The significance o f the topic
Gift giving and receiving is a universal social ritual that occurs across all societies, serving to strengthen relationships between the giver and recipient This process of gift exchange functions as a form of reciprocity and social integration, facilitating social cohesion Scholars like Schieffelin (1980) view gift giving as a rhetorical act in social communication, while researchers such as Belk (1976, 1979), Caplow (1982), and Cheal (1988) highlight its role in maintaining social ties and serving as a symbolic means of communication within social relationships.
Gift-giving and receiving are highly significant to marketers because of their substantial economic impact, especially in industrialized nations For instance, occasions like Christmas in the USA generate over 30% of retail sales and more than 50% of retail profits, highlighting the holiday's importance to the retail sector (Rugimbana, Donahay, Neal, Polonsky, 2003) Additionally, annual US gift expenditures exceed $100 billion, demonstrating the enormous consumer spending involved in gift-giving traditions (Ruth et al., 1999).
Gift-giving has become a significant sector of the economy, with U.S business gift expenditures rising from $200 million annually in the 1950s to approximately $1.8 billion in 1992, representing about 21% of total consumer and business gifts According to McGrath (1995), the gift-giving industry is a substantial market, and by 2004, the U.S gift market—focused on purchasing gifts for family and friends—was valued at $253 billion, with nearly one in ten dollars spent at retail dedicated to gifts The gift industry is highly organized, with the 1985 U.S Census of Retail Trade identifying 23,429 gift shops across the country, each generating significant annual sales.
-1- in excess o f $500,000 Gifts purchased in gift shops, ignoring department stores and other sources, approach $12 billion annually.
To succeed in the gift business, marketers must thoroughly understand all aspects of gift giving and receiving to develop effective marketing strategies While research has identified various factors influencing gift exchanges, the interaction between consumers’ prior brand attitudes and the giver-recipient relationship remains unclear Exploring how these dynamics impact consumer ambivalence, post-purchase brand perceptions, and relationship realignment offers valuable opportunities for innovative marketing approaches.
Gift giving is a deeply rooted social tradition in Vietnam, practiced across families, significant relationships, social institutions, and business contexts Vietnamese gifting customs are influenced by thousands of years of tradition, including Chinese-influenced Confucian principles The type of relationship and the specific gift-giving occasion significantly affect consumer involvement and purchasing behavior Today, consumers in Vietnam conduct more extensive searches and tend to buy more expensive, high-quality gifts for major life events like weddings, which are low-frequency but large-scale, compared to smaller, more frequent celebrations like birthdays These evolving gift-giving practices present valuable opportunities for marketers to target the Vietnamese gift market effectively.
Problem statement and objective
Both academic and managerial needs for future research motivate this study to find out “which variables may affect consumer’s brand attitudes and giver-recipient
Most research on gift giving and receiving has traditionally focused on the gift giver, with limited attention to the role of the receiver, despite their significant influence in marketing The receiver's presence and preferences motivate the giver's decision to purchase a gift, making the receiver a crucial component in the gift exchange process Additionally, the nature of the relationship between giver and receiver determines the appropriateness and selection of gifts for various occasions Understanding the receiver's perspective enables marketers to develop targeted strategies that enhance gift relevance and consumer engagement.
This article explores how the gift business can develop special gifts tailored to target customers for specific occasions It emphasizes the importance of understanding how recipients’ perceptions of incongruity, ambivalence, or conflicts between prior brand attitudes and their relationship with the giver influence attitudes toward the gift and brand The study investigates whether recipients can change their attitudes towards the gift’s brand and the giver-recipient relationship in various receiving situations To explain this psychological process, the article considers coping mechanisms rooted in balance theory, congruity theory, and involvement theory, which help understand how consumers respond and adapt to gift-giving contexts.
Therefore, this thesis aims to answer the following research questions:
Different gift receiving situations are significantly influenced by the recipient’s prior brand attitudes and the existing giver-recipient relationship, which together shape feelings of ambivalence or incongruity upon gift receipt These factors affect post-gift outcomes by impacting the recipient’s post-transaction brand attitude and the realignment of the giver-recipient relationship Understanding how prior perceptions and relationship dynamics influence recipient reactions can help optimize gift strategies and enhance relationship satisfaction after gift exchange.
2 In-which gift receiving situations, the gift-recipient has greatest change in brand attitude systematically?
3.-' ĨIÌ' which gift receiving situations, the gift-recipient has greater change in brand attitude systematically?
Consequently, the specific objectives o f this research are as follows:
The first objective is to clarifying the concept o f consumer ambivalence Í1)
This article explores the role of gift giving and receiving in shaping brand attitudes and relationship dynamics It aims to contribute to the gift giving-receiving theory by examining how different gift receiving situations influence brand perception changes and the realignment of giver-recipient relationships Specifically, it addresses how resolving the recipient’s incongruity and ambivalence can impact their perception of the brand and strengthen or modify the existing relationship Additionally, the article presents marketing strategies rooted in the gift receiving context to enhance brand engagement and foster stronger giver-recipient connections.
Scope o f the study
This article explores the development of a comprehensive model of gift receiving situations, considering variables such as the recipient’s prior brand attitudes and the giver-recipient relationship These factors are key determinants that influence changes in brand attitudes and relationship dynamics post-gift receipt, guided by psychological frameworks like balance theory, congruity theory, and involvement theory Despite efforts to ensure research rigor, certain limitations related to scope remain unavoidable, highlighting areas for future investigation.
This study focuses on the positive relationship between the giver and the recipient, emphasizing the importance of mutual liking in gift-giving We did not examine negative interactions, such as situations where the giver likes the recipient but the recipient does not feel the same, since such dynamics are uncommon in daily life Typically, individuals are less inclined to give gifts to those they do not like, highlighting the significance of positive social bonds in the gift-giving process.
Another aspect of brand perception focuses on the brand attitude dimension In conceptualizing 'brand attitude,' numerous attributions contribute to shaping consumers' perceptions Primarily, attitudes toward a brand are viewed through the lens of the recipient's emotional response, highlighting the importance of emotional connection in building positive brand associations and influencing consumer behavior.
•attributica in this research (favorable or not).
This study's third limitation relates to the selection of participants, as only first-year female undergraduate students were involved Male students were excluded due to their lower frequency of gift receiving, which results in limited experience and could potentially skew the study’s findings.
This research explores the giver's attitude towards gift giving, assuming that the giver always appreciates the gift they present The primary motivation for gift giving is to express genuine emotions to the recipient Understanding the giver’s positive attitude and emotional intent is essential for analyzing the dynamics of gift exchange and its psychological impact.
The study focuses on assessing the immediate impact of gift receipt on the recipient's attitude toward both the brand and the giver, measured right after participants read the scenario While short-term attitude changes are examined, long-term effects are not addressed due to the limitations of the experimental design However, insights into long-term attitudes are explored through in-depth interviews, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the lasting influence of gifting experiences.
These limitations have prompted the study to proceed so as to minimize or avoid possible errors.
Literature review 6
Consumer ambivalence in gift-giving/receiving
This section reviews existing literature to define consumer ambivalence, with a particular focus on its manifestation in gift-giving and receiving contexts Understanding consumer ambivalence is essential to grasp how conflicting feelings influence purchasing decisions and gift-related behaviors The review highlights the significance of emotional and cognitive factors contributing to ambivalence, emphasizing its impact on consumer satisfaction and decision-making processes Recognizing the role of consumer ambivalence in gift exchanges provides valuable insights for marketers and researchers aiming to enhance consumer experience and engagement This foundational understanding informs the current study's exploration of how ambivalence shapes consumer behaviors in gift-related transactions.
Although consumer ambivalence is less explored in marketing research, it has a well-established presence in psychology and sociology, with seminal studies such as Otnes, Lowery, and Shrum (1997) providing valuable insights Their research remains the most significant in understanding consumer ambivalence, synthesizing four key interpretations: psychological ambivalence, sociological ambivalence, cultural ambivalence, and consumer-specific ambivalence This comprehensive framework highlights the multifaceted nature of ambivalence and underscores its importance across disciplines.
Psychological ambivalence refers to the internal experience of mixed emotions toward a person or object, such as feeling love and fear, or happiness and sadness simultaneously or sequentially These conflicting emotions can also develop over time as individuals' perceptions of objects become ambivalent Research by Ortony, Gore, and Collins (1988) confirms that when evaluating others toward whom they hold ambivalent feelings, people consider different perspectives at different moments, leading to co-occurring or sequential emotions Incorporating these insights enhances the understanding of emotional complexity and the nuanced nature of human feelings.
Sociological ambivalence emphasizes how external social forces, such as social structures, can generate mixed feelings, contrasting with psychological ambivalence which focuses on internal conflicts Merton and Barber (1976) describe sociological ambivalence as the presence of incompatible normative expectations related to attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors associated with a social status or set of statuses in society They further explain that, in a narrow sense, it refers to conflicting norms within a single role, such as the various expectations placed on a physician's role versus other social roles Ultimately, sociological ambivalence arises from the tension between societal norms and individual roles, affecting how people experience social conflicts.
-7- in the social definition o f roles and statuses, not in the feeling-state o f one or another type o f personality” (p.6-7)
Cultural ambivalence arises from conflicts between cultural values, which are often expressed through social norms, making the distinction between sociological and cultural ambivalence somewhat blurred While sociological ambivalence is conceptualized as stemming from conflicting social roles and norms, cultural ambivalence specifically pertains to tensions between different cultural values Due to the intertwined nature of cultural values and social norms, the boundaries between these two forms of ambivalence remain indistinct, highlighting the need for future research to explore their relationship more deeply (Otnes, Lowrey, Shrum, 1997).
Consumer ambivalence, the complex outcome of consumer behavior, is defined by Otnes, Lowery, and Shrum (1997) as the experience of multiple emotional states occurring either simultaneously or sequentially This phenomenon results from the interaction between internal factors and external influences such as objects, people, institutions, and cultural phenomena within market-oriented contexts Consumer ambivalence can significantly impact attitudes and behaviors before, during, and after the purchase process, affecting decision-making and consumer satisfaction Understanding this emotional complexity is crucial for marketers aiming to influence consumer choices effectively.
Ambivalence is commonly defined as the experience of multiple emotions occurring simultaneously or sequentially, though it is sometimes treated as synonymous with mixed emotions, which involve conflicting positive and negative feelings This study distinguishes between ambivalence and mixed emotions, considering them as expressions of internal and external conflict sharing the same meaning According to Ortony, Clore, and their colleagues, an emotion is a valence-based affective response to the perception of various situations.
The above consumer ambivalence definition o f Otnes, Lowery and Shrum
Understanding consumer ambivalence, which involves mixed emotions during the entire purchase process—including pre-purchase, purchase, and post-purchase stages—helps marketers better grasp the factors influencing consumer behavior Recognizing that consumer ambivalence can both motivate individuals to engage in specific activities, as noted by Celsi et al (1993), or act as a barrier, allows for more targeted marketing strategies that address emotional responses and improve customer experience This comprehensive exploration of antecedents and effects of consumer ambivalence is essential for optimizing marketing efforts and enhancing consumer satisfaction.
Research by Lowery and Otnes (1994a) highlights the significance of emotions experienced by consumers during the purchase process However, Otnes, Lowery, and Shrum (1997) have yet to identify specific categories of fundamental and popular consumer emotions or develop methods to measure consumers' mixed emotions effectively Understanding these emotional categories is crucial for enhancing consumer experience and optimizing marketing strategies.
Williams and Aaker (2002) explored consumer ambivalence by examining how conflicting emotions influence advertising effectiveness across cultures, specifically comparing Anglo American and Asian American consumers They found that employing mixed emotional appeals can be an effective advertising strategy when targeting consumers with Asian backgrounds or the elderly However, their research highlights a gap, as it lacks direct measurement of mixed emotional experiences, indicating an area for further investigation in understanding consumer emotional responses.
Ruth, Otnes, and Brunei (1999; 2004) identify ten fundamental emotional categories and develop a measurement framework for emotions, distinguishing between positive and negative feelings at various levels linked to relationship outcomes based on gift-recipient experiences These emotions commonly occur in daily life, and their research emphasizes that positive emotions include love, among others, highlighting the importance of understanding emotional responses in consumer behavior This classification enhances the understanding of how emotions influence interpersonal interactions and relationship development in gifting contexts.
Research identifies ten key emotions, including happiness, gratitude, and pride, as well as negative feelings such as fear, anger, sadness, guilt, uneasiness, and embarrassment These emotions were chosen based on previous gift research and cover a broad spectrum of everyday emotions, especially those relevant to consumer behavior and gift exchanges Understanding these emotions is crucial for analyzing consumer motivations and emotional responses in gifting contexts (Ritchins, 1997; Ruth, Otnes, and Brunei, 2004).
Ruth, Otnes, and Brunei (2004) proposed a foundational framework for understanding emotions but have yet to explore the sequential versus co-occurring characteristics of multiple emotions Studying these emotional dynamics across different cultures can significantly deepen our understanding of how emotions influence consumer behavior and shape consumer-brand relationships Incorporating cultural perspectives is essential for advancing research on emotional influences in consumption.
Following is the discussion o f the consumer ambivalence This section presents consumer ambivalence in gift exchange as follows:
Consumer ambivalence in gift exchange
In the gift exchange context, consumers exhibit distinct behaviors compared to regular product consumption, as they often purchase gifts for others involving various social relationships This dynamic can evoke complex emotions such as ambivalence during the gift-giving process Understanding consumer ambivalence—or psychological tension—is crucial for explaining changes in brand attitudes and the realignment of giver-recipient relationships This study focuses on the gift-giving and receiving context to uncover valuable marketing insights and emphasizes the importance of examining the gift exchange process for a comprehensive understanding of this unique consumer behavior.
Gift giving involves selecting, transferring, and evaluating both tangible and intangible objects to fulfill social obligations or as acts of spontaneous generosity This concept has been extensively researched, highlighting its significance in social interactions and cultural practices Understanding the dynamics of gift exchanges can enhance relationship building and communication in various contexts.
‘ literature Various products, services, or experiences, including both the tangible
Various aspects o f gift-giving behavior
Sherry (1983) developed a model of gift exchange within an interactive framework that describes the behaviors of both givers and receivers at different stages of the exchange process Over the past decade, extensive research has primarily focused on understanding the dynamics and psychological factors influencing gift exchange behavior, highlighting its significance in social and consumer contexts.
- 12- giving, rather than receiving and was described as “giver centric” (Otnes, Lowery, Kim 1993).
This article explores various aspects of giver-centric gift-giving, including the motivations behind giving, the occasions for gift-giving, and the types of gifts exchanged It also examines key factors that givers consider when selecting gifts, all of which can directly or indirectly influence the recipient’s behavior Understanding these elements is essential for comprehending the dynamics of gift exchanges and their impact on both giver and recipient.
Understanding the giver's motivation behind gift-giving is essential, as it influences product category selection, timing, and monetary decisions, ultimately shaping the gift search and selection process This motivation also significantly impacts the recipient’s emotional response, emphasizing its importance in gift-giving dynamics Despite its relevance, the specific role of gift-giving motivations has been largely overlooked in existing research, with only three notable studies addressing this critical aspect.
Wolfinbarger (1990) identifies three key motives for gift-giving: obligation, self-interest, and altruism Self-interest motives involve giving gifts to improve the giver’s situation, while obligation refers to duties or responsibilities that one feels compelled to fulfill In contrast, altruism is characterized by voluntary gift-giving that is not aimed at personal gain, emphasizing the genuine, selfless nature of altruistic acts.
Belk and Coon's 1993 study explores exchange theories related to motivations, emphasizing economic, social, and agapic dimensions Their model of economic exchange highlights self-interest and indicates that dating expenditure can be understood as a form of reciprocal return, reflecting underlying motivational factors.
The social exchange model emphasizes the significance of social constraints and symbolism, highlighting their association with self-interest in decision-making In contrast, the agapic model centers on altruism as the dominant motivation This perspective aligns with Wolfinbarger’s 1990 confirmation, reinforcing the idea that altruistic behavior plays a crucial role in understanding investment and social interactions.
Goodwin et al (1990) conducted a study which did not explicitly mention altruism but found that gifts are primarily purchased driven by self-interest or obligation motives However, they suggest that self-interest and obligation may jointly motivate the gift-giver Additionally, altruism in the agapic dimension can lead to high mixed emotions or ambivalence for both givers and recipients, a finding also supported by Sherry (1983).
Research on gift-giving occasions reveals varying patterns across cultures Belk (1973) found that in the U.S., birthdays (35%) are the most common occasion for gift-giving, followed by Christmas (29%), with other occasions including weddings, Mother’s Day, Father’s Day, anniversaries, and graduations Conversely, Bussey (1967) in the U.K identified Christmas as the leading gift-giving occasion, surpassing birthdays Recent studies by Othman and Lee indicate that among urban Malaysians, birthdays are the most popular gift-giving occasion (99%), followed by weddings (54%) when monetary gifts are excluded These findings highlight how cultural differences influence the timing and significance of gift-giving events.
Consumers encounter numerous gift-giving occasions throughout the year, including holidays, rites of passage, and spontaneous events (Sherry, 1983) Research by Seong Yeon Park (1998) indicates that Asian countries, particularly Korea, have significantly more gift-giving occasions than the United States While Americans typically celebrate around ten gift exchange occasions annually, Koreans observe approximately twenty, reflecting a cultural tendency to give gifts not only during major celebrations but also on less prominent occasions.
Ruth and Brunei Otnes (1999) classified gift-giving into three categories: public occasions such as Christmas and Chinese New Year, individual occasions like birthdays and weddings, and no-occasion gifts, such as "just because" or to show appreciation They emphasize that during highly personalized gift exchanges, both the giver and recipient often experience mixed emotions, highlighting the emotional complexity involved in such acts of giving.
-14- occasion or in affirming farewell occasion, while in other occasions they just have pure positive or negative emotions.
Otnes and Brunei (1994) offer critical insights into men's perceptions and beliefs about Valentine’s Day as a gift-giving occasion Their research reveals that men see Valentine’s Day as an opportunity to express care and affection towards significant others However, the study also highlights that Valentine’s Day evokes mixed feelings among men, with findings indicating that males tend to experience less positive and more negative emotions related to the holiday.
Although not manv research mentioned, it has been found that consumers (givers and recipients) may have different level o f ambivalence across different types o f gift categories.
Research shows that understanding the types of gifts people prefer is crucial in gift-giving behavior Lutz (1979) highlighted that the choice of gift is one of the most important decisions in consumer behavior related to gift selection.
The best gifts are those that maximize satisfaction for both the giver and the receiver, taking into account factors such as age, sex, and personal taste Popular gift choices often include clothing, jewelry, and sporting goods, which are highly favored across different demographics According to Otman and Lee Belk (1973), clothing remains the most widely appreciated gift, highlighting its universal appeal for gift-giving occasions.
Lows et al (1971) conducted a British study categorizing the most relevant types of gifts by occasion, revealing that personal gifts are the most popular during Christmas, followed by novelties and household items During weddings and engagements, household gifts are typically exchanged, whereas personal gifts tend to dominate birthdays and anniversaries (see Othman, Lee, p.4).
Through related literature, we can divide gifts into 3 types: instrumental gift, expressive gift (Joy 2001) and “pure” gift (Belk and Coon, 1993).
Joy (2001) explored instrumental gift-giving, highlighting that some givers prioritize reciprocity and equivalence over personal guilt or pleasure, with "hi-bye" ties representing the most instrumental form where gains and losses are balanced Belk and Coon (1993) support this by noting that instrumental gifts often resemble economic exchanges in dating contexts, where partners are economically rational and aim to maximize benefits within their resources and constraints Gifts are primarily valued based on their economic worth, and any indebtedness from gift receipt is promptly erased through reciprocity.
1993, p.398) For these reasons, once again, we can conclude that under the instrumental gift, the giver and the recipient rarely have mixed emotions or ambivalence.
Theory and hypotheses development 23
Research m odel
Existing research on consumer ambivalence in gift giving and receiving has been reviewed, but no studies have explored how prior attitudes toward a brand or the giver-recipient relationship influence recipient ambivalence and post-gift outcomes Specifically, there is a gap in understanding how these factors affect changes in the recipient's brand perceptions and the ongoing nature of the relationship after gift exchange This study aims to address these research gaps by examining the impact of prior attitudes on recipient ambivalence and subsequent relationship and brand attitude adjustments in gift-giving scenarios.
This section aims to develop a comprehensive framework to analyze the key antecedents of recipient ambivalence and its impact on post-brand attitudes and the realignment of giver-recipient relationships Understanding these factors is crucial for marketers seeking to enhance customer engagement and strengthen brand loyalty The discussion also addresses various variables within the research model, providing insights into how recipient ambivalence influences post-brand perceptions and relationship dynamics This analysis offers valuable implications for managing gift-giving behaviors and optimizing relationship repair strategies in marketing contexts.
The research framework which is expressed by the following diagram (see the figure 1).
Balance theory, Congruity theory, Involvement theory ị
The above research model is presented to highlight the key variables and their relation-ships to be tested.
The recipient’s evaluation of post-brand attitudes and the post giver-recipient relationship can vary significantly based on perceived disparities in prior brand perceptions and the quality of the previous relationship These differing perceptions often lead to ambivalence in the recipient, causing mixed emotions after gift receipt due to conflicts between their views on the brand and the giver-recipient relationship While the degree of attitude change towards the brand and relationship may differ, this variation is influenced by several situational variables This study primarily focuses on two main antecedents that impact these perceptions and subsequent emotional responses.
I recipient’s perception o f the prior brand attitude and prior giver-recipient relationship Therefore, the model encompasses the following components:
The model consists of two independent variables and two dependent variables, illustrating the relationships among components Causality is depicted with arrows indicating the direction of presumed influence, emphasizing a one-way flow of causation Hierarchical connections are represented by solid lines and arrows, demonstrating how main determinants influence or cause changes in other variables within the model.
Hypothesis generated
This article highlights the lack of research on how prior attitudes toward a brand and the existing giver-recipient relationship influence recipient ambivalence and incongruity in gift exchange It emphasizes that no studies have explored how these factors affect post-gift outcomes, such as changes in the recipient’s brand attitudes and perceptions of the giver-recipient relationship This study aims to fill these gaps by investigating the impact of prior attitudes and relationships on recipient attitude changes after gift exchange, advancing understanding in gift-giving and receiving behaviors.
This section aims to develop a comprehensive framework to analyze the key antecedents of recipient ambivalence and their impact on post-brand attitudes and the realignment of giver-recipient relationships We will explore how recipient ambivalence influences brand perceptions and relational dynamics, providing insights into consumer behavior Additionally, the discussion will focus on the variables integrated into the research model, highlighting their roles in shaping recipient responses and relationship outcomes This analysis offers valuable understanding for marketers seeking to manage recipient ambivalence and foster stronger, more meaningful gift-giving relationships.
The research framework which is expressed by the following diagram (see the figure 1).
Balance theory, Congruity theory, Involvement theory ị
The above research model is presented to highlight the key variables and their relation-ships to be tested.
The recipient’s evaluation of post-brand attitudes and the post giver-recipient relationship can vary significantly based on their perceived disparity in prior brand perceptions and relationship history Differences in these perceptions often lead to ambivalence, causing mixed emotions after gift receipt due to conflicts between the recipient’s view of the brand and the giver-recipient relationship While the extent of attitude change toward the brand and relationship may differ, this variation is influenced by several situational variables This study specifically focuses on two main antecedents that shape these perceptions and emotional responses.
I recipient’s perception o f the prior brand attitude and prior giver-recipient relationship Therefore, the model encompasses the following components:
The model consists of two independent variables and two dependent variables, with arrows indicating the direction of proposed causality between components It assumes a one-way flow of causation, where solid lines and arrows illustrate the hierarchical relationships, demonstrating how determinants influence or cause other factors within the system.
This section explains how determinants influence each other within the research model by examining the psychological mechanisms that shape recipient reactions based on their perceptions of prior brand attitudes and the giver-recipient relationship Key theories such as balance theory, congruity theory, and involvement theory provide frameworks to understand these dynamics Understanding these theories helps clarify how previous brand perceptions and relationships impact current recipient responses, ultimately shaping the overall consumer experience and engagement.
Balance theory, developed by social psychologist Heider in 1958, explores how individuals strive for cognitive consistency in their relationships and attitudes Central to Heider’s theory is the P-O-X triad, which involves two people—a person (P) and another individual (O)—and a third object (X) about which both hold opinions This third object can be anything, such as a political party, an idea, a music group, a country, or another person, influencing the dynamics of relational balance and cognitive consistency.
Heider’s Balance Theory explains that each attitude in a triangle can be positive or negative, reflecting liking or disliking relationships A key concept is that cognitive structures can be either balanced or unbalanced based on the configuration of these relationships Balanced structures are stable and do not induce tension, while unbalanced structures are unstable and create psychological forces that motivate change According to the theory, people strive for harmonious and balanced relationships among elements in a triangle; when imbalance occurs, it generates tension until perceptions are adjusted to restore balance This theory highlights the importance of maintaining consistent attitudes to ensure psychological stability and reduce cognitive dissonance.
An unbalanced structure occurs when perceptions or relationships among elements create psychological tension, prompting change For example, if a perceiver (P) likes person O and also likes object X, but O dislikes X, the structure becomes unbalanced There are eight possible configurations of such triadic relationships, with half being balanced and half unbalanced Balanced states are stable and tend to resist change, while unbalanced states are unstable and naturally lead to attitude adjustments to restore harmony This psychological tension in unbalanced structures encourages individuals to modify their attitudes or perceptions to achieve balance.
According to Heider's balance theory, balance is maintained by altering the nature of relationships within a set of elements Specifically, Heider argues that imbalance is corrected when the sign of one relation changes—from positive to negative or vice versa This dynamic process helps restore harmony in social and psychological structures, highlighting the importance of consistent relationships for overall stability.
Figure 2: Schematic representation of balanced and unbalanced states
Heider's Balance Theory assists marketers in predicting the likelihood of attitude change from negative to positive or vice versa While it enables the prediction of the general direction of relationship shifts, it does not specify which particular relationship will be altered This insight helps marketers understand potential attitude shifts without precisely forecasting specific changes, making it a valuable tool for strategic planning.
An alternative perspective on the triad conceptualization involves understanding it through information integration, as discussed by Anderson (1968, p.739) for person perception and attitude change (Anderson, 1971, pp 158ff) According to Solomon (2002), balance theory suggests that balanced perceptions lead to stable attitudes, whereas inconsistencies can trigger attitude change Additionally, balance theory explains why consumers are attracted to positively valued objects, such as forming connections with fashionable products or flashy cars to enhance social inclusion It also sheds light on the effectiveness of celebrity endorsements; when a triad isn't fully established—such as perceptions of a new or unfamiliar product—marketers can foster positive sentiment by linking the product to a well-known personality Conversely, admired individuals opposing certain behaviors, like athletes in anti-drug campaigns, can discourage undesirable actions.
Applying balance theory to the gift-receiving situation involves understanding the three cognitive elements: the recipient (p), the giver (0), and the gift (X) These elements are interconnected through specific relational patterns that influence perceptions and attitudes towards gift exchanges In this context, the relationships between the recipient, the giver, and the gift shape the overall sense of harmony or imbalance, which can impact future interactions and emotional responses Understanding these dynamics is essential for analyzing social behavior and improving gift-giving practices within social and cultural frameworks.
Imbalance occurs when there is a conflict between the recipient's prior attitudes toward the brand and their perception of the giver-recipient relationship Specifically, if the recipient has a positive attitude toward the giver but dislikes the gift, this creates tension that prompts an attempt to restore balance To achieve this, the recipient may change their attitude either by developing a more positive view of the gift or by reevaluating their perception of the giver after receiving the gift However, according to balance theory, it is unpredictable whether the recipient will modify their attitude toward the gift or toward the giver in response to this imbalance.
In the gift-giving literature, Belk (1976) tried to support this theory by conducting an experiment o f balance in gift selection for predicting the conditions
Research by Belk (1976) highlights that in gift-giving, either the giver's or recipient's tastes often dominate the selection process, influencing the giver's satisfaction with the gift The study found that approximately 75% of givers felt satisfied with their gift choices in balanced configurations, compared to only about 33% in unbalanced situations These findings support the balance theory, which suggests that balanced gift exchanges lead to higher satisfaction Imbalance in gift-giving may occur unintentionally due to mistaken perceptions by the giver regarding the recipient or unforeseen responses by the recipient Notably, gift exchanges involving close relatives and a history of previous exchanges tend to foster balanced cognitive configurations, enhancing overall satisfaction.
Osgood and Tannenbaum’s congruity theory (1955) posits that individuals seek to restore cognitive balance when two conflicting cognitions are present by proportionally adjusting their perceptions This theory predicts that when a person encounters two unrelated or mismatched pieces of information, they will feel compelled to alter their judgments on both sides to achieve harmony Conversely, when the information is similar or congruent, no cognitive tension arises, reducing the need for change Unlike earlier balance theories, congruity theory emphasizes both the direction and magnitude of relationships, suggesting that perceptions can vary depending on how individuals interpret interactions between parties Overall, balance theory is considered a specific application of the broader congruity framework, reflecting its nuanced approach to cognitive consistency.