An analysis of errors related to adjective noun collocations made by 3rd year english majored students at ussh and implications for teaching translation m a

INTRODUCTION

Background to the study

The Lexical Approach (LA) is a recent language teaching method that emphasizes the importance of teaching prefabricated chunks rather than individual words This approach is based on the belief that learning and using lexical units as chunks can significantly enhance learners' communicative competence Scholars like Pawley and Syder (1983) support this idea, noting that a large portion of human speech consists of multiword units functioning as fixed expressions Implementing the Lexical Approach helps learners develop authentic language skills by focusing on both vocabulary and natural language use.

Oral fluency relies on the use of "chunks" or memorized patterns, enabling a spontaneous flow of language and information Harmer (2001) emphasized that fluent speech is characterized by the frequent use of common lexical phrases, facilitating natural communication Recent research by Jiang & Nekrasova (2007) supports this view, finding that formulaic sequences are processed more quickly and accurately than non-formulaic expressions, highlighting their importance in achieving fluency.

Collocation is a fundamental concept in language acquisition, referring to the frequent co-occurrence of words within a language It highlights how words naturally combine to form meaningful phrases or chunks, which are essential for fluent communication Understanding collocation is crucial for mastering how words work together to create idiomatic and natural language use According to Richards and Rodgers (2001), collocation “is thought to play a central role in learning and in communication,” emphasizing its importance in developing effective language skills.

Collocation is an essential aspect of language proficiency but poses challenges for EFL/ESL learners Unlike native speakers who effortlessly produce natural collocations, learners require significant time and effort to acquire these language chunks Limited exposure to the target language further hampers their ability to internalize common collocations, making their mastery of native-like fluency more difficult.

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Non-native speakers often have limited opportunities to practice lexical chunks as frequently as native speakers, leading them to rely on rote memorization This method is generally ineffective for mastering large amounts of vocabulary, especially collocations, which involve arbitrary combination rules For example, learners struggle to understand why "tea" is paired with "strong" in "strong tea" but not with "powerful," despite "powerful" being a synonym Such inconsistencies can confuse learners, making it challenging to remember and correctly use collocations in context.

Learners’ L1 significantly influences their ability to acquire collocations, often leading them to rely on literal translation from their native language This approach can result in inaccuracies and awkwardness in communication because collocational relationships in one language do not always correspond to those in another Consequently, word-for-word translation may violate L2 collocational rules, negatively impacting fluency and making speech sound unnatural.

Learners inevitably make errors in using collocations due to the complexity of lexical items and language differences, even at advanced levels Research by Bahns & Eldaw (1993), Li (2005), and Darvishi (2011) shows that collocational errors can be reduced through teaching methods such as error correction and targeted collocation introduction While these strategies have proven effective, collocation remains a significant challenge for EFL learners, highlighting the need for ongoing research to address this persistent issue.

Along with the increasing popularity of LA, collocation and teaching of collocations have attracted much attention from scholars and researchers, such as Bahns & Eldaw

(1993), Fan (2009), Farrokh (2012) and Lubis (2013), etc Most of these studies have focused either on analyzing learners’ collocational errors to figure out the causes of

Effective teaching of collocations requires identifying common errors and exploring new pedagogical methods Research often focuses on both error correction and innovative teaching strategies, with studies frequently combining these approaches to enhance learners' mastery of collocations Integrating error analysis with the development of effective teaching techniques can significantly improve vocabulary acquisition and language proficiency.

Rationale for the study

Despite numerous studies on collocation, most have focused on verb-noun combinations due to their high frequency and the difficulty they pose for English learners However, adjective-noun collocations are also highly frequent and challenging, as confirmed by several studies Trinh (2001) conducted a contrastive analysis between English and Vietnamese collocations, revealing that adjective-noun collocations are the broadest category, with approximately 1,700 instances accounting for 56.6% of his data This highlights the significance of studying adjective-noun collocations to enhance language learning and translation accuracy.

(2005), Shehata (2008) and Kurosaki (2012), have come to the same conclusion that adjective-noun collocation caused great difficulties for learners

Recent studies in Vietnam have highlighted increasing interest in collocations and their role in language proficiency Nguyen (2006) emphasized the importance of collocational knowledge in effective language use, while Mai (2008) examined learners’ use of lexical collocations in Vietnamese-English translation More recent research by Dang (2014) surveyed the teaching of lexical collocations in academic writing, and Nguyen (2014) explored learners’ ability to produce and recognize verb-noun collocations However, despite growing research, there remains a gap as none of these studies specifically focus on adjective-noun collocations, underlining the need for further investigation in this area.

While many studies focus on addressing collocation challenges in language teaching overall, few have specific implications for translation education This is significant because collocation-related difficulties are prevalent in translation, which demands a strong command of collocations for accurate and natural translation Enhancing teaching strategies to include collocation mastery can improve translation quality and fluency Therefore, integrating collocation-focused approaches into translation training is essential for developing proficient translators.

Translation is inherently complex, and collocations pose significant challenges even for professional translators Given their crucial role in conveying natural language, understanding collocations is vital for accurate translation Therefore, more focused research is needed to explore collocations in both source and target languages, enhancing translation quality Future studies should prioritize examining collocations to address this ongoing challenge for learners and experts alike.

This study addresses the research gap in adjective-noun collocations within translation, providing valuable insights for teaching translation at the University of Social Sciences and Humanities (USSH) Focusing on the Faculty of English Linguistics and Literature (EF), the research aims to enhance students' understanding of collocations in translation, ultimately improving translation education and practice in higher education.

Aim of the study

Even students with a high level of proficiency make collocational errors, highlighting the need for focused research on this issue This study investigates collocational errors, specifically attributive adjective-noun collocations, among 3rd-year EF students at USSH The research aims to analyze the common types and possible causes of these errors through students' translations Based on the error analysis, the study seeks to identify practical solutions to help students overcome difficulties in mastering collocations and improve their translation skills.

Research questions

In order to accomplish the aforementioned aims, the two research questions were given as follow:

1 What are the common types of adjective-noun collocational errors made by 3 rd year EF students at USSH in their translations?

2 What are the possible causes of adjective-noun collocational errors made by 3 rd year EF students at USSH in their translations?

Significance of the study

With those aims accomplished by answering the two research questions, the present study has its own significance as follow

This study offers a comprehensive review of existing literature on collocations and collocational errors, highlighting various error types and their potential causes The theoretical insights were validated through detailed error analysis, confirming the identified causes of common collocational mistakes.

The analysis identified additional causes of errors in collocation that have been rarely mentioned in previous studies Furthermore, the study examined the practical teaching and learning of collocation in translation classes at EF, USSH, uncovering potential links to learners’ lack of collocational knowledge.

This study offers practical insights into teaching and learning collocations, particularly in translation By analyzing the types and causes of collocational errors, it provides valuable information for teachers and learners to understand how such errors occur and how to avoid them Based on the findings, the study recommends effective strategies to enhance students’ collocational knowledge and address challenges in translating collocations at EF, USSH.

Scope of the study

The present study focused on adjective-noun collocational errors in translation of 3 rd year EF students at USSH The scope of the study, however, still needs clarification

This study focuses on adjective-noun collocational errors, specifically those where the adjective precedes the noun, emphasizing attributive adjective-noun combinations It is important to note that while adjective-noun collocations can include adjectives placed before or after the noun, our research strictly examines cases where the adjective comes before the noun The analysis concentrates on identifying and understanding errors related to attributive adjective-noun pairs to improve language accuracy.

This study focuses on collocational errors in translation, specifically between Vietnamese and English Translation typically involves two directions: from learners’ L1 to L2 or vice versa, but this research concentrates solely on Vietnamese-English translation Since translating from L1 to L2 is more challenging, it is more prone to collocational errors, making this focus particularly relevant for identifying common pitfalls in learner translations.

This study examines errors in attributive adjective-noun collocations in Vietnamese-English translations by third-year EF students at USSH Despite its limited scope, which may affect the generalizability of the findings, the research offers valuable insights that can enhance translation teaching strategies and improve students’ bilingual proficiency.

EF, USSH and provide theoretical and practical background for further research.

Overall structure of the study

This thesis consists of five main chapters (1) Introduction, (2) Literature Review, (3) Methodology, (4) Findings and Discussion and (5) Conclusion and Recommendations, apart from the Acknowledgements, Abstract, References and Appendixes

The Introduction chapter offers essential background information and outlines the rationale for conducting the research It clearly states the study's aims, significance, and scope, establishing a solid foundation for understanding the research objectives and its potential impact.

The Literature Review chapter is divided into two main parts: firstly, it provides the theoretical foundation by discussing relevant theories and concepts related to collocation and collocational errors secondly, it reviews existing research studies in the field to establish a comprehensive understanding Building on this theoretical groundwork, a conceptual framework is developed to guide the research design, data collection, and analysis.

The Methodology chapter details the research methods employed in the study, including an elaboration of the research questions to provide clarity and focus It outlines the research design and describes the procedures used for data collection and analysis, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the study's approach.

The Findings and Discussion chapter analyzes and interprets the collected data, highlighting the key results of the study It provides clear answers to the research questions, offering valuable insights into the study’s objectives Additionally, this chapter lays the foundation for the recommendations discussed in Chapter Five, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the research outcomes.

The Conclusion and Recommendations chapter summarizes the study's key findings, highlighting the importance of effective pedagogical strategies for teaching and learning collocations in translation It discusses the pedagogical implications, emphasizing how improved instruction can enhance translation accuracy and fluency The chapter also offers practical recommendations for educators and suggests avenues for future research to further explore innovative methods in teaching collocations.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Collocation

Collocation, as defined by the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, has two distinct meanings As a countable noun, it refers to common word combinations that occur more frequently than by chance As an uncountable noun, it describes the tendency of two or more words to often appear together more frequently than expected In this study, the term collocation encompasses both the concept of frequent word pairings and specific word combinations, highlighting its importance in language usage and analysis.

The term "collocation" was popularized by Firth (1957), who defined it as “the habitual or characteristic associations of words in texts,” marking him as a pioneer of the frequency-based approach in studying collocations This approach has led to various definitions, such as Jones & Sinclair (1974), who described collocation as “the co-occurrence of two items in a text within a specified environment,” and Cruse (1986), who characterized collocations as “sequences of lexical items which habitually co-occur.” Understanding collocations is essential for grasping natural language patterns and improving language proficiency.

Collocation is defined as the occurrence of two or more words within a short space of each other in a text, a concept introduced by scholars in 1991 Most definitions rooted in this perspective emphasize the frequency of occurrence as the key criterion for identifying collocations This focus on how often words appear together helps to distinguish common, natural word combinations from random word pairings, making frequency a central element in understanding collocation patterns Recognizing these frequent word pairings is essential for effective language learning and natural language processing.

Not all frequently co-occurring word pairs qualify as true collocations Kjellmer (1982) demonstrated this by analyzing the Brown Corpus and discovering that common adjacent two-word sequences like “of the” occur frequently, but do not necessarily form meaningful collocations.

Although "he" and "but too" frequently co-occurred in the corpus (Kurosaki, 2012), most native speakers would not regard these as collocations, as they do not form meaningful lexical sequences.

To put it differently, frequency of occurrence alone is not sufficient to define collocation

The phraseology approach to collocation emphasizes distinguishing collocations from other formulaic sequences and free combinations, focusing on their unique characteristics Howarth (1998) distinguished restricted collocations from free combinations, idioms, and figurative expressions based on the degree of restriction and the literal or figurative meaning of the words involved This approach builds on Cowie’s (1981) foundational ideas, which placed collocations within a “fuzzy” continuum between free combinations and idioms, distinguished by criteria such as combinability and transparency Combinability refers to the level of restriction in word co-occurrence, ranging from free substitution to complete restriction, while transparency concerns whether the combination’s meaning is literal or figurative.

Both the frequency-based approach and the other method have offered valuable criteria for defining collocation, each with unique strengths and weaknesses The frequency-based approach, grounded in the theory of occurrence frequency, significantly contributed to establishing a foundational understanding of collocations in linguistic analysis.

Kurosaki (2012) emphasizes that defining collocations requires a comprehensive approach that distinguishes meaningful combinations from other formulaic sequences and meaningless co-occurrences The phraseological approach introduces key concepts like "combinability" and "transparency" to address these challenges By integrating these ideas, Kurosaki offers a refined definition that captures the essence of genuine collocations, providing clarity beyond traditional methods.

A collocation is a common word combination that follows a specific grammatical pattern, forming an abstract language unit frequently used in English They are defined by their combinability, meaning certain words naturally occur together, enhancing fluency and naturalness in speech and writing Understanding collocations is essential for improving language proficiency and producing more native-like English Recognizing these habitual word pairings can also boost SEO by using relevant, natural language phrases that resonate with your target audience.

(2) semantic transparency of words in a collocation (p 30)

Kurosaki’s definition effectively captures the core of the two major approaches to collocations He emphasizes that collocations follow specific grammatical patterns, thereby excluding random two-word sequences that do not conform to these patterns This perspective aligns with the idea that meaningful collocations are governed by grammatical rules, distinguishing them from meaningless word strings, as described by Kjellmer (1982) Understanding these grammatical patterns is essential for accurately identifying and analyzing collocations in language processing.

The initial definition of collocations faced several limitations, including the lack of clarity regarding the frequency threshold for considering a combination as a collocation Additionally, Cowie’s (1981) criterion of transparency was criticized by Hodne (2009) for failing to establish clear boundaries between literal and figurative meanings For example, she argued that it is difficult to determine whether phrases like “constitutional monarchy” and “customs agents” are free combinations or restricted collocations, and to identify which elements are used in their literal sense Consequently, Hodne proposed her own refined definition to address these issues.

Collocations are fixed or semi-fixed combinations of words that are restricted in their use, often listed in collocation dictionaries They typically have an MI (Mutual Information) score above 3.0, indicating a strong association between the words Additionally, these word pairs occur frequently in language corpora, with a raw frequency of more than three tokens in the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) Understanding collocations is essential for grasping natural language patterns and improving language proficiency.

Using corpora alone is sufficient for identifying collocations, as they offer a larger and more comprehensive database compared to dictionaries While traditional criteria and the use of both resources can be helpful, relying solely on corpora simplifies the process and provides more reliable results This approach aligns with best practices in linguistic research, making collocation detection more efficient and accurate.

In addition to the previously discussed issue, it is important to consider another aspect of the definition Hodne was not the first to use the frequency of occurrence in a corpus as a criterion for identifying collocations; prior to her work, Nesselhauf also emphasized the significance of statistical measures in collocation analysis Recognizing these foundational contributions highlights the role of corpus-based frequency analysis in understanding natural language patterns This approach remains essential for accurately identifying collocations in linguistic research and natural language processing.

In 2005, this methodology was applied to research, marking an early adaptation of the approach Subsequently, Hong et al (2011) incorporated it into their study, further validating its effectiveness Both studies established a standard threshold for identifying collocations by setting the minimum frequency of at least five tokens within the British National Corpus (BNC), ensuring reliable detection of significant word combinations.

Collocation and translation

This section is dedicated to discussing the relationship between collocations and translation The former, indeed, has considerable influence upon the latter

A key factor influencing a translator’s performance is their lexical knowledge; a broader vocabulary enhances translation quality Therefore, translators must continuously enrich their vocabulary to improve accuracy and efficiency However, acquiring and retaining extensive vocabulary remains a significant challenge for most non-native speakers, impacting their overall translation performance.

Knowing a word does not necessarily mean learners can use it effectively in communication or translation The main challenge lies in their inability to identify appropriate contexts and suitable word combinations, highlighting a lack of collocational knowledge This gap significantly impacts their practical language use and fluency.

Learning vocabulary through chunks or collocations is an effective strategy, as suggested by authors like Pawley & Syder (1983) and Harmer (2001) Instead of memorizing isolated words, learners should focus on words within specific contexts where they habitually co-occur, enhancing retention and understanding Collocational learning acts as a memory aid, making it easier to memorize words (Rahimi & Sahragard, 2008) Additionally, understanding words in context helps learners grasp nuanced differences between synonyms, such as "injury" and "wound," by recognizing the company they keep, which enriches vocabulary comprehension and usage.

Remembering words as chunks, including common collocations, significantly enhances language learning by reducing the processing time during language use This approach allows learners to quickly recall and use word combinations without spending excessive effort on selecting appropriate words, leading to more fluent and efficient communication.

A comprehensive vocabulary bank enables translators to enhance their overall language skills, including listening, reading, writing, and speaking Collocational knowledge plays a crucial role in developing translation competence, as fluent and appropriate language relies on understanding how words naturally combine According to Nation (2001), “all fluent and appropriate language requires collocational knowledge,” which helps learners express themselves clearly and improves translation quality in terms of naturalness and accuracy (McIntosh et al., 2009) Native speakers' language use is often marked by their correct use of collocations and idiomatic expressions, setting them apart from non-native speakers Additionally, Newmark (1988) emphasizes that collocations are vital units of translation that require special attention, since some words change meaning when used in specific collocations Overall, broad knowledge of collocations allows translators to understand and translate texts more accurately and naturally.

Translating collocations remains a significant challenge for translators due to their essential role in language coherence and naturalness The researcher identifies two main categories of difficulties: intralingual (within the language) and interlingual (between languages), which are often intertwined, making clear distinctions difficult Understanding these categories helps clarify the complex nature of collocation translation challenges, though they serve as an initial framework for systematic discussion.

Intralingual difficulties stem from the inherent complexities of the target language itself One significant challenge for learners and translators is understanding collocations, which are often unpredictable due to their arbitrary nature According to Sughair (2011), while native speakers can easily predict collocations, learners often struggle with their correct usage, highlighting the importance of mastering collocational patterns to achieve language proficiency.

Understanding the complexities of word collocations and multiple senses is crucial for accurate translation Words can have different meanings depending on their context, such as "great" in "great house" versus "great man," which carry distinct nuances For example, the word "dry" primarily describes wetness but can have different meanings in expressions like "dry cow" or "dry voice," where it is unrelated to moisture Translators often struggle to recognize these subtle differences, especially when they lack full knowledge of all possible senses As Meidasari (2007) emphasizes, context plays a vital role in signaling a word’s secondary meaning, yet fully grasping the context can be challenging, particularly when it involves language-specific and culture-specific lexical items, which are key factors leading to interlingual translation difficulties.

Interlingual difficulties arise from differences between languages, posing significant challenges for translators, especially with culture-specific items like collocations Dweik & Shakra (2010) highlight that translating Arabic collocations into English is hindered by a substantial linguistic and cultural gap, leading to a lack of equivalent collocational patterns Shammas (2013), citing Emery (1991), emphasizes that collocations are inherently language-specific and unpredictable These cultural and linguistic gaps are universal issues affecting both translators and language learners, as seen in the examples of English-Vietnamese translation, where culture-specific collocations such as "continental breakfast" or "tow-away zone" lack direct Vietnamese equivalents.

Vietnamese culture-specific terms like mặt rồng (dragon’s face, symbolizing the king) and cửu/hoàng tuyền (nine/golden springs, representing the afterlife) pose translation challenges into English, as translators must convey not only the literal meaning but also the cultural significance, mood, and atmospheric effects of the original text Translating archaic words adds complexity, requiring careful adaptation to preserve the historical and cultural context.

When translating texts, it is essential to find appropriate archaic equivalents that closely capture the spirit of the original content The arbitrariness of collocations becomes particularly evident when considering multiple languages, as certain word pairings lack logical explanations For example, in Vietnamese, black horses, dogs, and cats are referred to as "ngựa ô," "chó mực," and "mèo mun," respectively, illustrating how cultural and linguistic factors influence translation choices Understanding these nuances is crucial for accurate and culturally sensitive translation practices.

English may find it very confusing for having three words which express the same meaning of black and yet cannot be used interchangeably

2.2.3 Influences of L1 on learners’ use of collocations

Differences in culture and language significantly impact the translation of collocations, often causing difficulties for translators A deeper understanding of this challenge can be achieved through a contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese collocations, highlighting their unique linguistic and cultural factors that influence how expressions are formed and used in each language.

2.2.3.1 English collocations vs Vietnamese counterparts

Although English and Vietnamese belong to different language families—English being part of the Indo-European family and Vietnamese belonging to the Austroasiatic family—they share some similarities, such as common sentence structures like SV and SVO, and both use the Latin writing system However, these similarities are relatively minor compared to their differences This analysis emphasizes collocation, focusing on linguistic and cultural distinctions that set the two languages apart.

English attributive adjective-noun collocations typically have adjectives preceding nouns, whereas in Vietnamese, adjectives follow the nouns they modify, reflecting a different word order For example, "dense population" in English translates to "dân số đông" in Vietnamese, where the noun precedes the adjective This structural difference means that the equivalent of an English adjective-noun phrase in Vietnamese is often a noun-adjective construction Additionally, in English, nouns can function attributively similar to adjectives, a phenomenon also observed in Vietnamese, where nouns can act as modifiers within a noun phrase.

In English, the number 18 can function as a modifier of another noun, leading to specific adjective-noun collocations Conversely, in Vietnamese, certain English adjective-noun combinations are translated into Noun-Noun structures, such as "golden age" translating to "thờ i vàng son." Additionally, some Vietnamese noun-adjective phrases are rendered into English as Noun-Noun collocations, like "răng khôn" translating to "wisdom tooth." These structural differences highlight that concepts of word equivalence and collocation equivalence do not always align between the two languages Consequently, even if two words form a collocation in one language, their equivalents in the other language may not share the same relationship, posing significant challenges in translating collocations accurately.

Collocation and error analysis

This study begins with an overview of essential concepts related to collocation, laying the foundation for understanding its significance in language use It then shifts focus to the theoretical background of error analysis, a key area of investigation in this research Understanding error analysis is crucial for identifying common language mistakes and improving language proficiency, making it a central component of this study.

In error analysis, it is essential to distinguish between errors and mistakes Corder (1967) identified two types of errors: "errors of performance," or mistakes, which are unsystematic slips such as slips of the tongue or pen caused by memory lapses or physical states, and "errors of competence," which are systematic errors that reflect a learner's current knowledge of the language Understanding this distinction helps in accurately assessing language learners' proficiency and guiding effective teaching strategies.

(2003) maintained that errors “reflect gaps in a learner’s knowledge” and occur due to the learner’s lack of knowledge, while mistakes refer to “occasional lapses in

22 performance”, happen when learners are unable to perform what they have known (p

Errors play a crucial role in language teaching and learning, as they reveal learners’ progress and serve as valuable indicators of the learning process (Corder, 1967) Recognized by most authors, errors act as a learning tool, helping both educators and learners understand areas needing improvement Additionally, James (1998) emphasizes that errors cannot be self-corrected until learners receive relevant input that converts into meaningful intake, highlighting the importance of targeted input in error correction and language acquisition.

Errors in second language learning have attracted significant scholarly attention, particularly from researchers focused on error analysis Brown (1980) defines error analysis as the process of observing, analyzing, and classifying deviations from linguistic rules to reveal the underlying system used by learners Similarly, Richards & Schmidt (2002) describe error analysis as "the study and analysis of errors made by second language learners," emphasizing its role in understanding language acquisition Conducting error analysis helps researchers identify common errors, improve teaching methods, and enhance language learning outcomes.

This article explores effective strategies that language learners employ, helps identify the underlying causes of common learner errors, and highlights typical challenges faced during language acquisition Understanding these aspects provides valuable insights for educators in developing targeted teaching methods and materials Analyzing learners’ errors reveals gaps in their knowledge, enabling the formulation of appropriate interventions to enhance language proficiency and overall competence.

Error analysis is a crucial process in language learning research, with various authors proposing different procedures Corder (1974) outlined a five-step approach that includes collecting learner language, identifying errors, classifying them, explaining their causes, and evaluating their seriousness In contrast, Gass and Selinker (2008) introduced a six-step procedure that starts with collecting data and identifying errors, emphasizing a slightly expanded framework for analyzing learner mistakes.

Classifying errors, quantifying errors, analyzing sources, and remediation are interconnected procedures in error analysis, sharing significant similarities, especially in their final steps focused on correcting errors While both procedures aim to improve language accuracy, Gass & Selinker’s method uniquely incorporates the quantification of errors, a step absent in Corder’s approach According to Dang (2014), this step is essential for effectively measuring error patterns and informing targeted remediation strategies.

“of great importance because it yields more insights into the learning process and also specifies what kind of errors need more pedagogical intervention” (p 37) As a result,

23 the six-step procedure developed by Gass & Selinker (2008) will be adopted as the framework for conducting the error analysis in the present study

2.3.2 Types of errors related to adjective-noun collocations

Different authors have varying classification criteria for collocational errors, shaped by their perspectives and the specific types of collocations they analyze Among these, the most well-known framework was proposed by Nesselhauf, providing a widely accepted approach to understanding and categorizing collocational mistakes.

In 2003, nine types of collocational errors were identified, as outlined in Table 2.3 This classification was later adapted by Hong et al (2011) and Nguyen (2014), who omitted certain categories such as preposition (noun), structure, and preposition (verb), since these refer to grammatical collocations that were not the primary focus of their research.

Table 2.3: Types of collocational errors (Nesselhauf, 2003, p 232)

1 Verb: Wrong choice of verb (or non-existent verb) *carry out races (hold races)

2 Noun: Wrong choice of noun (or non-existent noun) *close lacks (close gaps)

3 Usage 1: Combination exists but is not used correctly take notice (to notice)

4 Usage 2: Combination does not exist and cannot be corrected by exchanging single elements

*hold children within bounds (show children where the boundaries lie)

5 Preposition (verb): Preposition of a prepositional verb missing, present though unacceptable, or wrong

*fail in one's exams (fail one's exams)

6 Preposition (noun): Preposition of a noun missing, present though unacceptable, or wrong

*raise the question about (raise the question of)

7 Determiner: Article or pronoun missing, present though unacceptable, or wrong

*get the permission (get permission)

8 Number: Noun used in singular instead of plural or vice versa

*pass one's judgments (pass judgment)

9 Structure: Syntactic structure wrong *make sb friends

Kurosaki (2012) adapted Nesselhauf’s classification of verb-noun collocation errors to include various types of collocations, such as adjective-noun combinations His study focused on identifying different categories of collocational errors within adjective-noun pairs, expanding the original framework to encompass a broader range of collocation types This approach highlights the versatility of Nesselhauf’s classification system when applied to diverse collocation categories, providing valuable insights for linguists and language learners in understanding and addressing common errors in collocational use.

1 Adjective: The adjective in a collocation is wrong

2 Noun: The noun in a collocation is wrong

3 Determiners: The article or possessive pronoun is missing or added

4 Structure: Syntactic structure is wrong

5 Preposition: Preposition is added through unnecessary or wrong choice

6 Different expression: Translation does not include a collocation and/or consists of a circumlocution

7 Number: Noun is used in singular instead of plural or vice versa

This study emphasizes the importance of classifying adjective-noun collocations, making Kurosaki's categorization highly relevant However, modifications are necessary, as errors related to determiners, prepositions, number, and structure are infrequent in this context and not central to the study's focus on lexical collocational errors Consequently, these four categories should be omitted Additionally, while Kurosaki’s classification is comprehensive, the category labels lack clarity and require refinement As a result, the types of adjective-noun collocational errors are revised for better understanding and applicability in analyzing lexical collocational errors in second language acquisition.

1 Wrong choice of adjective: the adjective in a collocation is incorrectly chosen

2 Wrong choice of noun: the adjective in a collocation is incorrectly chosen

3 Wrong combination: the entire combination is incorrect or circumlocutory.

It is necessary to note that wrong combination, the new name for different expression, includes the two categories usage 1 and usage 2 proposed by Nesselhaulf (2003)

In this study, categories involving incorrect combinations of components were grouped together, as distinguishing between them is unnecessarily complicated Since both components are improperly selected in these cases, they are collectively referred to by the same terminology previously mentioned, streamlining the analysis and ensuring clarity in the research findings.

25 aforementioned categories of adjective-noun collocational errors will be used to categorize the collected errors, which is an important step in data analysis

One of the primary goals of error analysis is to identify effective remedies for learners’ mistakes To achieve this, it is essential to determine the underlying causes of errors, which helps in developing targeted instructional strategies Understanding these causes enables educators to implement appropriate interventions, ultimately improving learners’ language proficiency and fostering more accurate language use.

In this section, the researcher will review the relevant literature so as to identify the hypothetical sources of errors applicable to the present study

Learners often make collocational errors due to their unawareness of the concept, leading to the faulty assumption that words can co-occur freely without restrictions, despite understanding restricted combinability in their native language This misconception results in students unknowingly producing collocations that violate proper usage rules The teaching approach often contributes to this issue, as collocations are frequently overlooked or insufficiently emphasized in language instruction In translation classes, teachers tend to prioritize translation skills and strategies, while collocations, alongside culture and idioms, are only briefly introduced or not clearly explained, limiting students’ understanding To gain a comprehensive understanding of this problem, the research employs not only tests but also interviews with teachers and questionnaires for students, aiming to explore the actual teaching situation and generate more precise recommendations for improvement.

A lack of collocational knowledge significantly hampers learners' performance, particularly in translation tasks To address this deficiency, learners often rely on strategies such as literal translation, paraphrasing, and using synonyms, which can lead to collocational errors However, these are not the only causes of such errors; many scholars have identified additional factors contributing to collocational mistakes in language learning.

Collocation and language teaching

Error analysis aims to identify effective remedies for learners’ mistakes, enabling targeted language instruction By examining errors, researchers can determine suitable teaching strategies for collocations, which are essential for language proficiency Achieving this requires a solid understanding of how collocations are taught in EFL/ESL contexts Therefore, a review of relevant literature on collocation instruction is crucial to inform best practices and enhance learner outcomes.

The debate over whether collocations should be taught implicitly or explicitly remains unresolved, with some arguing that learners can acquire collocation knowledge intuitively through exposure However, empirical research contradicts this assumption, as Nakata (2007) demonstrated that collocations are difficult to acquire passively and require intentional instruction Similarly, Dang (2014) emphasized that since collocation is a universal language phenomenon often encountered unconsciously, explicit teaching helps learners recognize and understand collocations She illustrated this with the incorrect phrase "expensive price," advising educators to introduce the concept explicitly rather than dismissing certain combinations as non-standard, to prevent confusion and enhance learner comprehension.

When teaching collocations, the key question is which types should be emphasized Many teachers tend to focus primarily on grammatical collocations, correcting errors like verb-preposition and preposition-noun combinations, often neglecting lexical collocations This oversight suggests a need to devote more attention to lexical collocations, which are crucial for natural language use According to Bahns & Eldaw (1993), prioritizing lexical collocations can significantly enhance language proficiency and fluency.

Effective EFL teaching should focus on collocations that are difficult to paraphrase, particularly incongruent collocations that require special attention, as highlighted by Nakata (2007) and Kurosaki (2012) Hodne (2009) emphasizes selecting lexical collocations that are challenging yet practical for learners, ensuring they are useful for real-life communication She recommends a comprehensive list of beneficial collocations, serving as a valuable guideline for teachers to select appropriate examples and design more effective learning activities This targeted approach helps students acquire essential collocations that enhance their fluency and language proficiency.

Table 2.4: Useful collocations to teach students (Hodne, 2009, p 104)

Understanding collocations is essential for mastering natural language use; for example, common collocations include "hold an election" and "general election," which are frequently used in political contexts Repeated exposure to words like "incredibly busy" and "trendy restaurants" helps expand students' vocabulary by pairing familiar words with new ones, such as "incredibly" or "trendy." In discussions related to chapter themes, terms like "constitutional monarchy" and "vocational education" are important, especially when teaching infrequent words by combining them with more familiar vocabulary Phrases like "grow weary" and "auspicious start" are also key collocations that enhance understanding of nuanced expressions Furthermore, collocations such as "pledge allegiance" and "environmentally friendly" are frequent in corpora, reinforcing their importance in both academic and everyday language.

Avoid using near synonyms interchangeably without considering context, as they can lead to confusion; for example, "poor health" and "dense population" are distinct concepts that should not be substituted for each other Recognize that words like "evoking" are useful when discussing communicative situations, such as when a speaker's tone or imagery evokes certain feelings It's important to understand that collocations like "hectic schedule" and "feel frustrated" reflect typical language use, especially in discussing news, current events, or social issues like high unemployment, which can cause concern Using phrases like "revealing various meanings of a word" helps clarify language nuances, such as how "bright future" differs from "bright light," or how "cast a vote" contrasts with "cast doubt." Additionally, language choices can convey sociocultural aspects—bringing attention to topics like affluent suburbs or white prom fosters discussions about cultural differences, enhancing intercultural understanding.

Effective collocation teaching is a crucial aspect of language instruction, requiring equal emphasis alongside pronunciation, intonation, stress, and grammar (Hill, 2000, as cited in Dang, 2014) According to Hill (2000), treating collocations as an integral part of language methodology enhances learners' fluency Consequently, numerous studies have been conducted to explore and improve methods for teaching collocations, aiming to facilitate more effective language acquisition.

Hodne (2009) emphasized the importance of teaching collocations effectively and introduced various methods to achieve this She proposed activities such as matching, where learners connect nodes with corresponding collocates or groups of collocates, and filling, which involves completing collocations using words from a text These activities are particularly useful for teaching collocations with close synonyms, introducing new collocations that contain familiar words, and promoting the effective use of collocations in language learning.

In addition to traditional course materials, the use of corpora plays a vital role in language teaching Corpora enable the design of cultural activities centered around collocations, facilitating a deeper understanding of language usage They also assist learners in discovering the meanings of words more effectively, enhancing both vocabulary acquisition and cultural awareness.

Farrokh (2012) reviewed various techniques for teaching collocations, highlighting the limitations of activities that lack contextual relevance He introduced context-bound approaches using texts, dictionaries, corpora, and concordances, emphasizing that corpora and concordances help teachers select appropriate collocations, understand their different contexts, and enhance learners’ fluency and naturalness Additionally, Farrokh underscored the importance of incorporating both input and output in collocation instruction, noting that output tasks can significantly promote the acquisition of collocations in second language learners.

Pirmoradian and Tabatabaei (2012) investigated the effectiveness of Data Driven Learning (DDL), a corpus-based approach that uses tools like the Collins Collocation Dictionary to facilitate lexical collocation learning The study demonstrated that DDL, as proposed by Johns (1991), enables learners to discover language patterns independently through concordances and corpus data Results indicated that students using the dictionary software accessed via computers outperformed those focusing solely on texts, highlighting the significant benefits of the DDL approach in enhancing lexical collocation acquisition.

Using corpora in teaching collocations was taken into account again in Jafarpour et al (2013) which aimed to test the hypothesis that the traditional method of teaching

Research shows that a corpus-based approach is more effective than traditional methods for learning collocations Comparing the two, the experimental group using concordancers from the BNC demonstrated significantly better performance and production of near-synonymous collocations The corpus-based method offers authentic data, enabling learners to independently discover collocational patterns, thereby enhancing their language proficiency.

Dang (2014) emphasized the importance of explicit instruction and the use of corpora and concordancers in teaching collocations to enhance the collocational knowledge of English-major students She proposed that integrating these tools into classroom practice can significantly improve learners’ understanding and usage of collocations Additionally, Dang combined insights from Woolard (2000), Hill (2000), Lewis (2000), and Boonyasaquan (2009) to develop a comprehensive set of classroom procedures for effective collocation instruction, ensuring a more structured and evidence-based approach to language teaching.

(2) Convincing learners of the importance of collocations

(3) Turning learners’ attention to collocations in given texts

(4) Carefully choosing what collocation to teach

(5) Encouraging learners to actively collect and study collocations on their own

(6) Repeating and recording already-met collocations

The researcher developed a targeted question to explore teachers' techniques for teaching collocations in Academic Writing classes, allowing students to identify the methods their teachers used from a predefined list This concise question was easy to answer yet provided accurate and comprehensive data for the study Because the research emphasizes analyzing actual teaching practices as a vital data source, such an efficient question is essential and will be adapted for the upcoming questionnaire on collocation instruction in Basic Translation, discussed in Chapter 3.

Research highlights the importance of teaching collocations explicitly to improve language proficiency Selecting collocations based on specific criteria ensures effective learning outcomes Additionally, employing contextual teaching methods, which present collocations within meaningful contexts, proves to be more effective and preferred for enhancing learners' understanding and usage.

Methods for testing collocational knowledge

This article explores various methods for testing collocations, enabling researchers to select the most suitable approach for their studies The discussed methodologies are categorized into three main types: corpus-based, translation-based, and test-based methods Each category offers distinct techniques for analyzing and evaluating collocational accuracy, providing a comprehensive overview to inform effective research design.

Corpus-based methods are widely favored by researchers studying collocations, as they utilize large linguistic databases for analysis Typically, these methods involve comparing at least two corpora: one compiled from English language learners, such as the Taiwanese Learner Corpus of English or the German sub-corpus of ICLE, and a native speaker corpus like the British National Corpus or the Corpus of Contemporary American English This comparative approach helps identify collocational differences between learner and native language use, making corpus-based methods highly effective for linguistic research.

Using learner and native speaker corpora provides researchers with a wealth of authentic data, making analyses more representative and accurate due to their diverse and comprehensive collections of texts These methods are valuable for studying language use across different contexts and time periods However, the main challenges include the limited availability of suitable corpora and the significant time and effort required to analyze large datasets effectively.

Translation-based methods are highly effective in language research, involving the design of translation tests where learners translate phrases, sentences, or entire texts between L1 and L2 These methods enable researchers to assess learners’ productive knowledge of collocations and elicit their understanding based on their first language (L1) collocation structures By modifying these tests, researchers can gain deeper insights into learners’ interlanguage development and collocational competence, making translation-based approaches a preferred choice in linguistic studies.

Effective data collection on the appropriate type of collocation is essential for understanding language patterns Since translation is a complex process influenced by numerous factors impacting learners’ performance, researchers must carefully design their tests by selecting suitable lexical items and providing relevant contexts These steps are crucial to ensure that the results are valid, reliable, and meaningful for analyzing collocational competence.

Test-based methods include various types of assessments such as cloze tests, multiple-choice, COLLEX (collocating lexis), and COLLMATCH (collocate matching) Developed by Gyllstad (2007) and later adapted by Nguyen (2014), COLLEX resembles a multiple-choice format, while COLLMATCH involves learners selecting correct collocate combinations from a grid These assessment types are primarily used to evaluate learners’ receptive language skills, with cloze tests also applicable for measuring productive skills Although these tests are easier to score and analyze than other methods, designing effective test items remains challenging, particularly in selecting appropriate collocations Ensuring the validity and reliability of these tests requires careful processing and meticulous test item construction.

Since each translation method has its own strengths and weaknesses, selecting a perfect approach is challenging Therefore, this study employs a combination of multiple methods, following Kurosaki (2012) The corpus-based method is prioritized for its advantages, utilizing students’ translation exam papers as the primary data source due to the absence of an official Vietnamese-English corpus However, the limited amount of data may impact the research, as the availability of adjective-noun combinations in students’ papers is unpredictable and uncontrollable.

To address the limitations of traditional assessment methods, a translation-based approach is employed, allowing for a more comprehensive evaluation of students' language errors A carefully designed and administered test can reveal aspects of learners' language use that may not be evident in standard exam papers However, selecting the appropriate type of test is crucial, as some require students to translate entire sentences or texts, while others focus solely on translating phrases For this study, which concentrates on learners' use of collocations, translating whole sentences or texts may introduce unnecessary difficulties, making phrase translation a more suitable assessment method.

35 and thus negatively affect the reliability of the test Therefore, the test format proposed by Kurosaki (2012), which only focuses on translating the target collocations in given contexts, is chosen

The two methods above, however, only focus on the students’ productive knowledge

To gain a comprehensive understanding of learners’ collocational knowledge, it is essential to assess their receptive language abilities The COLLEX test, developed by Gyllstad (2007), is an ideal choice for this purpose because of its simplicity in design and ease of administration Incorporating receptive knowledge assessments like the COLLEX test provides valuable insights into learners' overall lexical competence.

This study employs three different methods to test collocations, providing a comprehensive understanding of the topic Detailed descriptions of these methods will be provided in Chapter 3 to ensure clarity and thorough analysis Incorporating multiple testing approaches enhances the reliability and validity of the findings related to collocation usage.

Conceptual framework

This section elaborates on the conceptual framework, developed based on the key theories discussed earlier, providing essential guidance for conducting the study The framework plays a crucial role in helping the researcher achieve the research objectives, ensuring a structured and theoretical foundation for the investigation.

This study focuses on error analysis, adopting the six-step procedure outlined by Gass & Selinker (2008) as a key component of the conceptual framework The process includes collecting data, identifying and classifying errors, quantifying their frequency, analyzing the sources of errors, and implementing remediation strategies This comprehensive approach offers clear guidance on how to systematically collect, analyze, and interpret linguistic errors, ensuring a thorough understanding of language learner mistakes for effective language teaching and research.

Understanding collocation is essential in analyzing collocational errors, and Hodne (2009) provides an operational definition that is particularly useful According to this definition, a collocation is a combination that appears in the COCA corpus with a minimum mutual information (MI) score of 3.0 and occurs at least five times This clear criterion helps distinguish correct collocations from errors, making it a vital reference for identifying and addressing collocational mistakes in language studies.

Categorizing errors is a crucial step in error analysis, as it enhances the systematic approach and provides insights into factors requiring targeted attention This framework incorporates a typology based on Nesselhauf (2003) and Kurosaki (2012), which simplifies error classification into three main categories: incorrect choice of adjective, incorrect choice of noun, and improper combination Despite its simplicity, this categorization is considered comprehensive enough to effectively analyze and address language errors.

Identifying the causes of errors is a crucial yet challenging step in error analysis due to the complex mental processes involved Since errors stem from multiple factors, it is difficult to definitively attribute a specific cause, and empirical evidence remains limited because monitoring mental processes is inherently complex Nonetheless, researchers have found that using a list of hypothetical error sources can aid in identifying causes, as errors caused by similar factors tend to share characteristics By comparing error characteristics with those on the hypothetical list, analysts can infer possible causes A comprehensive list of six hypothetical causes, including approximation among others, is essential for systematically diagnosing errors and understanding their origins.

(2) use of synonyms, (3) L1 transfer, (4) word coinage, (5) formal confusion and (6) abandonment of tasks adapted from multiple authors including Hong et al (2011) and

Hussein (2011), etc is employed in the present study

The list serves as both a tool for identifying error causes and a guideline for selecting target collocations for translation and COLLEX tests, which will be detailed in Chapter 3 To ensure the effectiveness of these tests, chosen collocations must accurately reflect potential error sources For instance, including incongruent collocations in the tests helps assess whether L1 transfer influences learner errors, thereby providing valuable insights into error patterns.

The errors for analysis, as previously mentioned, are collected from learners’ exam papers and through the translation test In addition to these instruments, the COLLEX

The 37-test is designed to assess learners' receptive knowledge of collocations, providing a comprehensive understanding of their collocational competence Additionally, the study explores the actual teaching and learning processes of collocations through data gathered from both teacher and student participants, offering valuable insights into effective collocation instruction.

Effective teaching of collocations depends on understanding teachers’ perceptions, instructional practices, and student observations Teachers’ perceptions influence their approach to teaching collocations, shaping how they prioritize and implement related activities Their classroom practices reveal whether and how they incorporate collocation teaching, providing insights for potential improvements Additionally, teachers’ observations of students offer valuable information about learners’ needs and progress, as they have the most direct understanding of student performance This data is collected through interviews, which will be detailed in Chapter 3.

This study examines students’ perceptions of collocation, their acquisition and use of collocations, and their views on teachers’ instruction, all gathered through a comprehensive questionnaire Students’ perceptions significantly influence their learning process and should be carefully considered to enhance teaching strategies The data on their acquisition and usage of collocations supports error analysis, which is essential for understanding their challenges and improving their language proficiency Additionally, students’ opinions on teachers’ teaching methods provide insights into their awareness of instructional effectiveness, offering valuable guidance for targeted remediation and instructional improvements.

Based on the error analysis and insights into learners' receptive knowledge and collocation instruction, targeted recommendations can be developed to address identified issues and improve language proficiency Implementing these strategies will help remedy common errors and enhance effective teaching and learning of collocations.

Figure 2.1: Conceptual framework of the study

This conceptual framework is essential for guiding the research process, assisting in the design of research tools, and structuring error analysis with supporting theories at each stage It emphasizes using error analysis as the primary source of information, complemented by data from teachers and students, to ensure more effective and targeted remediation An illustration of this framework is provided in Figure 2.1, highlighting its comprehensive and systematic approach for conducting the study.

This chapter outlines the research methodology used in the current study, starting with an introduction to the research design It provides detailed descriptions of the study context, participants, research materials, and tools Additionally, the chapter concludes with an overview of the data collection and analysis procedures, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the research process.

This study aims to identify the common types of adjective-noun collocational errors made by third-year EF students at USSH in their translations and to explore the possible causes of these errors The research seeks to answer two key questions: what are the prevalent collocational mistakes, and why do these errors occur among students? To achieve this, the analysis focuses on collocational errors identified from students’ exam papers and translation tests, providing insights into patterns and underlying factors influencing these mistakes.

Identifying the causes of errors in collocation learning is a complex process that requires comprehensive data To achieve this, additional information on students' receptive knowledge of collocations and their actual teaching and learning experiences in translation classes is collected through tools such as the COLLEX test, questionnaires, and interviews with teachers These diverse data sources aim to provide stronger evidence for pinpointing error causes and offer valuable insights to enhance the current methods of teaching and learning collocations.

3.2 Research design 3.2.1 Context of the study

The current study was conducted in five classes of Basic Translation in the academic year 2014-2015 The course is among the intermediate courses in the curriculum of

EF, which aim at preparing students for the specialized courses later in the B.A program Precisely, it aims to make students ready for translation and interpretation,

After completing intermediate courses, students must choose one of three specializations, including the crucial 40 specialization The primary objectives of this course are to enhance students’ knowledge and to equip them with essential translation skills and techniques, many of which may be new and unfamiliar to them This comprehensive training prepares students for professional translation by focusing on both theoretical understanding and practical application.

Data collection procedure

This study utilized multiple research instruments, making the data collection process complex To ensure clarity, this section offers a detailed overview of how data were gathered using each research tool, highlighting the comprehensive approach taken to ensure accurate and reliable data collection.

3.3.1 Collection of adjective-noun collocational errors

This study analyzed adjective-noun collocational errors sourced from two key materials: students' midterm exam papers in Basic Translation and their responses to the translation test Data collection procedures for each source were thoroughly described to ensure accuracy and reliability in identifying patterns of collocational errors.

3.3.1.1 Collection of errors from students’ midterm exam papers

The study involved carefully identifying and extracting adjective-noun combinations from 136 midterm exam papers in Basic Translation The researcher then searched the original texts to find their Vietnamese equivalents, which appeared in various forms such as noun-adjective, noun-noun, or longer, complex phrases This variation in equivalents necessitated following a specific order in the identification process, prioritizing the recognition of the English combinations before finding their Vietnamese counterparts.

The second step involved identifying collocational errors from extracted combinations by first determining the node (headword) and its collocate, with nouns in adjective-noun pairs considered as the node and adjectives as the collocate COCA was then used to assess their collocability, utilizing criteria such as frequency (FREQ) and mutual information (MI) scores Specifically, combinations with FREQ ≥ 5 and MI ≥ 3 were classified as collocations, those with FREQ ≥ 5 and MI < 3 as free combinations, and those with FREQ less than 5 as erroneous or uncommon A detailed overview of the COCA application process is provided to illustrate this method.

Figure 3.1: The COCA Search Interface

In the example illustrated in Figure 3.1, the noun "disease" was used as the node and placed in the WORD(S) box, while "common" was the collocate, positioned in the corresponding box with its part of speech specified in the POST LIST box The square brackets indicated that both singular and plural forms of "disease" should be included in the results The search considered a maximum span of five words to the left of the node, focusing specifically on attributive adjective-noun combinations The process involved checking each combination with a span starting at one, increasing if not found in COCA or if the frequency was below five, up to a maximum span of five If the combination remained elusive or infrequent, it was deemed uncommon or non-existent, as longer spans tend to reduce the MI and search efficacy The bottom boxes set search criteria, requiring both MI and FREQ to be displayed in the results, ensuring a comprehensive analysis of adjective-noun collocations as demonstrated in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2: The COCA Result Interface

The study considered Vietnamese equivalents of collocations alongside COCA to identify translation errors, emphasizing that a correct collocation is meaningless if it cannot effectively convey the original message Collocations that fail to transfer the intended meaning, even if correct in COCA, were classified as errors The researcher, with assistance from Basic Translation teachers, evaluated the accuracy of the translations to ensure reliable analysis.

The adjective-noun combinations that accurately convey the original message and meet the criteria are identified as collocations or free combinations, depending on the specific criteria satisfied Conversely, combinations that fail to effectively transfer the intended meaning or do not meet the established criteria are classified as errors.

3.3.1.2 Collection of errors from the translation test

The translation test served as a key tool for collecting collocational errors among students After a pilot study led to modifications for time constraints, the test was shortened to 20 items to ensure appropriateness It was then distributed to student respondents, excluding those who participated in the pilot study Participants were asked to include their names for research purposes, with a guarantee of strict confidentiality and reassurance that their test performance would not impact their academic records.

The study involved students from four different classes, requiring the test to be administered at multiple times To ensure data consistency, all participants received identical instructions and were allotted 25 minutes to complete the test However, uncontrollable variations in class attendance on test days led to an inconsistent number of participants responding to each research instrument, impacting the overall data collection process.

Out of 136 students across four classes, only 89 responded to the translation test due to scheduling conflicts Despite the inability to retake the test for absentees, the 89 participants provided a sufficient sample size for the current study.

After administering the test, the same methodology used for identifying collocational errors in exam papers was applied to analyze student responses The students' combined word pairs were extracted and matched with their Vietnamese equivalents, a process that was easier due to the test’s simplified design This approach facilitated a more straightforward identification of collocational errors, ensuring accurate comparison between student outputs and correct language usage.

The researcher identified instances where respondents left items unfinished, enabling the investigation of a new error category: task abandonment This issue was difficult to detect solely through exam paper data Subsequently, COCA and specific criteria were used to differentiate erroneous combinations from correct collocations and free combinations, ensuring accurate analysis of language use.

This study not only addresses collocational errors but also examines current teaching practices and learners’ receptive knowledge of collocations to support error analysis and remediation Data were collected using various instruments, including the COLLEX test, questionnaires, and interviews The specific procedures for data collection with each instrument are detailed below.

The questionnaire was designed to gather students’ perspectives on their current understanding and teaching of collocations It was administered to new student respondents who did not participate in the pilot study, ensuring broader data collection Due to limited time—about 30 minutes per class—the questionnaire was distributed on separate days from the translation test The researcher personally visited classes during break time, coordinating with teachers to allocate 30 minutes for data collection Students were given 10 minutes to complete the questionnaire, although some absences resulted in a final respondent count of 104 students This approach allowed effective collection of relevant data within the constrained schedule.

The COLLEX test was designed to assess students' receptive knowledge of collocations, an essential component of their overall collocational competence that cannot be measured through error analysis alone Unlike other assessment tools, this test was administered to students who did not participate in the pilot study, ensuring unbiased results Due to its straightforward design, the COLLEX test provided an effective and accessible measure of students' familiarity with collocations, contributing valuable insights into their language proficiency.

Data analysis procedure

After collecting the collocational errors from the Basic Translation midterm exam papers and the translation test, a detailed analysis was conducted to identify common patterns and inaccuracies The error analysis procedures for both sources were similar, with the primary difference being the number of error categories involved Microsoft Excel 2013 and SPSS 20 were the main software tools used to process and analyze the data efficiently, ensuring accurate and comprehensive results.

The study began by analyzing the numbers and percentages of correct collocations, free combinations, and errors collected from the data set Subsequently, the identified errors were categorized into three groups based on the conceptual framework, which includes wrong choice of noun, wrong choice of verb, and incorrect word order This categorization helped to better understand the common types of errors made by learners and informed targeted language instruction strategies.

In the analysis of student errors, a specific category called no/incomplete answer was added to account for cases where students left items unfinished, which Hussein (2011) identified as a type of error The number and percentage of errors in each category were calculated, followed by identifying potential causes based on hypothetical error causes from Chapter 2 The category of task abandonment was excluded from the error analysis due to difficulty in extracting such errors from exam papers Additionally, a new category labeled others was introduced to classify errors that did not align with the predefined hypothetical causes, with their frequencies and percentages also determined Finally, corrective measures were proposed based on the identified errors and their causes.

The questionnaires were carefully checked to exclude incomplete responses, ensuring the validity of the data remained intact The validated questionnaires were then coded and entered into SPSS 20 for analysis Data were categorized into three main areas: participants’ perceptions of collocations, their acquisition and usage of collocations, and opinions on teaching collocations in Basic Translation Descriptive statistics, including frequency and percentage distributions of responses, were calculated to provide an overview of the data Finally, the students’ perspectives were compared with teachers’ responses and used to inform error analysis, supporting a comprehensive understanding of collocation teaching and learning.

This study compares students' performance on the COLLEX test with their results on a translation test to provide a comprehensive assessment of their collocational knowledge Only data from students who completed both tests were included to ensure accurate comparison The COLLEX test was scored with each correct answer earning 1 point, with a maximum score of 20 Similarly, the translation test scores were recalculated to maintain consistency in evaluation.

The study excluded free combinations to focus solely on correct collocations, aiming to compare students’ recognition and production abilities A paired sample t-test using SPSS 20 was conducted to analyze differences between participants’ receptive and productive knowledge based on test scores Additionally, each student’s performance on the COLLEX test was compared with their translation results to provide a detailed assessment of their collocation competence, offering more comprehensive insights into their language proficiency.

The interview notes were meticulously cross-checked with audio recordings to ensure data accuracy Key insights into teachers’ perceptions of collocations and their views on teaching and learning collocations in Basic Translation were extracted and organized into relevant categories A qualitative analysis was conducted, highlighting and grouping notable teacher comments by related topics These findings were then compared with student data and utilized to inform error analysis and reinforcement strategies, enhancing the overall understanding of collocation instruction.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Tiêu đề	An analysis of errors related to adjective–noun collocations made by 3rd year English majored students at USSH and implications for teaching translation
Tác giả	Nguyễn Lê Bá Tòng
Người hướng dẫn	Lê Hoàng Dũng, PhD
Trường học	Vietnam National University – Ho Chi Minh City University of Social Sciences and Humanities
Chuyên ngành	English Linguistics & Literature
Thể loại	Thesis
Năm xuất bản	2017
Thành phố	Ho Chi Minh City

Định dạng
Số trang	151
Dung lượng	1,63 MB