Basic differences between spoken and written language in english

In the language learning process, many long-timed English learners can practice four skills listening, reading, speaking and writing well but they seem to be confused when distinguishin

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 1

PART A INTRODUCTION

1 Rationale

It can be said that nowadays English has been playing a vital role in the world as it is used as an international language In Vietnam, not only foreign visitors but also the Vietnamese natives use English as a language of work and business As a result, learning English is now considered as a necessity in society with the aim of mastering an important communicative tool Its role considered within Vietnam’s border, English is getting more and more important in the period

of innovation Thanks to English, people can perceive much of the world’s progress

in many fields, especially, in science and technology; it is also an essential tool of communication and cooperation with the foreigners in tourism, commerce as well

as foreign affairs Moreover, by means of English, people can obtain cultural knowledge of countries in which it is spoken

In the language learning process, many long-timed English learners can practice four skills (listening, reading, speaking and writing) well but they seem to

be confused when distinguishing written and spoken language This is resulted from the fact that they do not understand thoroughly some concepts and items of language in general and writing and speaking skills in particular In addition, each mode seems to possess different features In some guidance materials for English learners, to some extent, authors mentioned the differences between spoken and written languages in order to provide learners comprehensive knowledge However, hardly can people see a specific and systematic analysis of the concept As a result, many people are unfamiliar with the concept, which causes difficulties in using the English language Therefore, the mastery of basic differences between the two modes in some specific situations appears to be essential In recent years, there have been many researches about English as a second language of Vietnamese students However, the differences between spoken and written language in English language

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 2

are remained unnoticed The above-mentioned reality has inspired me to choose the thesis:

“Basic differences between spoken and written language in English”

By observation and limited personal experience, it is believed that some Vietnamese using English to communicate, for some reason, confuse between spoken and written language As a result, spoken language and written language are not comprehensively distinguished, which results in poor communicative skill of English learners It is hoped that the study will be of certain contribution to the distinction of spoken and written language as well as to better the English skill of general learners

2 Aim of the study

The aims of the thesis are:

- To find out the basic differences between spoken and written language based on linguistic and communicative features of the English language

- To find out the reasons of the differences

- To propose some techniques to overcome the problems

3 Methodology

To fulfill the thesis’ aims, the researcher mainly relies on two methods:

- Descriptive method: by observing and reading reference books and documents in order to ensure that the study is valid, systematic, scientific and applicable

- Comparative method: to find out the differences

In addition, some subsidiary methods will be carried out, based on:

- Experiential method: by means of my personal observation during English learning process

- Consulting method: through experiences and noble ideas from teachers, friends and especially my supervisor

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 3

4 Scope of the study

Due to the restrain of my ability and time, the study could not cover all matters It only focuses on some basic differences between the spoken and written language in general English without further study on English for Specific Purpose (ESP) or Specialized English

5 Design of the study

The study includes:

Part A: “Introduction” which presents for the choices of the study

Chapter 3:

“Some common errors and the techniques to overcome the problems”

Part C: Conclusion which summaries the study and wishes

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 4

PART B DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 1 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

1.1 Functions of language

It is believed that a language is a system of communication used within a particular social group Inevitably, the emotions created by a group of loyalty in the way of objective judgment about language When studying on a language, we usually wonder what the functions of language are The answer is often that it functions as a medium of communication Some linguists are not satisfied with this answer as they suppose that it is, in some point, right but too large to understand the nature of language Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, classified linguistic functions of language into two broad categories namely pragmatic and magical (or ritual) The magical function is that in which language is used for the purposes of,

in his famous phrase, “phatic communion,” where “ties of union are created by a mere exchange of words.” In phatic communion, words “fulfill a social function and that is their principle aim, but they are neither the result of intellectual reflection, nor do they necessarily arouse reflection in the listener” [32, p.315] On another hand, Jackobson [23] divided language’s functions into six categories influenced by Karl Buhler’s Organon-Model:

- The referential function corresponds to the factor of context and describes

a situation, object or mental state The descriptive statements of the referential function can consist of both definite descriptions and deictic words, e.g "The autumn leaves have all fallen now."

- The expressive (emotive/affective) function relates to the addresser

(sender) and is best exemplified by interjections and other sound changes that do not alter the denotative meaning of an utterance but do add information about the Addresser's (speaker's) internal state, e.g "Wow, what a marvelous view!"

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 5

- The conative function engages the addressee (receiver) directly and is best

illustrated by vocatives and imperatives, e.g "Linh! Come inside and have lunch!"

- The poetic function focuses on "the message for its own sake" (the code

itself, and how it is used) as claimed by Duranti [7] and is the operative function in poetry as well as slogans

- The phatic function is language for the sake of interaction and is therefore

associated with the Contact/Channel factor The phatic function can be observed in greetings and casual discussions of the weather, particularly with strangers It also provides the keys to open, maintain, verify, or close the communication channel:

"Hello?", "Ok?", "Hmmm", "Bye"

- The metalingual (metalinguistic/reflexive) function is the use of

language (what Jakobson calls "code") to discuss or describe itself

Another classification to be mentioned is that associated with the name of the Austrian psychologist, Karl Buhler [29] He was concerned with the function of language, not so much of the culture but of the individual Buhler made a distinction into expressive language that is anything other than speaker and addressee

According to Richards and Rodger as they cited for their reviews that “the primary function of language is for interaction of communication” [43, p.71] In

addition, Ogden and Richards [39, p.227], in their classic work The Meaning of

- Symbolization of reference

- Expression of attitude to listener

- Expression of attitude to referent

- Promotion of effect intended

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 6

has two subtypes: experiential and logical function In serving this function, language also gives structure to experience and help to determine our way of seeing the world as well as combining things in a logical way Another function to be mentioned is the interpersonal function This one serves to establish and maintain social relation: for the expression of social roles created by language itself The last function of language as advocated by Halliday is the textual function This function

is concerned with language itself and with the features of the situation in which it is used It enables not only the speakers or writers to construct texts or connected passages of a discourse that is situationally relevant, but also the listeners or readers

to distinguish a text from a random set of sentences

1.2 Discourse and text

On the other hand, to clarify this thesis’ aims better as well as to give a better understanding in the theories of language, I also want to mention some definitions

of two others concepts along with language: discourse and text

1.2.1 Discourse

On the concept of discourse, according to Schiffrin [45, p.20], there are three definitions of discourse which are influenced by different paradigms where they reflect to different assumption between formalist, functionalist, and formalist- functionalist dichotomy Discourse is often defined in two ways: a particular unit of language (above the sentence), and a particular focus (on language use) These two definitions of discourse reflect the difference between formalist and functionalist paradigm He also suggests two prominent definitions, namely as a unit of language larger than a sentence and as language use

- The first is the classic definition of discourse as derived from formalist assumptions is that discourse as a unit above the sentence The consideration of discourse as a unit above the sentence allows one to focus quite easily upon how syntactic properties of clauses or sentences contribute to higher level structures of a

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 7

text, e.g specific properties of sentences, such as word order to hypotactic versus paratactic coordination, can be related to the properties of texts Second, structural view of discourse places discourse in a hierarchy of language structure thus developing the view that one can describe in a unitary way that continues unimpeded from morpheme to clause in sentence to discourse

- The second definition to be considered replaces what is basically a formalist trust with a functionalist trust discourse is language use Schiffrin considered a functionalist view: “The study of discourse is the study of any aspect

of language use.” [45, p.31] Another statement is of Brown and Yule: “the analysis

of discourse is necessarily, the analysis of language use As such, it cannot be restricted the description of linguistics forms independent of the purposes or functions which these forms are designed to serve in human affairs.” [2, p.1]

- The third definition of discourse that attempts to bridge the functionalist dichotomy discourse is utterances This view captures the idea that discourse is above other language units; however, by saying that utterance (rather than sentence) is a unit of which discourse is comprised, it can be suggested that discourse arises not as a collection of decontextualized units of language structure but of inherently contextualized units of language use The main problem with this definition is that the notion of “utterances” is not really that clear As in many linguists’ point of view, utterances are contextualized sentences, i.e they are context bound (as well as text bound) Thus, defining discourse as utterances seems

formalist-to balance both functional emphases on how language is used in context and the formal emphasis on extended pattern

Basically, to many linguists, a discourse is of a larger unit compared to sentences or clause Stubbs explained that, “discourse analysis refers to the attempts

to study the organization of language above the sentence or above the clause and therefore to study larger linguistic unit such as conversational exchanges or written texts.” [47, p.1] The examples of discourse will be illustrated bellow:

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 8

of Africa Then in 1492 Christopher Columbus sailed directly across the Atlantic

He thought he had reached India, but he had really discovered the American continents and islands in the unknown seas until those lands had become familiar

1.2.2 Text

“A text is a stretch of language which seems appropriately coherent in actual use That is, the text ‘coheres’ in its real-world context, semantically and pragmatically, and it is also internally or linguistically coherent For this letter facet, the term ‘cohesive’ has been applied, referring to the actual forms of linguistic

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 9

linkage.” [41, p.1423] Basically, a text will be considered one as it satisfies the below things:

- Text is defined as language in use, i.e in terms of function and situation

- Text is internally structured

- A text must display a ‘cohesive harmony’ logics (make sense with respect

to the outer world)

- The basic unit of a text: sentence

- No structural patterns as in sentences (e.g an interrogative text versus an interrogative sentence)

- A text – unlike sentence – is not a grammatical unit but rather a semantic and even a pragmatic one [41, p.1423]

Then, what exactly are the differences between discourse and text as they seem to be very confusing “…straddles two different, if complementary, ways of looking at language beyond the sentence We might say that one way is to focus

attention on the second part of my definition: sentences in combination, and the other to focus on the first part: the use of sentences” [52, p.90] According to

Widdowson, we come to a conclusion that text is made up of sentences while discourse is basically the use of such sentences

1.3 Basic theory of spoken and written language

1.3.1 Spoken language

1.3.1.1 Nature of spoken language

Communication between humans is an extremely complex and changing phenomenon People only engage in a conversation for good reasons The possible reasons are to say something, to have communicative purposes, or to listen

ever-to something, etc

However, in the language learning process, we need to distinguish the spoken and written language, which helps us use the language more naturally and correctly in particularly situations As Brown and Yule [3] suggested, the

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 10

supposition that learning the spoken language does indeed mean learning to speak the written language together with a few characteristics spoken phrases would be very reasonable

For English learners, this is an important idea in order to find methods to improve their speaking ability in class accurately

For further understanding about the nature of spoken language, Brown [4, p.4] pointed out some suggestions as follow:

- Grammatically complete sentences are not always used in speaking because

it has its own system patterns and structures

- Speakers develop different speaking strategies on the basis of the purpose

Being aware of the nature of spoken language, learners can gradually know its own rules and what they produce in speaking and activities is somewhat spontaneous and comprehensible Therefore, less formal and everyday language seems to be favorable in speaking and learner’s purpose as “to be able to express their transactional intention” (Brown and Yule) will come true

1.3.1.2 The characteristic of spoken language

It is generally accepted that while different types of spoken language have much in common, they may also vary according to other contextual parameters, such as the following, the degree to which they are planned or unplanned, whether they are informational or involved and whether they are explicit or situationally dependant As a result, it is essential to understand the characteristics of spoken language:

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 11

- Spoken language uses many non-verbal clues such as facial expression, gestures, familiarity of topic, etc, that are involved

- Spoken language uses very little subordination and few passives

- Spoken language frequently uses reference to things outside the “text” such

as the weather This kind of reference is called “exospheric”

- Spoken language uses sounds and many language clues such as: sentence, fillers (well, oh, hmm, I mean, etc)

For example: A: Excuse me, Mr David May I ask you something?

B: Yes, Linda Go on, what is it?

A: May I ask for a day off next Tuesday?

B: Well, to be honest, we’re very busy at this time Is it important? A: Eh, yes, it is, really It’s my sister’s wedding

B: Oh, well! In that case, of course you can

- Spoken language uses many uncompleted sentences, some broke or ungrammatical structures, repetition of words or phrases, etc

For example: A: Mornin’, Tina, I’ve brought you the books

B: Oh, hello, James Eh, what books?

A: You know, those with things you need for the test

B: Oh, those books! I thought that I told you not to bring them ‘cause

I pass the exam

A: Ah, silly me

1.3.1.3 Linguistic features of spoken English in conversation

Conversation is a direct talk of two or more participants in specific situation and time A conversation can be related to the extra-lingual context and responses

of the listeners Speakers may be prompted to vary the speed of speech within segments, to lengthen pauses and to repeat words or to add modifications according

to the apparent degree of comprehension or momentary in attention on the part of

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 12

listeners The speaker may, nevertheless, follow the whole of conversation if he apprehends linguistic features of conversation which are:

- The disappearance of grammatical or lexical materials

Example: Oh, it does you good (to have a good) laugh once in a while, doesn’t it?

Since conversation is not scripted in advance, it rarely uses the width of vocabulary and the complicated structures which are normally associated with written English or more formal style of the language

- Many devices are served for conversation such as Conversation Tags and fillers, exclamations, expletives, hesitations and even longer formulae: isn’t it, I think, I mean, you know, etc

For example: A: Well, I must leave now

B: Must I accompany you?

A: No need Me? It’s totally fine

- Conversation is usually made up of simple phrases and compound verbs; the limited vocabulary is used to serve the basic functions of agreement, acceptance, request, and greeting, etc

For example: A: Good morning Peter How are you?

B: Good morning, Pete I’m all great And you?

A: Quite excellent! Got to go! Bye!

B: Yeah, see you

- Completed utterances in conversation may be phrases which would be regarded as fragmentary in writing There is often considerable use of contractions Example: Haven’t seen you since last week

- The arrangement of words gives more play to the intonation patterns of spoken language Instead of saying “Do you like it?” we remark “You like it, do you?”

Once linguistic features of conversation are deeply grasped, there are no trouble, culture, language, and information gap and different level of knowledge

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 13

background, in conversation Thus, it is important to understand about features of spoken English language in conversation

1.3.2 Written language

1.3.2.1 Nature of written language

There are many definitions of writing given by researchers Hedge [18] declared that writing skill was often relegated to the status of “homework” due to limitation of time and syllabus outcomes Writing is a process, not a “product” which has been far being new Also, in Flower and Hayers’ opinion [10], writing is

a complex process of exploring one’s thought, discovering ideas and generating meaning In this way, the writing process is a sharp tool to discover meaning, to perfect a piece of writing both in thoughts and in grammatical accuracy and to bring intelligence to the writing Therefore, Byrne [5] declares writing is a process of encoding (putting your message into words) carried out with the reader’s expectations; or, as confirmed by Nunan, “a complex, cognitive process that required sustained intellectual effort over a considerable period of time” [38, p.273] Writing continues to serve as a vehicle for language practice, and necessarily so, but this function is integrated into a broader and more diversified one

Byrne [5] pointed out that any piece of writing is an attempt to communicate something The writers should have a goal or purpose in mind, they have to establish and maintain contact with their readers In addition, they have to organize and do this through the use of certain logical and grammatical devices

In fact, writing skill is a complicated Many learners of English have the misconception that if they can speak well, they can automatically write well However, things do not appear as easy as expected Therefore, to write well, learners should follow these steps before starting to write:

- Think critically and clear before writing Your thought is exactly reflected

in you piece of work

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 14

- Writing is concerned much with lettering which is seen, read, or heard (while being read out loud) Using language with precision can avoid common errors of grammar and usage

- Remember four important questions:

+ Who to write for?

+ What to write about?

+ Why to write it?

+ How to write it?

- The writing process consists of some basic steps:

+ Prewriting + Drafting + Revising + Editing + Proofreading These above-mentioned steps should be practice regularly because understanding is essential but not enough Practice makes perfect

As Gleason pointed out, “a written language is basically a presentation of a spoken language It is, however, very seldom an exact reflection” [12, p.425] For spoken language, it uses sounds and many language clues, such as sentence fillers (eh, oh, well, etc), unfinished sentences, some broke or ungrammatical structures, etc As a result, the speaker focuses more on what he wants to say that how it is said On the contrary, written language uses only letters, punctuation and precious rules of grammar as it requires mastery not only of grammatical and rhetorical devices but also of conceptual and judgment elements Thus, it is useful to grasp five general components in using written language:

- Language use skill develops the ability to write correct and appropriate sentences

- Mechanical skill expresses the ability to use correctly those conventions peculiar to the written language

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 15

- Treatment of content deals with the ability to think creatively and develops thoughts, including all irrelevant information

- Stylistic skill proves the ability to manipulate sentences and paragraphs and

to use language effectively

- Judgment skill is the ability to write in an appropriate manner for a particular purpose with a particular audience in mind, together with an ability to select, organize, and order relevant information

McDonough and Christopher Shaw [34] also proposed three features of written language:

- There is an emphasis on accuracy

- The focus of attention is the finished product, whether a sentence or a whole composition

- It often has a consolidating function

After all, studying the nature of written language, learners can know that it is the creation of a speech form which approximates an oral rendition of the literacy language i.e language is used to write is more formal an more accurate in grammar

1.3.2.2 Characteristics of written language

Writing is more demanding and time-consuming than speaking as it requires much patience and constant practice For these reasons, written language is focused

on some following characteristic:

- Performance : Spoken language is fleeting Written language is permanent (or as permanent as paper and computer disks are), and therefore the reader has an opportunity to return again and again

- Processing Time : Most reading contexts allow readers to read at their own rate They are not forced into following the rate of delivery, as in spoken language

- Distance : The written word allows messages to be sent across two dimensions: physical distance and temporal distance The task of the reader is to

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 16

interpret language that was written in some other place at some other time with only the written words themselves as contextual clues

- Orthography : In spoken language, we have phonemes that correspond to writing graphemes But we also have stress, rhythm, juncture, intonation, pauses, volume, voice quality, settings, and nonverbal cues, all of which enhance the message In writing we have graphemes – punctuation, picture or chart lends a helping hand But these written symbols stand alone as the one set of signals that the reader must perceive Because of the frequent ambiguity that is present in a good deal of writing, readers must do their best to infer, interpret, and to “read between the lines”

- Complexity : Writing and speech represent different modes of complexity,

and the most significant difference is in the nature of clauses Spoken language tends to have shorter clauses connected by more coordinate conjunctions, while writing has longer clauses and more subordination

- Vocabulary : It is true that written English typically utilizes a greater

variety of lexical items then spoken conversational English Because writing allows the writer more processing-time, because of a desire to be precise in writing, and simply because of the formal conventions of writing, lower-frequency words often appear

- Formality : Writing is quite frequently more formal than speech Formality refers to prescribed forms that certain written messages must hold on to

All in all, written language is contained in printed documents, such as newspapers, magazines, books and in hand-written matters, such as found in notebooks or letters Intonation contours, stress patterns, junctures and tone of voice are absent in written language However, spelling, words boundaries and punctuation are present, giving the important of written language in human transactions; its automatic recognition has practical significance

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 17

1.3.3 Conditions of speech and writing

1.3.3.1 Processing conditions of speech and writing

During English learning process, practicing well its four skills (listening, reading, speaking, and writing) is extremely essential However, learners should understand more about conditions of speech and writing in which contain processing conditions The principal features refer to speech and writing which can

be traced to the processing conditions of communication involves the time factor In fact, that the words are being spoken as decided affects the speaker’s ability to plan and organize the message as well as to control the language being used Obviously, the speaker’s sentences cannot be as long or as complicated as in writing in which the writer has more time to plan and draft what would be written In speech, speakers usually make grammatical mistakes as they lose their place in the grammar

of their utterances Mistakes also occur in both the message and the wording Learners forget things that they intend to say and even what they have already said, which, apparently, results in tautology

The words are also being spoken as they are being understood In writing, as the readers can read as many times as they are pleased, they have a plentiful amount

of time to ruminate on what they have read However, in speech, once the words slip out, they are gone As a result, the listeners might have memory problems which can lead to misunderstandings, or, to a request for repetitions

The form of spoken language is affected by the time limitation and the associated problems of planning, memorizing and of production under pressure At the same time, the resulting conventions of spoken language are different in certain important respect from those of written language

1.3.3.2 Reciprocity conditions of speech and writing

Another feature to be considered important is a reciprocal activity In most conversation, there are always two participants, the speakers and the listeners As a result, if learners speaking English, in some situation, make mistakes, they can

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 18

easily correct themselves immediately At the same time, the listeners can also generally express agreement, understanding and disagreement This feature greatly differs speaking from writing, and it compensates in a large part for the limitation that derives from the processing condition

In writing, a considerable part of the skills come from both the reader’s and the writer’s ability to imagine the other’s point of view The writer has to anticipate the reader’s understanding and predict a potential problem In the progress, the writers have to guess the readers’ knowledge background in order to know about what they will be able to understand, and even what they will want to read Readers,

of course, are in the same situation as, suppose that if the information is not clear to them or it is so clear that they need not to read the book, the readers have no way of signaling this to the writers On the other hand, there is a different position They need patience and imagination like writers and readers However, to assure that communication is taken place, the speakers have to pay attention to their listeners and adapt their messages according to the listeners’ actions

If the processing condition acts as limitation on learners’ capacity for expression, affecting the size of the units learners use, reciprocity is one which challenges them to show continual sensitivity and the ability to adjust the use of the language These above-mentioned conditions are those that help to characterize the use of spoken and written language in English

1.4 The relationship between written and spoken language

1.4.1 Appropriate method of communication

Written language emerged in societies as a result of cultural changes which created new communities needs The spoken language could not meet these needs, however Together with the emergence of cultures based on agriculture rather than hunting and gathering, people needed permanent records that can be referred to over and over again This demand led to the emergence of a new form of language, writing According to Halliday [16], written and spoken language has some basic

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 19

functions, such as getting things done, providing information and entertaining i.e spoken and written language may involved in expressing ideas and opinions, expressing wish or desire to do its own linguistic features

Vocabulary, rules and grammatical structures have to be extremely exact and formal For example, relative pronoun can be omitted in many cases except for legal-related documents

Example: + Companies always make attempt or obtain orders for the products

from any person to whom they may be directed

+ I undertook to indemnify them for expenses incurred on my behalf

Vocabulary and structures used in legal-related documents are relatively old such as “hereby”, “therewith”, “thereto”, “whatever”, etc Ideas are written in detail and there is no abbreviated structure

Example: + All matters whatever related to the law will be solved promptly

In a paragraph, sentences can be combine with “and”, “or”; there is no punctuation like comma, full stop, colon, etc This expenses attachment, inseparability Moreover, there are many subordinate clauses and passive structures

There are many aims of communication, such as negotiating and solving a particular problem, or establishing social relationships To achieve these purposes,

we need to find an appropriate method of communication, which fulfills them In the communication method, a question is made that when should be spoken or written language used? The answer is that, spoken language should be used in some following situations:

- Asking for assistance and advice

- Asking for directions

- Making an appointment through telephone

- Talking socially, etc

These are, of course, just few of the situations to use spoken language In some cases, written language should be used to get better results:

- Letters to apply for a job - Office memoranda

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 20

To sum up, written language is used to communicate with others who are

different in space and time, or for those occasions on which permanent or

semi-permanent records are required Conversely, spoken language is mostly used in

direct communication

1.4.2 Informal and formal language

Formal language is, for most parts, thought as a written language “In

contrast to spoken English, a distinctive feature of academic writing style is for

writers to choose the more formal alternative when selecting a verb, noun, or other

part of speech” [27, p.5 – 9] In general, it is confined to the realm of the serious:

text books, academic or technical work, and most university essays In addition,

there are some features to be found in formal language:

- Using inanimate nouns as subject

Example: + The inclement climatic conditions obliged the President to return

earlier than scheduled

- Using passive structures

Example: + active: Werner Heisenberg formulated the uncertainty principle in

1927

+ passive : The uncertainty principle was formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1927

- Using verbal nouns

Example: + The crew was obliged to return earlier than planned due to poor

weather conditions

Yet, formal writing can easily become incomprehensible as it is too

convoluted and wordy

On the other hand, informal English is the language spoken by most people

daily As suggested by Leech and Svartvik [30], informal language (or colloquial

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 21

language) is the language of private conversation, of personal letters, etc It is the form of language that a native speaking child becomes familiar with Because it is generally easier to understand than formal English, it is often used nowadays in public communication of a popular kind; for example, advertisements and popular newspapers mainly employ colloquial or informal style While educated speakers retain their knowledge of formal rules, they are more relaxed about grammar and less concerned with vocabulary when they are engaged in ordinary conversation Like formal language, features of informal language are also found:

- See humans as the subjects of sentences

Example: + Please await instructions before dispatching items

+ He established her own brand named “Versace” in 1978

- Using active structures

Example: + Please wait for instructions before sending the items off

+ The local people built this house in 1989

+ You can control the trains this way and if you do that, you can be quite sure that they’ll be able to run more safely and more quickly than they would no matter how bad the weather gets

- Using verb structures

Example: + Don’t send anything off until you’re told to do so

It is a fact that written language is more formal than spoken one However,

we sometimes use informal language to write to our close relationships, or we also meet this case on newspaper articles and columns, etc and vice-versa, in summit conferences, international forums, diplomatic meetings, or letters related to government, business… formal language is used Thus, it is essential to make decision on which situation we can use formal language or informal language Next, there will be two letters with different style, forms that will help learners distinguish formal letter from informal one

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 22

● Formal letter [35]

Expert Marketing Consultants

21 Blackett Street Manchester MC1 3PQ

Thank you for the letter of 24th June

I was very interested to hear about the drama festival you are holding in the summer and sympathize with your aims and needs Unfortunately I am unable to help you as out company has a fixed budget for sponsorship and at present no new ventures will

be considered until next year I hope your festival is successful and can only suggest that perhaps you contact us again next year

In the meantime, good luck!

Yours faithfully

Peter

Marketing Manager

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 23

● Informal letter [53]

3 Hamilton Street London NW6 7GE

28th September

Dear Katherine,

Thank you very much for your letter Sorry I haven’t been in touch for ages I have been stuck with the arrangement for my mom’s birthday That’s my present to her, a super-secret party

Now, that I have just started school, I have a lot of homework to do and more things

to learn But I’m alright, besides I’m usually tired and bored Can’t wait for the weekend! My mom asked about you a few times, maybe you should come and have dinner with us sometimes Dad will cook something delicious if you decide to come and join our dinner in family

And, what about out friend, Jena? Have you spoken to her, recently? I’m really looking forward to seeing both of you I hope you’d getting on with your family, because last time you had a fight

I must stop now and go to the math tutorials Give my love to your parents Write

me soon

Love from,

Dana

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 24

1.4.3 Spoken and written language in English discourse

It is said that speaking and writing are both productive skills They are used with different means of communication: sound and letter respectively However, the writing is relatively different from speech One of the reasons for that is the two types of discourse differed in some basic characteristics “These may refer to vocabulary, style, grammar, content, the activity of the producers and receivers of the different kinds of discourse” [40, p.68] He also gave some basic differences between written and spoken discourse

- Permanence

Written discourse is fixed and stable so the reading can be done at whatever time, speed and level of thoroughness the individual reader wishes On the contrary, spoken text is fleeting, and moving on in real time The listener must, generally speaking, follow what is said at the speed set by the speaker

- Explicitness

Brown and Yule [3] suggested that language used in the interactional mode

is listener oriented Transactional uses of language are those in which language is

being used primarily for communicating information They are “message” oriented rather than “listener” oriented Accurate and coherent communication of the message is important, as well as confirmation that the message has been understood Explicitness and directness of meaning is essential, in comparison with the vagueness of interactional language… Examples of language being used primarily for a transactional purpose include news broadcasts, lectures, descriptions and instructions The written text is explicit with the clear context and all references However, in speech the real-time situation and knowledge can share between speakers and listeners Some information can be assumed and need not be explicit

For example: A: He’s got as much as five million dollars

B: That much?

A: Sure enough They say he’s still a bachelor, and as he’s already on the wrong side of 60, no woman takes any interest in him

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 25

- Density

In speech, the information is confusing through many more words There are

a lot of repetitions, glosses, and “filler” producing a text that is noticeably longer and with more redundant passages In contrast, the content is presented much more densely in writing

- Detachment

The writing of a text is detached in time and space from its reading; the writers normally work alone without acquaintances (readers) Speaking usually takes place in immediate interaction with known listeners with the availability of immediate feedback

- Standard language

Writing normally uses a generally acceptable standard variety of the language whereas speaking may sometimes be in a region or other limited context dialect and speaker’s accent is so important for the listeners

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 26

- Slowness of production, speed and reception

Writing is much slower than speaking because the writer has to think and compose what he really wants to write On the other hand, we can usually read a piece of text and understand it much faster we can take it in the same text if we listen while someone reads it aloud to us

Penny [40] concluded that to accurately use spoken or written discourse, we have to distinguish their characteristics as well as discover some similarities

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 27

CHAPTER 2 BASIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SPOKEN AND WRITTEN

LANGUAGES IN ENGLISH

The discussion of differences between oral and written language has a long and respectable history Aristotle, in The Art of Rhetoric [1], pointed out that writing and speech differ in both function and style In this chapter of the thesis, a distinction between spoken and written language in terms of vocabulary, grammatical structures, style and situation will be carried out

2.1 Vocabulary

Vocabulary can be roughly understood as words in a language and this leads

to a suggestion that “Words are pieces of language which carry bits of meaning Knowing many words does not guarantee a person will be able to speak a language, but not knowing enough words can prevent a person from effectively speaking or understanding a language.” [11, p.23]

Sometimes it is difficult to use vocabulary Questions are always asked that how can this words used? Or whether this word is suitable for style or situation? Thus, the aim of putting vocabulary into written and spoken languages is to find their differences in use

First of all, we consider it in the term of lexical density with two items of

vocabulary Lexical item (content or lexical words) and grammatical item (function words) Written English generally has a much denser pattern of words, it is more lexically dense If we define lexical density as the number of content words in a clause, then written English has a higher lexical density than spoken English [16, p.347]

Nguyen Vu Linh – Group K18A2 – Course 2011 - 2015 28

For example, the written text is more lexically dense than the spoken version:

- Written: Obviously the government is frightened of union reaction to its move to impose proper behavior on unions

In the above example, it consists of 17 words, in which there are 9 underlined lexical items and the rest of grammatical items

- Spoken: Obviously the government is frightened how the unions will react

if it tries to make them behave properly

In contrast, in spoken example, a sentence contains fewer lexical items than grammatical ones It only contains 8 lexical words on the total of 18 words It can

be said to have a lexical density of 8

Other equivalents are given below [16, p.81]:

Every previous visit had left me with

a sense of the futility of further action on

my part

Whenever I'd visited there before, I'd ended up feeling that it would be futile if

I tried to do anything more

Violence changed the face of once

peaceful Swiss cities

The cities in Switzerland had once been peaceful, but they changed when people became violent

Improvements in technology have

reduced the risks and high costs

associated with simultaneous

installation

Because the technology has improved its less risky than it used to be when you install them at the same time, and it doesn't cost so much either

Opinion in the colony greeted the

promised change with enthusiasm

The people in the colony rejoiced when it was promised that things would change in this way

Therefore, we come to a conclusion that lexical density is a criterion for distinguishing written language from spoken language