INTRODUCTION
Context
The 21st century has seen a significant rise in civil societies, where individuals, non-state actors, and NGOs play a crucial role in political and social development (Price, 2010) Today, over 100,000 NGOs across various sectors have emerged as influential forces driving development and social change worldwide (Sitkin and Bowen).
According to Hulme and Edwards (1997), the number of INGOs in 1993 was approximately 28,900 Recent statistics indicate that by 2009, the number of large established NGOs had increased to 35,000 Additionally, in 2004, NGOs received around 23 billion USD in aid funding, which accounted for one-third of the total overseas development aid, highlighting the significant role of NGOs in global development efforts (Lewis and Kanji, 2009).
Vietnam has experienced remarkable economic growth and social progress over the past decade, establishing itself as one of the world’s fastest-growing countries with impressive development success stories (Guardian, 2010) This transformation has been driven not only by nationwide renovation policies but also significantly supported by increasing involvement of international non-governmental organizations (INGOs) The number of INGOs operating in Vietnam grew from 200 in 1994 to over 500 in 2002, with annual disbursements rising from $60 million to $85 million, showcasing their expanding role These organizations have played a crucial part in reducing poverty, promoting women’s empowerment, enhancing accountability and transparency, and encouraging people’s participation in policymaking and decision-making processes (Norlund et al., 2006; VUFO-NGO-Resource-Centre, 2004).
According to Mr Marko Lovrekovic, Managing Co-Director of NGO Resource Centre 1 since 2009, INGOs in Vietnam are legally categorized into three groups: Work permit, Project Office, and Representative Office The Work permit group is permitted to conduct only short-term projects, while the Project Office group is authorized to undertake long-term projects, demonstrating greater commitment Lastly, the Representative Office group manages larger, longer, and more widespread projects across wider areas (Marko Lovrekovic, Interview, 30 Aug 2011).
Established in 1993, the NGO Resource Centre in Vietnam is a collaborative initiative between international NGOs and the Vietnam Union of Friendship Organisations (VUFO) It serves as a vital platform for fostering communication, knowledge exchange, and collaboration among NGOs, while also acting as a bridge to connect NGOs with government agencies, donors, and the business sector Since its inception, the Centre has played a crucial role in supporting the effectiveness and connectivity of NGOs operating in Vietnam For more detailed information, please refer to Appendix 3.
The People's Aid Coordinating Committee (PACCOM) estimates that approximately 900 international non-governmental organizations (INGOs) are currently operating in Vietnam According to Mr Nguyen Ngoc Hung, Deputy Director General of PACCOM, these INGOs are categorized into three groups, comprising 430, 200, and 70 organizations respectively This diversity highlights Vietnam's active engagement with various international aid agencies to support its development initiatives.
In 2010, INGOs allocated a total budget of $279 million USD for Vietnam, with 85% contributed by 130 members of the NGO Resource Centre Their focus areas include health, education, economic growth, social issues, emergency response, environmental protection, disaster prevention, and capacity building, with health receiving the largest share at 30-40% of their Vietnam budget As Nguyen Ngoc Hung highlights in his 2011 interview, this distribution demonstrates that INGOs have aligned their efforts with Vietnam’s national development goals.
Vietnam’s NGO community includes both international NGOs (INGOs) and Vietnamese NGOs (VNGOs), also known as local NGOs However, VNGOs are less influential and not regarded as true representatives of the NGO sector in the country According to Norlund et al (2006), VNGOs primarily function as service providers, as they are established mainly to implement programs funded by international organizations, including INGOs.
Emerging in the 1940s shortly after World War II, Development Communication (DevComm) is a relatively new interdisciplinary field that integrates communication strategies into development efforts By the 1960s, NGOs and other development organizations began recognizing the importance of communication as a central component of sustainable development initiatives In 2006, at the First World Congress on Communication for Development organized by the FAO and the World Bank, participating agencies officially adopted DevComm as a key element in their development work, highlighting its growing significance Since the introduction of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in 2000, DevComm has been systematically integrated into development projects, gaining widespread popularity among NGOs and other organizations committed to global progress.
Knowledge gaps
Although NGOs play a vital role in civil society, their key success factors and communication strategies have not been thoroughly explored Most existing studies focus on NGOs' history and operations, with limited attention to their communication practices and the use of Development Communication (DevComm) While considerable research exists on organizational management and stakeholder relationships, the specific aspects of NGO communication activities remain underexamined, highlighting the need for a deeper understanding of how NGOs utilize communication to achieve their goals.
VUFO’s functional body, PACCOM, specializes in supporting foreign NGOs' activities in Vietnam by facilitating humanitarian and development aid initiatives It is responsible for processing the issuance, extension, and amendments of Work Permits for INGOs, ensuring compliance with regulations Additionally, PACCOM acts as the focal agency connecting INGOs with their Vietnamese partners, promoting effective collaboration For more detailed information, please refer to Appendix 4 on PACCOM.
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Existing research on DevComm provides a broad overview of the emerging field but lacks detailed insights into how NGOs specifically utilize communication strategies in their development work While various studies discuss the history, challenges, and theoretical frameworks of DevComm, they often overlook its practical application within NGOs Although some case studies highlight the use of communication by development organizations, there is a notable absence of systematic analysis focusing solely on NGOs’ DevComm practices Moreover, the diversity in how different NGOs approach and implement DevComm methods remains unexamined Additionally, overlapping research efforts create confusion and hinder the accumulation of clear, actionable knowledge in this domain.
In the Vietnamese context, existing literature on NGOs primarily addresses their emergence, operations, and overall impacts within the country However, there is a notable gap in research regarding how international NGOs (INGOs) specifically implement Development Communication (DevComm) strategies to enhance development outcomes in Vietnam.
A study coordinated by Nguyen (2001) analyzes the work of international NGOs in Vietnam from 1990 to 1999, highlighting key development areas where these organizations had significant impact The research offers valuable lessons learned by INGOs over a decade of working in Vietnam, emphasizing their contributions to national development While the study examines the general roles of NGOs in Vietnam’s progress, it notably emphasizes the importance of NGO communication strategies, an area often overlooked but critical for maximizing development outcomes.
Some research into civil society organisations (CSOs) in Vietnam has also done over the past ten years
Norlund and colleagues (2007, 2006) provided a comprehensive overview of civil society in Vietnam by analyzing CSOs across four key dimensions: structure, environment, values, and impact, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses Conversely, Kerkvliet, Nguyen, and Bach (2008) examine civil society from the perspective of state engagement, identifying four distinct forms of civil society–state interaction However, both studies, like many others, overlook the crucial aspect of NGO communication, which is essential for understanding the full scope of civil society dynamics in Vietnam.
There is a notable lack of research examining Development Communication (DevComm) conducted by NGOs, with no systematic studies previously available Existing literature on key concepts and relevant issues often fails to explore the connection between DevComm and NGOs within the Vietnamese context This dissertation addresses these critical gaps by providing a comprehensive analysis of how NGOs implement DevComm in Vietnam, offering new insights into this understudied area.
Research aims and research questions
This dissertation explores how INGOs utilize Development Communication (DevComm) in Vietnam and analyzes the variations in their approaches It aims to determine whether INGOs incorporate DevComm’s key elements—such as modes, models, approaches, and tools—in their communication strategies within Vietnam Additionally, the study investigates if different INGOs employ DevComm differently based on organizational factors like type, role, specialization, and financial resources The research provides insight into how organizational and management differences influence communication methods and the extent to which INGOs reflect DevComm principles in their development work.
To achieve the two main aims, the study addresses two main research questions:
(1) How do INGOs employ DevComm in Vietnam?
(2) Why do INGOs use DevComm differently in Vietnam?
These two main research questions have five sub-research questions:
- To what extent do INGOs employ DevComm in Vietnam?
- What are DevComm’s elements (modes, models, approaches, tools, for example) INGOs have used in Vietnam?
- What are DevComm’s characteristics reflected in Vietnam?
- To what extent do different INGOs use DevComm differently in Vietnam?
- What leads to the differences? Are they due to the differences in organisational and management factors (types, roles, values, specialisations, financial resources, for example)?
The first three sub-questions directly support the initial research question and primary objective, providing essential insights related to the core focus of the study Conversely, the final two sub-questions address the secondary research question and secondary aim, complementing the overall research framework This structured approach ensures a comprehensive exploration of the key topics, aligning each set of sub-questions with their respective main research aims for targeted and effective analysis.
This study hypothesizes that INGOs have extensively utilized Development Communication (DevComm) in Vietnam, with its elements and characteristics visible in their activities It also suggests that variations in DevComm implementation among different INGOs are influenced by organizational and management factors The data collection and analysis processes are designed to test and validate these hypotheses through specific evidence, providing insights into the role and application of DevComm within INGO operations in Vietnam.
This research adopts an explorative and analytical methodology, focusing on a case study of two leading INGOs in Vietnam, Oxfam and SNV Data collection methods include comprehensive documentary analysis, in-depth interviews, and participant observation to ensure a thorough understanding of their operational strategies and impact.
Significance of the research
The significance of this dissertation derives from its contribution to the existing knowledge of Development, NGOs and DevComm
Research shows that there is a significant gap in the study of communication activities by NGOs, particularly regarding Development Communication (DevComm) Poor communication is widely recognized as a critical weakness and a leading cause of failure in development programs (Mefalopulos, 2008) Deane (2004) highlights that development programs often fail because their communication strategies treat communities as mere objects rather than active change agents and tend to focus on behaviors without fostering meaningful engagement Addressing this gap is essential for enhancing the effectiveness of NGO communication efforts in development initiatives.
Nguyen Thi Thao Nhan's study on DevComm highlights its prevalent use by INGOs to influence social norms and persuade communities rather than engage in negotiation, often resulting in slow progress in epidemic response The analysis of DevComm strategies employed by NGOs within the Vietnamese context provides valuable lessons for enhancing communication effectiveness These insights aim to improve NGO communication approaches, ultimately supporting more efficient and culturally sensitive public health interventions.
Effective development intervention relies heavily on modern communication strategies (Mefalopulos, 2008) However, many development practitioners still perceive communication in traditional ways and lack awareness of the potential of development communication (DevComm) This dissertation reviews current perspectives on DevComm, highlighting its importance and promoting a deeper understanding of its role in sustainable development By advancing knowledge in this field, the study aims to improve the effectiveness of communication-based development efforts worldwide.
This dissertation is the first to explore how NGOs utilize Development Communication (DevComm) within the Vietnamese context, making it a valuable resource for both academic research and practical application Academically, it fills existing knowledge gaps regarding NGOs and communication, serving as a key reference for lecturers, researchers, and students interested in these fields Practically, the study offers important insights into NGO operations, benefiting donors, development practitioners, and communication professionals involved in the development sector.
Structure of the dissertation
Following this Introduction chapter, the rest of the dissertation consists of four chapters
The Literature Review critically examines existing research on three key concepts: Development, NGOs, and DevComm, including relevant definitions and theoretical frameworks The Methodology chapter details the research approach, data collection methods, and specifically provides an overview of the INGOs Oxfam and SNV The Analysis of Results interprets the collected data, highlighting key findings, while the final chapter builds on this analysis by presenting additional insights and discussing their implications Additionally, the concluding section offers meaningful recommendations based on the study’s findings, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the topics discussed.
This chapter explains the research context, highlighting the rise of NGOs and Development Communication (DevComm) as key factors shaping the field It identifies existing knowledge gaps that the dissertation aims to fill through its focused examination of how INGOs utilize DevComm in Vietnam By exploring this topic, the study contributes valuable insights to both academic research and practical applications in development communication The significance and impact of these findings are further demonstrated in the subsequent four chapters.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Development industry
This article explores the contemporary development industry by examining its historical evolution, recent trends in practice, and key concepts shaping the field today It provides an overview of how the industry has evolved over time and highlights innovative approaches and emerging practices Additionally, the discussion focuses on three major theoretical paradigms that have profoundly influenced development practice since World War II, offering valuable insights into their impact on current strategies and policies in the development sector.
Development is a complex and multifaceted concept with various interpretations Among these, Thomas’s definition is widely recognized for its clarity and inclusiveness, making it highly relevant in contemporary discussions He defines development as either deliberate efforts at progress through external intervention or individuals’ initiatives to enhance their quality of life within the evolving context of capitalist change.
Following World War II, debates surrounding development have centered on two opposing perspectives The dominant view perceives development as a process driven by wealthy nations to aid poorer countries in boosting their economies and overcoming underdevelopment Conversely, critics argue that development efforts are often strategies used by rich countries to preserve their dominance and privilege over less developed nations They also emphasize that this mainstream approach neglects internal factors within poor countries, such as local realities, needs, and capacities, which are crucial for sustainable development.
The concept of development has roots tracing back to the dawn of human history, but it was only in 1949 that the modern understanding of development took shape In his inaugural speech that year, President Truman called on developed countries to share their scientific and industrial advancements with underdeveloped nations, marking a pivotal moment in development discourse Esteva notes that this speech encapsulated the emerging global vision of a world divided between richer and poorer countries, highlighting economic disparities and the need for development aid.
Since 1949, development has consistently been a top priority on the international political agenda, reflected by the substantial growth in financial and human resources allocated to development organizations over the years Notably, in 2005, OECD member countries provided a record-breaking US$106 billion in official development assistance, highlighting the global commitment to sustainable development efforts.
Nguyen Thi Thao Nhan highlights that INGOs utilize DevComm strategies to mobilize significant funding, with development contributions reaching $19 billion Moreover, in 2006, private capital flows to developing countries totaled $491 billion, demonstrating substantial growth in developing markets (Mefalopulos, 2008, pp 43-44) This surge in private investment underscores the increasing importance of private sector engagement in global development efforts.
The development industry, also known as the aid or international development system, comprises bilateral and multilateral donors, the United Nations (UN) system, and the Bretton Woods institutions Key bilateral donors include the UK Department for International Development (DFID) and the U.S Agency for International Development (USAID), while the leading multilateral donors are the World Bank, the European Union (EU), and the UN The UN system encompasses agencies such as WHO, FAO, UNDP, UNICEF, and UNEP The Bretton Woods system consists of global and regional financial institutions As of 2009, there are approximately 40 bilateral donors, 26 UN agencies, and 20 financial institutions actively involved in the development sector, highlighting the system's extensive global reach.
Development theories have evolved from a focus on economic growth in the 1950s and 1960s to embracing alternative, people-centered approaches since the 1980s Unlike traditional development emphasizing statistics and economic indicators, alternative development prioritizes Rights, Gender Equality, Empowerment, and Participation According to Lewis and Kanji (2009), key concepts in modern development include Empowerment, Participation, Partnership, Ownership, Accountability, and Transparency This shift has led to the concept of right-based or people-centred development, emphasizing inclusive and participatory growth for sustainable progress.
Participation is a nuanced concept that involves shifting individuals from passive recipients to active agents of development, as explained by Mefalopulos (2008) Participatory approaches empower people by encouraging their involvement in problem-solving and decision-making processes, ultimately giving them greater control over their own lives This active engagement fosters meaningful community development and strengthens local decision-making authority.
Participation in development initiatives is multifaceted, encompassing political, technical, and social dimensions Politically, it promotes good governance and upholds the right-based approach, ensuring inclusive decision-making From a technical standpoint, active participation leads to lasting results and the sustainability of development efforts According to Tufte and Mefalopulos, participation occurs across three key levels: individual psycho-social development, the enhancement of life skills and competencies, and institutional or community engagement, emphasizing its integral role at every societal layer.
(2009, p.4) The World Bank identifies four types of participation The types of lowest levels are information sharing and consultation The types of higher levels are collaboration and empowerment
(1995, quoted in Mefalopulos, 2008, p.52) This typology is consistent with classification by Lewis and Kanji (2009, p.75) who call four forms of participation as nominal, instrumental, representative and transformative participation
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Participatory Action Research (PAR) are among the most popular participatory approaches, emphasizing community involvement in research and problem identification PRA is designed for rural, low-income areas and uses accessible tools suitable for illiterate populations, with researchers spending time living among local people to gain in-depth insights (Mefalopulos, 2008) In contrast, PAR involves local practitioners who serve both as subjects and co-researchers, fostering collaborative problem-solving (Cadiz, 2005) Both methods promote inclusive community engagement and aim to empower local populations through active participation in the research process.
The growing emphasis on participation has heightened awareness of social exclusion, a phenomenon affecting groups marginalized from decision-making processes Addressing social exclusion requires inclusive solutions that ensure affected individuals are actively involved and not left behind Since social exclusion is a significant factor contributing to poverty, promoting participation is a vital strategy for effective poverty reduction.
Participation is closely connected to empowerment, which has been understood in various ways due to its diverse origins, as explained by Lewis and Kanji (2009) One interpretation of empowerment views it as an individual process that equips people with the tools to enhance their personal lives, while another perspective considers empowerment as different forms of social and community development.
Collective action emphasizes issues of organization and politics, as highlighted by Lewis and Kanji (2009) Interestingly, Narayan adopts both perspectives, defining empowerment as the expansion of assets and capabilities that enable poor people to participate in, negotiate with, influence, control, and hold accountable the institutions impacting their lives (Narayan, 2002, as cited in Mefalopulos, 2008).
Empowerment is widely recognized as a vital tool for transforming the lives of the poor and marginalized, guiding both individual growth and collective development (Lewis, 2007) This transformation occurs at two levels: moving from understanding of needs to taking action, and fostering personal as well as community-based progress In the context of alternative development, there is a notable shift in how poverty is perceived—no longer solely as a lack of material resources, but as a consequence of unequal power relations (Lewis and Kanji, 2009).
NGOs
Over the past three decades, NGOs have gained significant prominence due to the growing influence of civil society, leading to extensive literature on related concepts Key definitions such as NGO, civil society, civil society organizations, and the third sector are essential for understanding their roles and functions NGOs are diverse, with unique strengths and weaknesses that shape their impact within communities Their primary roles encompass a wide range of activities, from advocacy and development to humanitarian aid In particular, three core activities highlight NGOs' vital contributions: advocacy work, service delivery, and community empowerment, demonstrating their pivotal role in fostering social change and development.
Civil society, as defined by Lewis and Kanji, emerged in the 1980s and gained prominence in the 1990s as a vital space between the state and market, comprising diverse groups striving to balance these sectors These civil society organizations (CSOs) are driven by core values of social justice and development, playing a crucial role in promoting societal well-being Examples of CSOs include people's movements, citizen groups, consumer associations, and small producer organizations, all contributing to social and economic development (Lewis and Kanji, 2009).
NGOs are a key subset within civil society, serving as primary representatives of this broad community Researchers have offered various definitions of NGOs, often emphasizing legal, economic, or functional aspects; however, Vakil's definition focuses on structural and operational features According to Vakil (1997), NGOs are self-governing, private, not-for-profit organizations dedicated to enhancing the quality of life for disadvantaged populations This widely accepted definition highlights NGOs’ role in development efforts aimed at social betterment.
In the existing literature, different terms have been used to refer to NGO Similar labels include
The terms “voluntary organisation” (VO), “charity,” and “non-profit organisation” (NPO) vary across cultures and histories, reflecting different societal values (Lewis & Kanji, 2009, pp 7-9) In the UK, “VO” and “charity” are commonly used due to the influence of Christian traditions promoting volunteering and voluntary work Conversely, “NPO” is the preferred term in the US, driven by market-oriented approaches and tax benefits for organizations that serve the public good without commercial profit Additionally, the United Nations introduced the term “NGO” in its 1945 Charter, defining NGOs as “international non-state organisations” with consultative status within UN activities, highlighting their significance in global civil society.
(Lewis and Kanji, 2009, p.8) Because the UN has been playing leading role in development industry, the term NGO has been widely used since 1945
Another confusion found in the existing literature is the usage of the concept “third sector” In fact, the
The "third sector" refers to not-for-profit organizations or NGOs, serving as a less normative and simpler counterpart to the concept of "civil society." It is part of a classification dividing institutions into three sectors: the public sector dominated by government, the private sector consisting of for-profit businesses, and the third sector comprising voluntary, self-governing, formal, private, and non-profit organizations According to Lewis and Kanji (2009), third sector organizations are characterized by their voluntary nature, self-governance, and non-profit distribution, aligning with Vakil’s definition of NGOs Therefore, a third sector organization can be considered an NGO, playing a crucial role in civil society and social development.
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Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) first emerged in Western societies in 1775 and have evolved over more than 200 years into prominent actors in international development Extensive research highlights the growth and significance of NGOs as a rising group of organizations, with in-depth analyses of their structures, financial resources, and core values Scholars like Lewis and Kanji (2009) have provided comprehensive insights into the diverse nature of NGOs, emphasizing their complex organizational and management dynamics.
NGOs are highly diverse, as they play different roles, take various shapes and forms, and operate across different country contexts (2009, p.2) This diversity stems from differences in organizational and management structures; some NGOs have large, formal, and bureaucratic systems, while others are small, informal, and flexible Financial resources also vary, with some NGOs receiving aid donor funding and others relying solely on public donations, trading, and fundraising efforts These variations influence NGOs’ independence and core values, resulting in some being government-run or bureaucratic, while others operate independently; similarly, some resemble private profit-driven organizations, whereas others prioritize non-profit missions.
Expectations for NGOs vary widely, with radicals viewing them as vehicles for progressive change, while conservative and neoliberal perspectives see NGOs as integral to market-based solutions to policy challenges NGOs engage in two main types of activities: relief work, which provides immediate aid such as water, food, shelter, and healthcare during disasters and crises, and development work, which involves long-term programs and projects aimed at fostering sustainable solutions and innovation Relief efforts are typically short-term in nature, whereas development initiatives require sustained, strategic approaches to address underlying issues effectively.
“complex emergencies”, the distinction between relief and development is not clear anymore
NGOs exhibit a dual character due to their inherent diversity, which makes them complex to understand They often switch between different discourses and identities, such as public and private, professional and amateur, market and non-market values, radicalism and pluralism, modernity and tradition (Lewis and Kanji, 2009) Despite this complexity, scholars argue that this duality is a strength, allowing NGOs to transcend conventional categories and boundaries, thereby enhancing their adaptability and effectiveness.
NGOs possess several strengths that set them apart from other organizational types, often serving as a vital response to failures in the public and private sectors, as highlighted by Hulme and Edwards (1997) They offer unique advantages in development projects, including their flexibility, community engagement, and ability to reach underserved populations However, NGOs also face criticism for their weaknesses, such as limited scalability and sustainability issues Analyzing both sides, the existing literature presents comprehensive tables outlining the key pros and cons of NGOs, providing a balanced perspective on their role in development initiatives.
1 Specialisation NGOs focus on serving the poor and concentrate on a few activities relating to the needs of the poor
2 Participation NGOs use participatory approaches thereby facilitating decentralisation and involvement of the poor in decision making process
This advantage derives from the less formal and flat structure, small scale, and specialisation NGOs enjoy
Indicators of this strength include bureaucracy absence, small gaps between the office and the field, and quick actions NGOs take
4 Innovation This strength is a result of flexibility which helps to reduce bureaucratic factors involved in decision making process
Thanks to their participation, flexibility and innovation, NGOs bring cost- effective and cost-efficient alternatives to the delivery of public sector service
6 Commitment NGOs’ staff strongly values and is committed to social change and community development
7 Credibility By meeting clients’ preferences and reaching the poor, NGOs are trusted by their stakeholders Sources: Hulme and Edwards (1997), Clark (1991), and Lewis and Kanji (2009)
1 Legitimacy problems They do not coordinate well among themselves
NGOs working in the same country often criticise their counterparts rather than collaborating together
They consider other NGOs as rivals rather than partners
The board is not well-equipped to run aid programmes
3 Staff problems Their Human Resources (HR) structure is similar to those of government Tension between expatriates and local staff Decentralisation is weak
4 Project design Not reach the poor
The poorest are least served The less needy clients received better services
Decision making is dominated by local elites/ no real grassroots participation
5 Accountability problems Unproven record in poverty reduction
6 Private character Undermine voluntary values and government roles Sources: Hulme and Edwards (1997), Clark (1991), and Lewis and Kanji (2009)
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In addition to general features, researchers have also analysed particular roles and activities NGOs have undertaken
According to Lewis (2007), despite the diversity among NGOs, effective management revolves around three interconnected areas centered on their context These include development activities like programs, projects, campaigns, and services; relationships with other institutional actors such as government agencies, private businesses, and other NGOs; and internal organization, including structure and processes Addressing these core areas is essential for the successful operation and impact of NGOs.
NGOs engage in two main types of work: relief work and development work According to Lewis and Kanji (2009), they identify ten key activities performed by NGOs, which can be categorized based on these two types Relief work focuses on immediate assistance during emergencies, such as disaster response and humanitarian aid, while development work emphasizes long-term strategies like capacity building, community development, and sustainable initiatives Understanding these distinct activities helps in appreciating the comprehensive role NGOs play in addressing both urgent needs and fostering sustainable growth.
Table 2.3 NGO activities based on types of work
Type Relief work Development work
Activities Services delivery Policy advocacy and public campaigns
Conflict resolution Human right work Cultural preservation Environmental activism Policy analysis
Research and information provision Source: adapted from Lewis and Kanji (2009, p.1)
NGOs play three distinct roles according to Hulme and Edwards (1997) and Lewis (2007): implementers, catalysts, and partners These roles define the various functions NGOs undertake in development initiatives, with Table 2.4 illustrating three main sets of NGO activities based on these roles Understanding the diverse roles of NGOs is essential for assessing their impact and effectiveness in development projects.
Table 2.4 NGO activities based on roles
Role Role description Examples of activities
Implementers This role involves resource mobilisation and programme implementation to provide goods and services to people who need them
NGOs play a vital role as catalysts in various sectors such as service delivery, healthcare, microfinance, agricultural extension, emergency relief, and human rights They inspire, facilitate, and contribute to improved thinking and actions that promote positive change across communities Additionally, NGOs drive innovation by introducing new ideas, approaches, and solutions that advance development efforts and address complex challenges effectively.
Grassroots organising Group formation Gender and empowerment work Advocacy 3
Researching Innovation 4 and policy entrepreneurship Partners NGOs work with governments, donors, private sectors on joint activities
Activities concerned with this role aim to make more efficient use of scare resources, increase institutional sustainability and improve quality of an NGO’s interaction
Source: adapted from Lewis and Kanji (2009, pp.12 – 13, pp.112 – 116)
This subsection gives an overview of three particular activities that represent three key roles NGOs undertake: service delivery of implementers, advocacy of catalysts, and partnering of partners
According to Lewis (2007), NGOs play a vital role in service provision through three key activities First, they act as implementing agencies that directly deliver services to communities Second, NGOs enhance public service delivery systems by conducting research on unmet needs and providing training and innovative solutions for government staff Lastly, they empower communities to hold governments accountable and apply pressure for improved public services, ensuring more effective and responsive governance.
DevComm
Developed in the 1940s, the term "DevComm" was first officially coined by Nora Quebral in 1972 Prior to that, the field was referred to by various names, including Communication for Development, Development Support Communication, and Communication for Social Change The First World Congress of Communication for Development in Rome (2006) defined DevComm as a social process based on dialogue that employs diverse tools and methods to foster change at multiple levels This process involves listening, building trust, sharing knowledge and skills, developing policies, debating, and learning to achieve sustained and meaningful social progress Importantly, DevComm is distinct from public relations or corporate communication.
Development Communication (DevComm) is an interdisciplinary field focused on enhancing development initiatives through the skilled use of dialogue and monologue-based approaches, methods, and media (Mefalopulos, 2008) While part of the broader communication family, DevComm is a distinct discipline with its own theoretical framework, methodologies, and tools, setting it apart from fields like journalism, public relations, and corporate communication (Mefalopulos, 2008).
According to Tufte (2005), communication academics had not engaged with the fields of development and social change for nearly 20 years Currently, four key organizations specialize in research on Development Communication (DevComm), including Nordicom, the Consortium of Communication for Social Change (CFSC), the United Nations, and the World Bank.
Nordicom, established through collaboration among Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden, serves as a northern European knowledge hub that promotes research in media and communication while fostering international partnerships Since its founding in 2003, the CFSC Consortium has focused on advocating, researching, and training to advance communication practices for social change, aiming to enhance development efforts by encouraging collective action and community participation in solving local problems.
The World Bank’s Development Communication Division (DevComm), established in 1998, plays a key role in promoting development communication worldwide Its mission is to “put communication at the heart of development,” recognizing communication as a vital pillar for successful development initiatives The division provides valuable advice, skills, and tools to both Bank staff and clients, enhancing their ability to effectively implement development projects.
The United Nations and its agencies, including FAO, UNDP, and UNEP, are leading organizations in Development Communication (DevComm) Their regularly organized Roundtables and the World Congress on Communication for Development have significantly boosted interest in DevComm among practitioners and academics These events facilitate knowledge sharing, address key issues, and help establish priorities for the discipline’s advancement, thereby strengthening the global development communication community (FAO, 2004).
7 A Filipino scholar who has significantly contributed to the field and has been honoured as the Mother of DevComm
Nguyen Thi Thao Nhan| DevComm used by INGOs 33
Most existing research on DevComm has been primarily conducted by four key organizations, highlighting their significant contribution to the field Scholars have extensively examined both the theoretical frameworks and practical applications of DevComm, including its core concepts, features, principles, and approaches Notable studies by Hemer and Tufte (2005), Gumucio-Dagron and Tufte (2005), Parks (2005), and Mefalopulos provide in-depth insights into the foundational aspects and real-world implementations of development communication.
(2008), Tufte and Mefalopulos (2009), and FAO (n.d.)
This article provides an overview of Development Communication (DevComm), beginning with its theoretical foundations to establish a clear understanding of the field It explores the key features and principles of DevComm, highlighting its advantages over other communication types in promoting sustainable development The discussion also covers the practical application and significant contributions of DevComm within the development industry, emphasizing a widely used methodological framework Additionally, the article addresses the main challenges and barriers that limit the full potential of DevComm, offering insights into areas for future improvement.
Historically, DevComm originated after World War II, driven by the rising need for democratization, transparency, a holistic development approach, and active community participation in decision-making processes, as analyzed by Mozammel (2008).
Since World War II, the development theoretical framework has evolved significantly, transforming the role of communication in the development industry The emergence of Development Communication (DevComm) aims to address these new responsibilities by adapting to shifting paradigms A key transition from the Modernization to the Participatory paradigm has redefined development efforts from solely focusing on economic growth to emphasizing people's empowerment This shift recognizes individuals as active agents of change rather than passive recipients, leading to radical changes in the field of communication within development initiatives.
As Mefalopulos (2008) explains, communication in development projects has shifted from a traditional top-down, one-way model to an interactive, two-way approach that emphasizes horizontal, bottom-up flow This transition moves away from diffusion methods based on Lasswell’s classic formula, which are often rigid and inflexible Instead, participatory communication approaches now prioritize stakeholder participation and dialogue, transforming media from merely tools for information dissemination and persuasion into mechanisms for situation analysis and facilitating stakeholder engagement.
Mefalopulos (2008) says, in development industry, there have been four types of communication: corporate communication, internal communication, advocacy communication and DevComm The following table distinguishes them
8 which considers all perspectives – economic, social, political, institutional, cultural, and environmental – of an issue
9 “Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver” or “Who, says What, in Which channel, to Whom, with what Effect”
Table 2.6 Four communication types in development context
Type General purpose Specific activities
To communicate vision, mission, values and activities of an organisation, mostly for external audiences
To build trust in the organisation and support for development
Use media outputs to promote the vision, mission, values of the organisation
Inform audiences about relevant activities
To facilitate the information flow within an organisation or project
To reduce duplication between units
Ensure effective information sharing between the organisation’s staff
Advocacy communication To advocate for development initiatives
Raise awareness on development issues
Influence relevant public and decision makers
DevComm To facilitate sustainable change in development work
Establish conducive environments for sustainable change
Source: Adapted from Mefalopulos (2008, p.5) and Mozammel (2008)
Since World War II, the theoretical framework of the development industry and communication in development contexts has shifted from a Modernization paradigm to a Participatory approach, emphasizing community engagement and inclusivity Two primary communication modes emerge from these perspectives: monologic and dialogic communication These modes form the core of Development Communication (DevComm), with monologic communication characterized by one-way information flow and dialogic communication fostering two-way dialogue Despite their differences and distinct purposes, monologic and dialogic modes are not mutually exclusive; they can complement each other to enhance development outcomes (Mefalopulos, 2008, p.21).
10 This type of communication can be included in corporate communication
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Table 2.7 Monologic and Dialogic mode
Element Monologic mode Dialogic mode
Vertical Product-oriented Message-based Close-ended
Bottom-up Horizontal Process-oriented Dialog-based Open-ended Model One-way/ Transmission/
Approaches Diffusion approaches Participatory approaches
Dialog-based approaches Tactics Social marketing
Media campaign Information dissemination Advocacy
Community mobilization Capacity building Conflict resolution Nondirective communication
Roles Persuasive tool Research/ analytical/ explorative tool Purposes/
Decide, design, use methods and media products to persuade audiences to change
Facilitate dialog Analyse the situation Propose the appropriate strategy for change Stakeholders’ roles
Timing At implementation stage when objectives have already set
Best used at the beginning of the project before objectives have been defined
Outcomes Change in AKAB ladder (Awareness,
Awareness raising Knowledge increase Favour or positive attitudes Behaviour change
Stakeholder’s participation Mutual understanding Trust building
Consensus building Empowerment Capacity building Risk mitigation Identifying opportunity Conflict resolution Problem solving Source: Adapted from Mefalopulos (2008, pp.21 - 24, pp.56 - 60) and Tufte and Mefalopulos (2009, pp.9
In addition, as Mefalopulos categories, monologic mode can be divided into two modes: communication to inform and communication to persuade The first aims to raise awareness and increase knowledge whereas the second’s objectives are to foster positive behaviour, promote behaviour change and maintain appropriate behaviours Similarly, under dialogic mode, there are two modes: communication to assess and communication to empower The former aims to investigate, assess and analyse the situation whereas the latter is used for increasing stakeholders’ involvement in decision making process (Mefalopulos, 2008, p.24)
In practice, application of DevComm is the selective mix of the two communication modes Practitioners have flexibly combined different approaches and tactics borrowed from monologic and dialogic modes to fulfil their projects’ objectives This integrated approach is named “Communication multitrack approach” DevComm is best employed when the two modes are fully understood and carefully tailored for each situation (Mefalopulos, 2008, pp.70 - 73)
DevComm emphasizes participation and dialog, aiming to not only inform, persuade, and advocate but also to listen, explore, engage, empower, and mobilize communities Its goals extend beyond simple information dissemination and awareness-raising to include stakeholder involvement, community empowerment, and fostering self-renewing societies committed to sustainable development (Mozammel, 2008; Servaes and Malikhao, 2005; World Bank, 2004) Key principles set DevComm apart from other communication types, focusing on interactive and participatory approaches that drive meaningful social change.
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Table 2.8 Key principles of DevComm
DevComm is dialog-based and uses interactive two-way communication model to build mutual understanding