RATIONALE OF THE RESEARCH
Since the 1960s, learner-centredness has gained significant prominence in language education, emphasizing responsiveness to learners’ needs, encouraging active involvement, and fostering independence Key trends such as humanistic, communicative, and individualised teaching, along with learner autonomy and syllabus negotiation, reflect this focus on learner empowerment (Tudor, 1996) Notably, syllabus negotiation promotes shared decision-making between teachers and learners, resulting in more flexible, relevant, and motivating learning experiences that enable students to take a self-directed role (Breen & Littlejohn, 2000; Nunan, 1992b) Evidence from diverse educational settings worldwide demonstrates the practicality and effectiveness of negotiated learning, highlighting its transformative potential in language teaching and learning contexts (Boomer et al., 1992; Huang, 2006).
In recent years, learner-centredness has become a prominent concept in Vietnam’s language teaching community, focusing on adapting teaching methods to meet learners’ needs and promoting active, self-directed learning Despite extensive workshops and studies on learner roles and engagement, there has been limited formal research on negotiation as a learner-centred approach, even though professional literature shows growing interest in this area This gap motivated the researcher to investigate how negotiation functions within the Vietnamese language learning context.
Since the 2005-2006 academic year, the University of Social Sciences and Humanities (USSH) in Ho Chi Minh City has implemented a credit-based system, prompting a shift in teaching methods to better meet students’ needs and foster active engagement in learning In response, the Department of English Linguistics and Literature (DELL) has redesigned the BA program and language skills syllabuses to become more learner-centered, encouraging student independence and participation Recognizing this pedagogical shift, the researcher in the Language Skills Section of DELL conducted a study to evaluate the feasibility of using negotiation as an effective learner-centered approach in language teaching at DELL, USSH.
Recent concerns about Vietnamese learners’ verbal communicative competence have fueled increased interest in communicative language teaching in Vietnam Historically, Vietnam’s language education relied heavily on grammar-translation methods, leading to complaints that students excel in grammar, reading, and writing but struggle with speaking and conversational skills As Vietnam’s economy develops and becomes a hub for tourism and foreign investment, mastering spoken English has become essential for learners This shift has prompted a focus on developing listening and speaking skills through communicative approaches Consequently, the concept of syllabus negotiation—rooted in the communicative language teaching movement—has gained prominence, promoting collaborative decision-making in the classroom According to Breen (2001), involving learners in authentic decision-making processes enhances their opportunities to develop language skills and fosters meaningful interaction, thereby supporting overall language development.
The study focuses on syllabus negotiation at the task level in listening and speaking classes, influenced by the pre-existing syllabus and the growing recognition of tasks' importance in syllabus design Research from the 1980s in second language acquisition highlighted that learner interaction and negotiation for meaning during tasks facilitate linguistic and social knowledge acquisition Consequently, tasks are considered the key unit of the syllabus, with teachers encouraged to provide meaningful, interaction-rich tasks to enhance language learning Additionally, scholars like Wright (1987) and Nunan (1989) emphasize the connection between learner-centeredness and classroom tasks, advocating for involving learners in task design and selection Given these insights, the researcher justified exploring negotiation between teachers and learners at the task level to improve language acquisition and promote learner-centered classroom environments.
This study explores the concept of task negotiation in listening and speaking classes at DELL, USSH, focusing on how classroom discussions about task selection and execution can enhance language learning The research investigates whether implementing task negotiation strategies is feasible within the Vietnamese educational context, particularly at DELL, USSH Additionally, it examines if task negotiation can effectively meet students' needs, boost motivation, foster responsible learning behaviors, and improve overall learning outcomes Incorporating task negotiation in language teaching aims to create a more engaging and student-centered learning environment, promoting greater language proficiency and learner autonomy.
AIM OF THE STUDY
This study aims to explore the feasibility of implementing classroom negotiation in Vietnam, with a specific focus on DELL, USSH It seeks to provide empirical evidence on how task negotiation influences the teaching and learning of listening and speaking skills at DELL Additionally, the research examines students’ attitudes toward adopting negotiation as an approach in language instruction Finally, the study offers practical recommendations for integrating negotiation strategies into listening and speaking classes to enhance language acquisition.
This study utilized an experimental method to investigate the research questions Participants included students from two Listening – Speaking 4 classes at DELL of USSH Data were collected through multiple sources, such as test scores, questionnaires, interviews, and course-related documents, to ensure comprehensive and reliable findings.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The limited research on the practicality of negotiation in language teaching in Vietnam, particularly at DELL of USSH, highlights the importance of this study This topic is especially relevant given the growing emphasis on learner-centered and communicative approaches that enhance students’ communicative competence The study aims to provide valuable insights into the role of negotiation as a teaching method and offers recommendations for its effective implementation within the Vietnamese educational context.
ORGANISATION OF THE REMAINDER OF THE STUDY
Apart from the present introductory chapter, which states the rationale, aim and significance of the study, and the conclusion at the end, the thesis consists of five main chapters:
Chapter 1 provides the background to the study with a description of the new language skills programme and, particularly, the Listening - Speaking 4 module at DELL of USSH
Chapter 2 is the literature review, presenting an overview of the theoretical background and the related research in the Vietnamese context
Chapter 3 focuses upon the methodology of the study with a presentation of the research questions and the research design, including the participants, treatment, instruments, and data collection and analysis procedures
Chapter 4 deals with a detailed analysis of the data collected and a discussion of the research findings
Chapter 5 sets out the implications of the research results and then offers some tentative recommendations regarding the application of negotiation in listening and speaking classes at DELL.
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
THE NEW LANGUAGE SKILLS PROGRAMME AT DELL, USSH
1.1 THE NEW LANGUAGE SKILLS PROGRAMME AT DELL, USSH
Since the 2007-2008 school year, DELL has significantly reformed its language skills teaching to prioritize an integrated skills approach that reflects real-world communication Previously, students learned each skill—listening, speaking, reading, writing, and grammar—in separate periods, which did not align with the simultaneous use of multiple skills in authentic contexts Modern curricula emphasize combining listening with speaking, and reading with writing and grammar, to better meet learners’ practical needs Although students still studied Listening-Speaking and Reading-Writing-Grammar in separate classes, these components were assessed together under a single “Language Study” subject, with the Listening-Speaking module constituting 40% and the Reading-Writing-Grammar module making up 60% of the final grade, meaning failure in the course required repeating both modules This shift aligns with a learner-centered emphasis inherent in the credit system, fostering more authentic language acquisition.
Students therefore had to try their best to improve all of their skills and their grammar and, inevitably, vocabulary and pronunciation at the same time
All language skills courses have been updated with new textbooks, specifically the Interactions Mosaic series (4th edition) published by McGraw-Hill/Contemporary The revised curriculum includes specialized textbooks for each of the four language study courses required in the first year, ensuring students have access to the most current and effective learning materials.
- Language Study 1: Interactions 2 (Low Intermediate – Intermediate) (4 th edition) (Units 1 – 9)
- Language Study 2: Interactions 2 (Low Intermediate – Intermediate) (4 th edition) (Units 10 – 12) and Mosaic 1 (Intermediate – High Intermediate) (4 th edition) (Units 1 – 6)
- Language Study 3: Mosaic 1 (Intermediate – High Intermediate) (4 th edition)
(Units 7 – 12) and Mosaic 2 (High Intermediate – Low Advanced) (4 th edition)
- Language Study 4: Mosaic 2 (High Intermediate – Low Advanced) (4 th edition)
This four-skill comprehensive series features updated academic content, skill-building exercises, and communicative activities to enhance language proficiency While separate books focus on Listening-Speaking, Reading, Writing, and Grammar, all units share common themes, fostering integrated development across skills and language areas such as grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation In Reading-Writing-Grammar lessons, students analyze passages on specific topics, engage in discussions, and produce paragraphs or essays using grammar points provided in the dedicated Grammar book Meanwhile, Listening-Speaking classes involve listening to lectures on the same themes, practicing note-taking, and participating in speaking activities like role plays, discussions, and mini-presentations Each unit's exercises are designed around real-world communication tasks, encouraging students to apply multiple skills simultaneously in relevant contexts.
The new language skills program demands significant effort from students, requiring them to develop all language skills to succeed in their courses Students must be proactive, responsible, and independent learners, as highlighted by their clearly defined duties in the syllabus Achieving proficiency in this program involves dedicated practice across listening, speaking, reading, and writing, emphasizing the importance of student engagement and accountability.
- read the materials and do the exercises before each class
- make necessary preparations as required by the teacher
- actively participate in the lessons
- do the exercises – inside as well as outside the classroom – assigned by the teacher
- consult materials relevant to the lessons
- take the initiative in studying issues of interest
- attend at least 80% of the time in class A reasonable excuse is needed in case of absence
(See Appendix 8 for the Language Study 4 Syllabus)
Fostering students’ independence is emphasized through the recommendation of key reference books and numerous helpful websites to enhance their English skills and develop effective learning strategies Additionally, each course comprises nine chapters, with one dedicated to self-study at home under the teacher’s guidance, encouraging autonomous learning and responsible study habits.
The development of new language study syllabuses represents a significant advancement toward making language teaching more learner-centered By adopting an integrated skills approach, the aim is to enhance students’ communicative abilities effectively Additionally, increased emphasis is placed on encouraging students to take greater responsibility for their learning and fostering their autonomy, aligning with the core objectives of the credit system training.
THE LISTENING - SPEAKING 4 MODULE
The experiment was implemented in the Language Study 4 – Listening - Speaking class The detailed course syllabus, designed by DELL, is provided in Appendix 8 of the thesis
In the Language Study 4 course, the Listening-Speaking module allocated 50 out of 120 total periods, with 40 for class instruction, 5 for self-study, and 5 for mid-term testing and teacher feedback Students attended weekly five-period classes over eight weeks, taking the mid-term test in the fifth or sixth week and the final exam after completing the course All students in listening-speaking classes took the same standardized tests, designed by the Head of the Language Skills Section from teacher-submitted papers, except for the teacher-decided speaking mid-term The grading policy allocated 30% for the mid-term, 60% for the end-of-term test, and 10% for class participation, which was based on attendance, preparation, and active classroom engagement The listening and speaking skills in both mid-term and final assessments each contributed equally, accounting for 50% of the respective test scores.
The Language Study 4 course, especially the Listening - Speaking 4 module, aims to develop students' communicative competence by equipping them with essential subskills for real-life situations It focuses on enhancing students' grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation to ensure effective and confident communication.
The textbook used in the Listening - Speaking 4 module is Mosaic 2
Listening/Speaking 4 th edition (by Jami Hanreddy and Elizabeth Whalley, 2004, The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc offers a language learning book tailored for High Intermediate and Low Advanced students As the final book in the series, it is designed to enhance and refine the skills developed in the previous three Language Study courses Specifically, it aims to strengthen students' language proficiency, ensuring they are well-prepared for advanced communication skills.
Listening to lectures and radio broadcasts enables students to familiarize themselves with academic English while practicing essential note-taking strategies, such as incorporating illustrations, utilizing target expressions to enhance comprehension, and employing cohesive devices as markers Additionally, students develop a range of effective learning strategies, including understanding and applying figurative language, identifying comparisons and contrasts, recognizing cause-and-effect relationships, distinguishing between facts and opinions, predicting exam questions, and engaging in critical thinking.
Developing listening sub-skills and test-taking strategies is essential for success in standardized exams Students practice listening to short conversations to improve essential skills such as listening for gist and listening for details Additionally, they learn effective test-taking techniques that enhance their ability to perform well on standardized tests.
In listening activities, students are exposed to authentic conversational language, helping them identify and understand various language functions like persuading, giving in, expressing reservations, and taking the floor These exercises also provide opportunities to practice speaking and use language functions effectively in everyday situations Through engaging activities such as role-plays, interviews, presentations, and small group discussions, learners develop their communication skills in a natural and practical context.
- useful cultural information: The culture notes in some chapters help students learn more about the culture of the target language
Mosaic 2 Listening and Speaking provides valuable opportunities for students to engage with authentic language, enhancing their listening skills, fluency, and accuracy Its diverse range of listening and speaking activities enables teachers and students to customize their learning experience, making informed choices, exploring alternatives, and addressing specific language development needs effectively.
In addition to Mosaic 2 Listening and Speaking, teachers and students are encouraged to utilize supplementary resources such as "Advanced Listening Comprehension – Developing Aural and Note-Taking Skills" by Patricia Dunkel and Frank Pialorsi (2000), "New English File – Upper Intermediate" by Clive Oxenden et al (2005), and "New Headway – Advanced" by John and Liz Soars (2003) These reference materials enhance listening proficiency and support comprehensive language development for advanced learners.
A variety of valuable websites are recommended for reference to enhance your teaching resources (see Appendix 8) Teachers are encouraged to utilize their own materials, provided they align with course requirements regarding topics, skills, and task types, ensuring a cohesive and effective learning experience.
SUMMARY
This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the New Language Skills Programme and the Listening - Speaking 4 module of DELL, USSH, highlighting its key features and objectives In the subsequent chapter, relevant literature—including the theoretical frameworks and related research conducted within the Vietnamese context—will be reviewed to support the study.
LITERATURE REVIEW
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH
2.1.1.1 A brief historical overview of the emergence of the concept of negotiation in language teaching and learning
Negotiation in learning has evolved through developments across education, psychology, second language acquisition, linguistics, and language pedagogy This interdisciplinary influence has shaped the understanding of how learners and teachers interact and adapt in the learning process Syllabus negotiation has gained prominence as an effective approach to language teaching, emphasizing collaborative decision-making and learner-centered methodologies These trends highlight the importance of flexible, responsive teaching strategies that cater to individual learner needs and promote active engagement in the language learning journey.
The origins of the idea of negotiated decision-making can be said to lie in the Enlightenment, which was reflected in Bertrand Russell’s and John Dewey’s
In the early twentieth century, the 'humanist conception' emphasized the transformative potential of education to promote democracy and human dignity (Breen & Littlejohn, 2000) Recognizing the inegalitarian and dehumanizing effects of the Industrial Revolution, thinkers like Russell and Dewey underscored the vital role of education in fostering a more just and democratic society Their liberal schooling agenda prioritized "collaborative responsibility" and "choice," highlighting the importance of empowering students to participate actively in their own learning and societal development.
The humanist conception of education, emphasizing collaboration over competition and coercion, has significantly influenced innovative teaching approaches both within and outside the USA Inspired by Dewey, many educators have criticized traditional transmission-based methods and advocated for more democratic and student-centered teaching practices This shift has impacted various fields, including language education, where theorists promote engaging, participatory, and human-centric learning environments.
In his influential book “Pedagogy of the Oppressed,” Paulo Freire critically challenged traditional 'banking' education models, which depict students as empty vessels and teachers as sole authorities responsible for depositing knowledge (Freire, 1970; Brown, 2000) He emphasized the importance of empowering learners to negotiate their learning outcomes, collaborate with teachers and peers during a process of discovery, engage in critical thinking, and connect classroom experiences to their real-world contexts (Brown, 2000) Freire’s humanist approach has significantly shaped modern educational practices, fostering a more participatory and reflective learning environment.
The humanistic approach in psychology emerged in the 1960s and has profoundly influenced language teaching, with key contributions from Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers They introduced the concept of a “person-centered” education model aimed at “self-actualisation,” emphasizing that education is a lifelong process and learners should be viewed as whole persons with unique subjective needs According to Rogers, learners possess an inherent capacity to reach their potential, and teachers should serve as facilitators by creating a supportive, nonthreatening environment that fosters interpersonal relationships These humanistic principles, alongside ideas from humanist educators, gave rise to the humanistic movement in language teaching, which prioritizes the learning process, personal responsibility, and respect for learners’ experiences, significantly advancing teaching practices.
During the 1970s and 1980s, extensive research in second language acquisition (SLA) significantly shaped language teaching methodologies Hatch (1978) emphasized the importance of interaction in learning language forms, highlighting how conversational practice facilitates SLA Similarly, Stephen Krashen’s Input Hypothesis argued that language acquisition occurs when learners are exposed to comprehensible input slightly above their current proficiency level These insights underscored the crucial roles of interaction and targeted input in effective second language learning strategies.
Long's Interaction Hypothesis expanded on the concept of ‘comprehensible input’ by emphasizing the role of ‘modified interaction,’ where more competent speakers adjust their language to make it easier for learners to understand, thereby facilitating language acquisition This approach shifted the focus from viewing language learning as a passive process of receiving input to highlighting the importance of overt negotiation for meaning within social interactions Long’s work inspired further research into creating negotiated interactions in language classrooms, emphasizing social context and communication as key components of effective language learning.
In the late twentieth century, advancements in linguistics significantly influenced language pedagogy, shifting focus toward understanding language as a system for conveying meaning During the 1970s, linguists emphasized language use over formal structures, introducing the concept of ‘communication competence’ by Hymes—reacting to Chomsky’s focus on linguistic competence This paradigm shift reoriented language teaching from merely acquiring knowledge about language to developing learners’ ability to effectively use language in real-world communication.
Since Hymes introduced the concept of ‘communicative competence,’ the language teaching community has prioritized making instruction more communicative, leading to the development of ‘communicative language teaching’ (CLT) Initially, CLT focused on instructional goals and content, exemplified by functional syllabuses based on language functions and needs analysis From the 1980s onward, emphasis shifted toward how learners engage with the language, highlighting two key approaches: task-based learning (TBL), grounded in second language acquisition research, and learner-centered curricula that encourage active learner participation through negotiation with teachers This evolution reflects a growing interest in syllabus negotiation as a means to enhance language learning experiences and promote learner autonomy in the classroom.
2.1.1.2 Definitions of the term ‘negotiation’
In the context of language teaching, the term “negotiation” encompasses various concepts, as highlighted by Breen and Littlejohn (2000) They identify three distinct types of negotiation: personal negotiation, interactive negotiation, and procedural negotiation Understanding these variations is crucial for comprehending how negotiated decision-making influences language learning processes and classroom dynamics Recognizing the different forms of negotiation can enhance teaching strategies and promote more effective student engagement.
Personal negotiation is a complex mental process involved in interpreting spoken or written language and expressing meaning effectively (Breen & Littlejohn, 2000) For example, a single poem can be understood differently by various individuals due to their unique prior knowledge and experiences, and even the same person may interpret it differently upon re-reading This ongoing mental negotiation is an inevitable aspect of language use, shaping how we interpret and communicate meaning in both listening and speaking.
Interactive negotiation of meaning is the process where speakers and listeners collaborate to ensure mutual understanding during a discourse (Nunan, 1999) Originating from SLA research in the 1970s, this concept highlights how listeners seek clarification, repetition, or confirmation when they do not understand, prompting speakers to adjust their language for better comprehensibility Research indicates that negotiation of meaning offers learners comprehensible input, which is essential for effective second language acquisition.
Procedural or syllabus negotiation involves a collaborative discussion among all classroom members to organize learning and teaching effectively (Breen & Littlejohn, 2000) Unlike traditional bargaining, this negotiation aims for shared goals, with the teacher prioritizing what is best for students, emphasizing joint exploration rather than conflict (Bloor & Bloor, 1988) This process fosters a communicative and participative learning environment, reflecting a shift in educational approaches during the 1980s, which continues to influence current pedagogical practices.
Following are the main reasons for implementing procedural negotiation in language teaching and learning a Negotiation can make the teaching responsive to learners’ needs
Given learners’ diverse experiences, expectations, and preferences, a pre-determined syllabus set by institutions or teachers before the learner-teacher interaction is often inadequate (Nunan, 1988b; Breen & Littlejohn).
Collecting only objective data such as age, occupation, language proficiency, and educational background limits a teacher’s understanding of learners’ true needs, as subjective factors like attitudes, learning preferences, and motivation can only be uncovered through direct interaction and relationship-building A predetermined syllabus based on initial factual information is often "superficially learner-centered," whereas a negotiated syllabus fosters ongoing dialogue, allowing teachers and learners to collaboratively identify and address affective needs, expectations, and preferences This continuous negotiation helps to refine the course objectives, content, and methodology, making the syllabus more relevant and responsive to learners, ultimately increasing their motivation and active involvement in the learning process.
PREVIOUS RESEARCH ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PROCEDURAL
Although there is a growing global interest in syllabus negotiation in language teaching, limited research has been conducted in Vietnam The only related study at the English Resources Centre of DELL was by Nguyen Van Ha (2006), who found that negotiation in speaking classes improved students' spoken English, communication skills, and learning strategies However, this research was based on an outdated skills program that taught language skills separately, highlighting the need to explore the feasibility of classroom negotiation within the modern integrated skills curriculum in Vietnam.
SUMMARY
This article reviews key aspects of negotiation, tasks in language teaching, and strategies for teaching listening and speaking skills It reflects on a prior study conducted within DELL's speaking classes, which occurred before the recent updates to the language skills program The current research aims to provide empirical evidence on the effectiveness of negotiation in Vietnam, specifically at DELL, and assesses how well negotiation techniques integrate within the context of the new language skills curriculum.