semantics primarily involves a conceptual exploration of meaning, utilizing a diverse array of examples drawn from our existing knowledge.
David Crystal (1992) defines semantics as the study of meaning in language Structural semantics employs principles of structural linguistics to explore meaning through semantic relations, including synonyms and antonyms In generative grammar, the semantic component plays a crucial role in organizing grammar by assigning semantic representations to sentences and analyzing lexical terms based on their semantic features Additionally, the theory of semantic fields suggests that vocabulary is organized into specific areas where words interrelate and define one another.
According to Jack Richards, John Platt, and Heidi Weber (1987:172), semantics is defined as "the study of meaning." This field primarily focuses on analyzing the meanings of words, phrases, and sentences, as well as the meanings conveyed in discourse and entire texts, as noted by Saeed (2003:3).
“Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and sentences.”
Semantic field is an area of meaning contained words with related senses
Meanings of words cluster together to form fields of meaning which in turn cluster into even larger fields until the entire language is encompassed Semantic field
The lexical field, as defined by Richards, Platt, and Weber (1987), refers to the systematic organization of related words and expressions that illustrate their interrelationships Crystal (1995) further elaborates on the concept of semantic fields, emphasizing their significance in understanding language structure.
“the view that the vocabulary of a language is a system of interrelated lexical networks, and not an inventory of independent items, also called the lexical field theory”
R.M.W.Dixon (1991) defines that “a verb is the center of a clause” A verb refer to some activity and there must be a number of participants who have roles in that activity as: Sinbad carried the old man; or it may refer to a state, and there must be a participant to experience the state as: My leg aches
A set of verbs is grouped together as one semantic type partly because they require the same set of participant roles All giving verbs require a Donor, a
Gift and a Recipient, as in:
The women‟s Institutes supplied the souldiers with socks
All attention verbs take a Perceiver and an Impression (that which is seen or heard), as in:
I heard the crash, I witnessed the accident, I recognised the driver‟s face
Classification of sentences in terms of sentence elements and verb
Sentence classification is essential for understanding the sentence types of six reporting verbs in English and Vietnamese By removing optional adverbials from clause structures, we identify seven core clause types Among the obligatory elements, the main verb plays a crucial role in determining the overall structure From the analysis, seven distinct clause types are identified.
S(ubject) V(erb) O(bject(s)) C(omplement) A(dverbial)
The country became totally independent
I have been in the garden [4a]
Consider these books rather expensive [6a]
You must put all the toys Upstairs [7a]
Table 2.1: Sentence patterns (Quirk, Randolph, 1985)
Each clause type is associated with a set of verbs The seven fall naturally into three main types There are:
2 Three three-element patterns: SV + {O, C, A}
That lecture bored me (SVO)
Your dinner seems ready (SVC)
My office is in the next building (SVA)
3 Three four-element patterns: SVO + {O, C, A}
I must send my parents an anniversary card (SVOO)
Most students have found her reasonably helpful (SVOC)
You can put the dish on the table (SVOA)
This set of patterns is the most general classification that can be usefully applied to the classification of sentence patterns of the verbs studied in English.
Sentence elements
2.4.1 Syntactic features of sentence elements
According to Randolph Quirk (1985), the subject is the most crucial element in clause structures, second only to the verb It is the most frequently occurring element and has the widest range of characteristic features Typically, the subject is represented by a noun phrase, a nominal clause, a pronoun, a That-clause, a to-infinitive, or a gerund In finite clauses, the subject is mandatory, although it is usually omitted in imperative clauses.
Verb is also taken an extremely important role in sentences Cutting across above three fold classification are three main verb classes:
Intransitive verbs (laugh in [1a]), are followed by no obligatory element, and occur in type SV
Transitive verbs (enjoy in [2a], give in [5a], consider in [6a], put in [7a]) are followed by an object and occur in types SVO, SVOO, SVOC and SVOA respectively
Copular verbs (become in [3a], be in [4a]) are followed by a subject complement or an adverbial, and occur in types SVC and SVA
The term "transitive" refers to verbs that necessitate an object, encompassing clause types such as SVOO, SVOC, and SVOA Additionally, it is useful to categorize these verbs into further classifications based on their specific patterns.
Monotransitive verbs occurs in type SVO Ditransitive verbs occur in type SVOO Complex transitive verbs occur in types SVOC and SVOA
Objects is an indispensable element in a sentence with a transitive verb In fact, there are two types of object: direct object (Od) and indirect object (Oi)
In the sentence "My mother enjoys parties," the term "parties" serves as a direct object, while in "Mary gave the visitor a glass of milk," "the visitor" functions as an indirect object This distinction between direct and indirect objects has been traditionally acknowledged in grammar.
In SVOO constructions, the first object typically serves as the indirect object, while the second is the direct object Despite its central position, the indirect object is often more peripheral than the direct object, as it can be optional and is frequently restated using a prepositional phrase that acts as an adverbial.
Complements is used in sentence patterns SVC and SVOC There are also two types of complements: subject complement (Cs) and object complement (Co)
We can distinguish between the types of complement found in the SVC pattern; ie: totally independent in:
The country became totally independent [3a]
And the type of complement found in the SVOC pattern; ie: rather expensive in:
Most people consider these books rather expensive [6a]
In SVC clauses, the complement attributes a quality to the subject, indicating full independence, while in SVOC clauses, it attributes a quality to the object, suggesting the books are expensive This distinction is referred to as subject complement and object complement Although the complement is often an adjective phrase, the same distinction applies when the complement is a noun phrase.
Type SVC: The country became a separate nation
Type SVOC: Most people considered Picasso a genius
In an SVC sentence, the term "nation" serves as a defining subject, while in an SVOC sentence, "genius" is recognized as a defining object, specifically referring to Picasso.
Obligatory adverbials are essential components of the SVA and SVOA sentence structures Typically, these adverbials take the form of adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, or adverbial clauses, but they can also appear as noun phrases.
Adverbials in SVA and SVOA sentence structures are primarily optional, meaning they can be included or omitted without compromising the clause's acceptability or its structural relationships.
Obligatory adverbials are essential components of clauses, classified as a type of predication adjunct within SVA and SVOA structures As central elements of the clause nucleus, they can take the form of adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, or adverbial clauses Additionally, certain obligatory adverb phrases and prepositional phrases may be interpreted as complements in SVC and SVOC constructions.
Type SVA: I have been in the garden
Type SVOA: You must put all the toys upstairs
This close analysis is the background of analyzing the syntactic feature of sentence elements of the six reporting verbs in English in chapter IV
2.4.2 Semantic features of sentence elements
According to Randolph Quirk (1985), the primary semantic role of a subject in a clause with a direct object is often that of the agentive participant, which refers to the animate entity that initiates or causes the action expressed by the verb.
Margaret is mowing the grass
The subject sometimes has the role of external causer; that is it expresses the unwitting (generally inanimate) cause of an event:
The electric shock killed him
It may also have the role of instrument; that is, the entity (generally inanimate) which an agent uses to perform an action or instigate a process:
With intransitive verbs, the subject also frequently has the affected role elsewhere typical of the direct object:
The pencil was lying on the table
The subject can serve various roles, including a recipient with verbs like "have," "own," "possess," and "benefit from." It also functions as a positioner with intransitive stance verbs such as "sit," "stand," "lie," "live," "stay," and "remain," as well as with transitive verbs related to stance, including "carry," "hold," "keep," and "wear." Additionally, the subject can take on locative, temporal, and eventive roles.
The direct object plays multiple roles in sentences, primarily serving as the affected participant This participant, whether animate or inanimate, does not initiate the action described by the verb but is directly involved in the event.
Many MPs criticized the Prime Minister
James sold his digital watch yesterday
The direct object may have a locative role with such verbs as walk, swim, pass, jump, turn, leave, reach, surround, cross, climb
The direct object includes resultant, cognate, and instrumental objects In contrast, the indirect object primarily serves as the recipient participant, referring to the animate being that is passively involved in the event or situation.
We paid them the money
It occationally takes an affected role with a few of the verbs that combine with an eventive object The most common verb in the latter construction is give:
We gave the baby a bath
Complements play a crucial role in sentence structure, serving as attributes for both subjects and objects They can be categorized into two main subtypes: identification and characterization Additionally, attributes can be divided into current or existing attributes, typically associated with stative verbs, and resulting attributes, which arise from the actions described by dynamic verbs.
Branda became their accountant (Identification)
Dwight is an honest man (Characterization)
He is my brother (Current attribute)
The heat turned the milk sour (Resulting attribute)
The chief semantic features of sentence elements in English are summarized in the following table:
Type S Oi Od Cs Co A Example
She is happy, while he has turned traitor The Sahara is known for its heat, and last night was warm The show proved to be interesting, and currently, it is windy.
Summary
In this chapter, an overview of the six reporting verbs: Say, Speak, Tell, Talk,
The article provides a concise overview of the findings and discussions from relevant studies in both English and Vietnamese, highlighting their methodologies and key results It also addresses the weaknesses in these approaches and the limitations of the findings Lastly, the study outlines potential directions for future research.
This article provides a comprehensive analysis of speech act verbs, focusing on their syntactic and semantic features, as well as sentence classification and elements It specifically examines the reporting verbs Say, Speak, Tell, Talk, Inform, and Order in English, laying a foundation for understanding their unique characteristics.
METHODOLOGY
Research- governing orientations
In order to realize objectives of the study, the study will seek answers to the following research questions:
- What are the syntactic and semantic features of the six reporting verbs?
- What are the similarities and differences of the six reporting verbs: Say, Speak, Tell, Talk, Inform and Order in terms of syntactic and semantic features ?
- What are some implications for teaching and studying these reporting verbs in English and Vietnamese ?
Data for this research were gathered from various sources, including dictionaries, news articles, books, and Google searches This information is crucial for studying, analyzing, and synthesizing the essential data required for the research.
This study employs both qualitative and quantitative approaches to analyze reporting verbs The quantitative method identifies syntactic and semantic differences among these verbs, while the qualitative method reveals the Vietnamese equivalents of English reporting verbs with varying meanings.
3.1.4 Principles for intended data collection and data analysis
The collection of data involves identifying examples related to six reporting verbs found in various sources such as grammar books and dictionaries Gathering sufficient data presents challenges due to the semantic limitations of these verbs Additionally, componential analysis will be utilized to analyze the data, with comparisons primarily made through translation, using pairs of English and Vietnamese sentences that convey the same meaning.
While this data elicitation method has its advantages, it also presents certain weaknesses One significant issue is that the examples selected for data analysis may be subjectively chosen, reflecting the researcher's personal biases rather than objective criteria.
Research methods
3.2.1 Major methods vs Supporting methods
This study aims to identify the syntactic and semantic features of six reporting verbs and provide their Vietnamese equivalents To achieve this, we will employ various methods, primarily focusing on the descriptive method, supplemented by contrastive analysis Techniques such as organizing verb-related information into arrays, creating matrices of categories, and constructing tables will be utilized The descriptive method will facilitate a comprehensive analysis of the reporting verbs, enabling us to find their Vietnamese counterparts and offer implications for teaching and translation in educational settings.
The data in this research were collected via the criteria designed by the researcher It consists of the six reporting verbs: Say, Speak, Tell, Talk, Inform, Order
The researcher established two criteria for selecting samples that include English reporting verbs The samples must exhibit the defining characteristics of reporting verbs, specifically focusing on groups such as "Say," "Speak," "Tell," "Talk," "Inform," and "Order."
The data for this study were sourced from various dictionaries, including Từ điển Anh-Anh-Việt (2008) and Từ điển Việt-Anh (2000) published by the Publishing House of Cultural and Informatics, as well as the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (2003) and the Dictionary of Contemporary English (2003) Additionally, grammar references such as "English Grammar in Use" by Murphy, R., and "A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language" by Quirk, R., and Greenbaum were utilized.
S.,Leech, G.,& Svartvik,J.(1985) , Understanding English Semantics (2004) by Nguyen Hoa, The English Verb by F.R.Palmer The reason for choosing those materials as the sources of the data is that literature is divided into two senses, broad sense and narrow sense The former means anything that is written such as tables, catalogues, text, books,etc while the latter means a writing that expresses and communicates thought, feelings, ideas, and attitudes towards life in the serious fuller and deeper sense of the words Moreover, these sources are found to provide the most fertile examples for the lexical items under study
The study involved gathering examples of six reporting verbs from grammar books and dictionaries The collected data were then categorized according to two criteria: syntactic and semantic features, as well as their Vietnamese equivalents.
Summary
The study utilizes governing orientations and research methods, specifically descriptive and contrastive analysis, to effectively conduct the research Data is gathered from reputable sources, including bilingual dictionaries, encyclopedias, English grammar books, newspapers, and magazines, all published by reliable publishing houses This diverse array of materials provides a solid foundation for the research.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Syntactic and semantic features of the reporting verbs: Say, Speak, Tell, Talk, Inform, Order in English
4.1.1 Syntactic features of the reporting verbs: Say, Speak, Tell, Talk, Inform, Order in English
4.1.1.1 In terms of their sentence patterns
After studying the background, it is found out that the six reporting verbs:
Say, Speak, Tell, Talk, Inform, Order in English is divided into two sentence patterns according to their syntactic feature: SV, SVO and SVOO as following table:
Type say speak Tell talk inform Order
Table 4.1: The sentence patterns of the six reporting verbs
The table illustrates that five of the six verbs listed (say, speak, tell, talk, inform) adhere to a single sentence pattern, while only the verb "order" appears in multiple sentence patterns.
In the following parts, each of the above sentence pattern will be analyzed more in detail
In this pattern, transitive verbs are used, consistently accompanied by direct objects These direct objects can take the form of a noun, noun phrase, pronoun, or various types of clauses, including that-clauses, finite clauses, and non-finite clauses Notably, the conjunction "that" may often be omitted Direct objects may also begin with a "wh-element," which can include pronouns (who(m), whose, which, what), determiner + noun combinations (such as what time or which tutors), or adverbs (like why, when, where, and how for finite clauses) Additionally, they may start with conjunctions like "if" or "whether" for finite clauses Most transitive verbs fit this structure, with the exception of the verb "tell."
The chairman ordered silence (identified as a noun)
Verbs such as "speak" and "talk" can function as intransitive verbs, forming the subject-verb (SV) structure without requiring an object, complement, or closely linked adjunct.
Among the six verbs, only the verb order belongs to the type SVOO This pattern has a double-transitive verb followed by an indirect object and a direct object
The indirect object can also be a personal pronoun The direct object can be a noun/ noun phrase, or a that-clause
A clause can be finite or non-finite and may begin with a "wh- element," which includes pronouns like who(m), whose, which, and what, as well as determiner + noun combinations such as what time or which roads, or adverbs like why (only in finite clauses), when, where, and how Additionally, finite clauses can start with the conjunctions if or whether.
In some cases, the direct object is a non-finite clause, consisting of or containing a to-infinitive
We ordered him to leave immediately
Beside the structure SVOiOd, the verb order has also the pattern
S+V+O1+preposition+O2 In this pattern, the verb which is a transitive verb is closely linked in grammar and meaning to a prepositional phrase
We do not have the book in stock but we can order it for you
4.1.1.2 In terms of their sentence elements
The subject is the most frequently occurring element in a sentence and is characterized by a variety of features Typically, it is represented by a noun phrase, a nominal clause, or a pronoun In finite clauses, the subject is mandatory, except in imperative clauses where it is usually implied and not explicitly stated.
The judge ordered that the prisoner should be released (S is realized by a noun phrase)
I informed John of/ about the news (S is realized by a pronoun)
The six reporting verbs are transitive and require an object, fitting into the SVO and SVOO structures Within the transitive verb category, monotransitive verbs that follow the SVO pattern include order, say, and speak, while excluding verbs like tell, talk, and inform.
Ditransitive verbs occuring in type SVOO are order, tell, inform
There are two types of objects in sentences: direct objects (Od) and indirect objects (Oi) For example, in the sentence "The chairman ordered silence," the word "silence" serves a different function than "an expert" in "The manuscript requires an expert to understand it." Traditionally, "silence" is classified as a direct object, while "an expert" is considered an indirect object Notably, in sentences with two objects (SVOO structure), the first object is typically the indirect object, and the second is the direct object.
The general ordered all officers to parade at dawn
There is a certain parallel between the secondary verb type making and the
ORDER subtype of speaking, with causer corresponding to speaker and the complement clause with the making verb to the message of the ORDER verb Thus:
I forced John to go and: I ordered/ persuaded John to go
Verbs that denote action are designed to initiate events and are typically limited to modal complements In contrast, ORDER verbs primarily utilize speech to affect the Addressee and can also accommodate complements Additionally, ORDER verbs have a unique aspect, as the Addressee can be positioned before the complement clause.
I ordered/ persuaded John that his wife should sign the declaration herself
Some ORDER verbs may have a passive complement clause with ianimate subject:
General Vasey ordered the barracks to be cleaned
He likely instructed the right individuals to carry out the task, emphasizing the actions taken regarding the barracks rather than the specific identities of those who executed it.
To fully understand the structure of English sentences, it is essential to differentiate between functional categories like subject, verb, and object, and to further subclassify these into specific types such as intransitive and transitive verbs, as well as direct and indirect objects This detailed subclassification reflects both formal and functional distinctions in grammar By making these finer distinctions, we can accurately describe the combinations of constituents that form the structure of English clauses.
Verbs such as say, speak, tell, talk, and inform can introduce both direct and reported speech In reported speech, they can be followed by a "that" clause or a wh-clause to convey the message effectively.
The analysis of order focuses on syntactic features represented by nuclear constituents such as the subject (S), direct object (Od), indirect object (Oi), and non-nuclear constituents like the prepositional object (Op) and adverbials (Adv) The verbs examined are viewed from the perspective of the Speaker, who acts as a Source/Transmitter/Sender or Reporter, primarily serving as an active subject Many of these verbs permit the Hearer/Listener/Receiver/Receptor to function as an Addressee, indicated by a to-Indirct Object (Oi) or, in the case of Speak and Talk, as an instructor represented by a with-Prepositional Object (Op) Notably, Tell is particularly inclined to select the Oi and uniquely accommodates object alternation, allowing both a zero Indirect Object and a to-Indirct Object.
Transitivity influences the focus of communication acts, distinguishing between Message-oriented and Linguistic Action-oriented activities For instance, "Say" and "Tell" are transitive acts that emphasize the Object of discourse (Od) as a message, while "Speak" and "Talk" are primarily intransitive, focusing on the act of communication itself Notably, "Say" can accommodate various types of Objects, including Direct Speech or Quotes.
In the context of message-oriented NP objects, a that-/wh-clause is typically used for message-content orientation, while Say rarely selects a to-Oi, a choice more common with Tell Within the informational paradigm, Tell predominantly frames the Message-Content using a that-/wh-/to-clause, with direct speech being an infrequent occurrence There exists a normative correlation between the projecting linguistic action verb and the complement structure of the embedded clause, suggesting that that-clauses are linked to assertions and the transfer of information or knowledge, whereas to-non-finite clauses are associated with directives.
The verb "inform" typically includes an Addressee in the object slot, with the Message introduced by the prepositions "of," "on," or "about." These prepositions can be omitted before "that" and may also drop before a wh-complement The Message can pertain to a fact (that), a clarification (wh- or wh-ing complement), or indicate directional activity For instance, in the sentence "Fred informed Mary about John’s having been waiting outside her door all afternoon," the structure follows the basic construction of placing the Addressee as the object, followed by the appropriate preposition and Message.
The reporting verbs: say, speak, tell, talk, inform and order in English and their
4.2.1 In terms of their syntactics
4.2.1.1 In terms of their sentence patterns
As mentioned in 4.1.1.1, in English, the reporting verbs: say, speak, tell, talk, inform and order has two sentence patterns such as SVO and SVOO But in
Vietnamese, these verbs has only one sentence pattern, that is, SVOO (Le Bien,1998:79 and Nguyen Kim Than,1999:153)
Sentence patterns In English In Vietnamese
Table 4.3: Sentence patterns of the reporting verbs studied in English and Vietnamese
Let us see the examples:
Tôi sẽ bảo Oanh đưa cho Thứ mỗi tháng vài chục bạc
4.2.1.2 In terms of their sentence elements
In Vietnamese, the subject is the most frequently occurring element in sentences and is characterized by a variety of features Typically, the subject is represented by a noun phrase, a nominal clause, or a pronoun.
In English, reporting verbs such as "say," "speak," "tell," "talk," "inform," and "order" are categorized into two classes: monotransitive and ditransitive verbs In contrast, Vietnamese only utilizes one type of these verbs, specifically ditransitive verbs that follow the SVOO structure.
In Vietnamese, verbs can require two types of objects: the direct object (Od) and the indirect object (Oi) The direct object is typically a noun, noun phrase, or pronoun that directly receives the action of the verb Conversely, the indirect object refers to the content or outcome influenced by the action of the subject on the direct object, often expressed as a verb or verb phrase This distinction has been traditionally recognized in grammar, with the direct object denoting the primary recipient of the action and the indirect object representing the resulting effect.
We ordered him to leave immediately
Thầy giáo yêu cầu học sinh
4.2.2 In terms of their semantics
A single lexeme can have multiple interpretations in another language due to socio-cultural differences For instance, the Vietnamese verb "nói" translates into various English verbs such as say, speak, tell, talk, inform, and order In dictionaries, "nói" aligns with these synonyms in the context of expressing opinions or providing information This section will emphasize the specific meanings of these verbs along with their Vietnamese equivalents rather than their basic definitions.
4.2.2.1 Say and its Vietnamese equivalents
The term "say" fundamentally refers to the act of communicating or expressing ideas through speech This verb encompasses a spectrum of communicative acts, from simply producing spoken words to conveying affirmations or assertions Its usage varies by context, reflecting diverse attitudes and intentions of the speaker, including stating, advising, asking, and ordering.
According to “Từ điển Anh- Anh-Việt” (1996), the verb Say has many senses.The following table represents its meanings together with their Vietnamese equivalents:
The verb Meanings Vietnamese equivalents
Repeat words Give an example Express opinion Give written information Đọc
Ví dụ như Đưa ra ý kiến Thông báo, nêu rõ
Table 4.4 Different meanings of Say and their Vietnamese Equivalents
In the above table, the last four meanings are different from the basic meaning which the synonymic group has Consider some examples of Say with the last four meanings:
1 Say in English corresponds to “đọc” in Vietnamese
Try to say that line with more conviction (Thackeray, 2003)
Cố gắng đọc câu đó một cách thuyết phục hơn
In Vietnamese Dictionary (2003) by Linguistic Institute and Informatics,
„đọc‟ means „phát ra thành tiếng, thành lời theo bản viết có sẵn‟ With this sense, Say corresponds to „đọc‟ in Vietnamese
Say in English corresponds to “ví dụ như,chẳng hạn như” in Vietnamese
In English, the verb "say" in the imperative mood suggests a possibility or assumption about something being true, similar to the Vietnamese phrases "ví dụ như" or "chẳng hạn như."
Say you have an accident Who would look after you?
Chẳng hạn như anh gặp tai nạn thì ai sẽ chăm sóc?
Say in English corresponds to “cho rằng, thừa nhận rằng” in Vietnamese
The verb "say" in English is commonly used to express opinions and can be translated into Vietnamese as terms like "cho rằng" or "thừa nhận rằng." It often appears in spoken phrases such as "I must say," "I have to say," or "I would say," which convey a person's true feelings or thoughts.
I would say he is right (OALD 2003)
Tôi cho rằng anh ấy đúng
I’ll say this , they are useful.(OALD 2003)
Tôi thừa nhận rằng chúng thì có ích
4 Say in English corresponds to “thông báo, nói rõ” in Vietnamese
In English, the verb "say" can be used with inanimate nouns as subjects to convey written information, functioning to provide specific information or instructions This usage corresponds to the Vietnamese terms "thông báo" or "nói rõ."
The book doesn‟t say where he was born (LDOCE 1978)
Quyển sách không nói rõ ông ta sinh ra ở đâu
The clock says ten o‟clock (LDOCE 1978) Đồng hồ thông báo 10 giờ
4.2.2.2 Speak and its Vietnamese equivalents
The verb "speak" is a broad term that encompasses all forms of utterances, whether coherent or disconnected, and does not necessarily require a listener While it shares similarities with other verbs, its unique semantic role allows it to convey specific meanings in various contexts According to the English-English-Vietnamese Dictionary (1996), "speak" has multiple meanings, each accompanied by its Vietnamese equivalents.
The verb Meanings Vietnamese equivalents
1 To use your voice to say St
2 To have a conversation with Sb
3 To make a speech to an audience
4 To be able to use a particular language
1.Nói 2.Nói chuyện, bàn chuyện 3.Phát biểu
Table 4.5 Different meanings of Speak and their Vietnamese Equivalents
1.Speak in English corresponds to “ phát biểu” in Vietnamese
The verb "Speak" translates to "phát biểu" in Vietnamese and is used when addressing a group, particularly in formal contexts such as lectures It is typically employed in more formal situations compared to the verb "Talk."
I told him to speak on any subject he wanted.(LDOCE 2003)
Tôi bảo anh ta phát biểu về bất cứ vấn đề gì anh ta muốn
2.Speak in English corresponds to “nói được” in Vietnamese
When used as a transitive verb, "speak" highlights the Code, which is why it is commonly paired with language names, reflecting the Vietnamese expression "nói được."
Does anyone speak English here?
Có ai biết nói tiếng Anh ở đây không?
3.Speak in English corresponds to “nói đến” in Vietnamese
The verb is used to denote the topic of discourse, which subsumes speak of/ speak about In this case, it has the meaning of mentioning and corresponds to
“ nói đến” in Vietnamese For example:
What are you speaking about? (LDOCE 2003)
Bạn đang nói đến cái gì vậy ?
4.2.2.3 Tell and its Vietnamese equivalents
According to English-English-Vietnamese Dictionary (1996), the verb Tell has many meanings(except for the basic sense „nói‟),will be concerned together their Vietnamese equivalents
The verb Meanings Vietnamese equivalents
Tell To order / advise Sb to doSt
Let Sb know a secret Recognize the difference
Ra lệnh, sai bảo Mách, tiết lộ Phân biệt
Table 4 6 Different meanings of Tell and their Vietnamese Equivalents
1.Tell in English corresponds to “kể” in Vietnamese
With the sense „ narrate‟, the verb Tell corresponds to „kể‟ in Vietnamese, especially equivalent to the phrases: kể lại, kể lại rằng Like the verb Tell in
English, the prototype of „ kể‟ in Vietnamese is generally conceptualized a saying from the beginning to end of an event
” Tell me about Mr Robot ” ( Liz & Soars , J 1993)
“ Hãy kể cho tôi nghe về ông Robot ”
Language is to use, to learn a language we do not only learn what it means, but also how it is organized (Eggins, 1994) In the sense of narrating, if the
In communication, the presence of the addressee in the syntactic structure is crucial for conveying the intended message effectively This role is central to fulfilling the purpose of the communicative act However, it is possible to omit the explicit mention of the addressee in a sentence if their identity is clear from the surrounding context.
2.Tell in English corresponds to “bảo, ra lệnh” in Vietnamese
The phrase "tell in English" conveys a direct meaning, indicating that someone is required to take action This is typically expressed in English using the structure "tell somebody to do something," which carries an imperative connotation, akin to a request or command This construction implies that the speaker holds more authority than the listener.
Tell her to come down at once, and not keep me (Thackeray, 2003)
Bảo cô ấy xuống ngay, đừng bắt tôi phải chờ
Tell in English corresponds to “tiết lộ” in Vietnamese
The verb Tell in English also has the meaning of revealing a secret which
Promise you won‟t tell (OALD 2003)
Hãy hứa rằng anh sẽ không tiết lộ
3.Tell in English corresponds to “ phân biệt” in Vietnamese
The term "tell" is used to indicate the ability to distinguish one person or thing from another, as reflected in the pattern "tell somebody/something from somebody/something." This usage aligns with the Vietnamese concept of "phân biệt."
Can you tell Mary from her twin sister? (OALD, 2003)
Bạn có thể phân biệt Mary với người chị sinh đôi của cô ta không?
4.2.2.4 Talk and its Vietnamese equivalents
According to the English-English-Vietnamese Dictionary(1996), the verb
Talk has the following meanings together with its Vietnamese equivalents:
The verb Meanings Vietnamese equivalents
1 To say words in alanguage 2.To say things/ to express feelings 3.To discuss st serious / important 4.Gossip
1.Nói 2.Nói chuyện, trao đổi 3.Thảo luận
Table 4.7 Different meanings of Talk and their Vietnamese Equivalents
1.Talk in English corresponds to “nói chuyện, trao đổi” in Vietnamese
The verb "talk" signifies a discourse topic and is commonly associated with two-way conversations involving two or more individuals It typically denotes a friendly and social exchange of information or feelings, carrying a casual or informal connotation, similar to "nói chuyện" in Vietnamese Additionally, there is a subtle distinction between "talk to" and "talk with."
He was talking to his father.(Võ Sĩ Khải et al, 1996)
Anh ấy đang nói chuyện với cha anh ta
If you came here yourself, he would talk with you, I‟m sure of that
Nếu bạn đến đây, tôi chắc một điều là anh ấy sẽ trao đối với bạn
2.Talk in English corresponds to “ thảo luận, bàn luận” in Vietnamese
Some suggestions for teaching and learning the six reporting verbs in English
The reporting verbs such as say, speak, tell, talk, inform, and order can often lead to misunderstandings among teachers and learners due to their syntactic features In English, these verbs typically follow the structure S+V+O1+pre+O2, which may cause learners to incorrectly perceive it as the SVOA structure.
We do not have the book in stock but we can order it for you
The verbs "inform" and "order" have distinct meanings compared to other English verbs "Inform" refers to the act of providing information in an official manner, while "order" signifies giving instructions to perform a specific task In contrast, most other verbs generally convey the act of simply providing information.
The verb say is monotransitive verb followed by only one object:
John didn‟t say when she would return
Learners often make a fundamental mistake when studying reporting verbs A contrastive analysis reveals that while both English and Vietnamese use the SVOO structure, the order of the objects differs: in English, it follows SVOiOd, whereas in Vietnamese, it adheres to SVOdOi.
We ordered him to leave immediately
(Hồ Hải Thụy, 1993:1884) Ủy ban nhân dân huyện chỉ thị cho các xã chuẩn bị chống lũ lụt
Reporting verbs in English and Vietnamese exhibit diverse meanings, which can pose challenges for both teachers and learners in understanding their semantics Many students find it difficult to recall the various syntactic and semantic features associated with these verbs To address this issue, educators should present the meanings of these verbs in different contexts, enabling students to connect similar lexical units during the memorization process, thereby enhancing retention.
A contrastive analysis of reporting verbs in English and Vietnamese reveals structural and semantic similarities, such as the shared SVOO syntactic feature To effectively teach these verbs, including "say," "speak," "tell," "talk," "inform," and "order," it is essential for educators to possess a deep understanding of both the target and source languages Utilizing appropriate equivalences enhances the teaching and learning experience for these verbs in both languages.
English teachers must recognize cultural gaps between the source and target languages, as interlingual errors often stem from a lack of cultural understanding To address this issue, it is essential to provide students with background knowledge of history, culture, and traditions, particularly concerning speech act verbs and reporting verbs such as "say," "speak," "tell," "talk," "inform," and "order."
Understanding vocabulary involves using words that shape the image we want to project to others Language learners often grasp basic meanings from dictionaries, yet they may lack insight into the words' communication functions, appropriate register, or collocations within specific contexts Misusing vocabulary can lead to misunderstandings in communication Hence, the learning and teaching of vocabulary must be closely linked to its contextual usage.
Understanding a word requires recognizing how its meaning can change across various contexts What is adequate in one situation may not be sufficient in another Therefore, language teachers should equip their students with essential information about the contexts in which specific words are used.
Frequent in-class practice guided by teachers, along with self-study at home, is essential for students to master reporting verbs Encouraging learners to explore the diverse meanings of these verbs enables them to use them flexibly and accurately Providing more opportunities to practice reporting verbs in context will help students become familiar with their usage and differentiate between various structures.
Summary
This article examines the syntactic and semantic characteristics of the English reporting verbs: say, speak, tell, talk, inform, and order It provides a detailed analysis of their syntactic structures, focusing on two sentence patterns (SVO, SVOO) and three elements (S, V, O) Additionally, the semantics of these verbs are compared with their Vietnamese counterparts, highlighting both similarities and differences The findings indicate that the meanings of these six English verbs extend beyond standard dictionary definitions Furthermore, the study emphasizes the significance of a speaker's choice of language in relation to their understanding of the context, as speech acts may be interpreted differently across various situations, leading to multiple meanings for these reporting verbs.