INTRODUCTION
Background to the study
English writing, described by Kroll (2011) as a “multifaceted enterprise,” is one of the two key productive skills that English language learners (ELLs) often find challenging to master According to Harmer (2004), developing proficiency in English writing requires careful attention not only to micro-skills such as syntax and vocabulary but also to macro-skills like persuasiveness and rhetorical organization These complex skills are difficult to acquire, and various factors can further hinder ELLs' progress in mastering English writing.
Hyland (2010) highlighted key factors hindering English Language Learners (ELLs) from mastering writing skills by reviewing previous research on both second (L2) and first (L1) students’ writing He pointed out that students often have preconceptions about writing, formed by their own cultural backgrounds, which may be inappropriate in native English-speaking contexts and serve as a major barrier to effective written communication (Grabe & Kaplan, 1997) Additionally, researchers like Cook (2008) and Nation (2009) emphasized that differences between L2 and L1 writing systems complicate the learning process for ELLs, making it more challenging to acquire proficient English writing skills.
Vietnamese learners face significant challenges when learning to write in English due to linguistic differences between Vietnamese and English Nguyen (2009) highlights that negative interference from their native language often hinders the English writing process in Vietnam Additionally, English writing instruction is often undervalued within the core curriculum of Vietnamese schools, limiting students’ opportunities to develop their skills Nguyen also emphasizes a misalignment between the goals of teaching, learning, and assessing English writing in Vietnam, further complicating students’ writing development.
In my school, I was advised by the Head of the Foreign Languages Division to focus primarily on teaching receptive skills and to limit emphasis on English writing instruction Observations revealed that students were primarily prepared for grammar and vocabulary-focused examinations, which resulted in them becoming adept at rearranging words into sentences rather than developing genuine writing skills Determined to address this gap, I dedicated more effort to teaching English writing skills, despite student concerns about their upcoming English multiple-choice university entrance exams and their struggles with paragraph writing and composing English letters.
Vietnamese learners of English face challenges in writing due to the influence of their native language, inadequate EFL writing instruction, and mismatched assessment methods Cheng and Fox (2017) emphasized that misalignment among learning goals, instruction, and assessment can hinder student progress Therefore, assessment practices must align with the school curriculum, learning objectives, and classroom activities to ensure cohesive teaching and effective learning Properly addressing the questions of why, what, and how to assess in EFL writing classrooms is essential for promoting successful language acquisition.
In EFL writing assessment, two major approaches are used: summative and formative assessment (Cheng & Fox, 2017) Summative assessment evaluates learners' English writing skills through standardized tests, often creating a hierarchical power dynamic that can cause learner anxiety and make it difficult for students to understand their progress Conversely, formative assessment focuses on supporting student improvement by addressing learning gaps and understanding the strategies students use to enhance their writing skills As a criterion-referenced approach, formative assessment provides a developmental trajectory of learners’ progress and has increasingly replaced summative assessment over recent decades due to its effectiveness in guiding learning (Andrade & Heritage, 2017; Brown & Abeywickrama, 2018).
Furthermore, over a decade ago, Hall and Burke (2004) made the important point that
Teachers are now encouraged to incorporate formative assessment more explicitly and consciously into their classroom practices Effectively implementing assessments in EFL writing classrooms is crucial for promoting student learning and development By adopting targeted assessment strategies, educators can better support students’ progress and enhance their language skills Incorporating formative assessment into EFL writing instruction helps create a more responsive and student-centered learning environment, ultimately improving educational outcomes.
Effective teacher feedback plays a crucial role in student assessment, especially in supporting writing development With the rise of formative assessment over recent decades, researchers have increasingly focused on how teachers can provide constructive feedback that enhances student learning Properly delivered feedback not only guides students toward improvement but also fosters motivation and writing skills Emphasizing best practices in teacher feedback is essential for maximizing its positive impact on students' academic progress.
Teacher feedback can be either summative or formative, with summative feedback primarily aiming to correct errors in student writing rather than fostering learning While summative feedback treats student work as a final product, it often leads to burnout for both teachers and students and is less effective for long-term learning Over the years, there has been a transition toward formative feedback, which emphasizes ongoing guidance that supports students’ development Formative feedback helps students build intrinsic motivation, learning autonomy, and transferable skills in English writing by focusing on their future progress and the development of their writing process (Hyland, 2003b).
To enhance formative assessment and formative feedback in the EFL writing classrooms, teachers need to ensure that “a prominent role is accorded to the learners” (Lee, 2017, p 3)
Student self-assessment , which is also a subset of formative assessment, can ease teachers’ assessment burden and contribute to increased student involvement in learning Black and Jones
Student self-assessment is essential for empowering learners to oversee and steer their own learning, making them more committed, responsible, and effective Since 2006, research has highlighted the importance of self-assessment in promoting student-centered approaches within English Language Teaching (ELT) It has been proven to closely connect with self-regulated and autonomous learning, especially in EFL writing classrooms, enhancing students' ability to take control of their learning process (Andrade & Valtcheva, 2009; Bullock, 2010).
Integrating both teacher feedback and student self-assessment is essential for effective learning, as each has its limitations—teacher feedback may have limited impact if misunderstood or misapplied (Cheng & Fox, 2017), while fragile student self-assessment can lead to unrealistic goals, ineffective strategies, low effort, and excuses for poor performance (Ross, 2006) To address this, combining student self-assessment with teacher feedback is recommended, with teacher feedback serving as ‘scaffolding poles’ to support and strengthen students’ self-assessment (Gibbs & Simpson, 2004) Brookhart (2017) emphasizes that both are integral components of formative assessment, fostering continuous learning and improvement.
Formative feedback plays a crucial role in student learning by providing comments and facilitating self- or peer assessments, followed by additional performance opportunities within the same learning cycle to enhance understanding Combining teacher feedback with student self-assessment is highly effective, as Cheng and Fox (2017) emphasize that involving students actively in assessment practices significantly increases their awareness of their learning progress and encourages them to take responsibility for their learning Implementing formative feedback and collaborative assessment strategies supports continuous improvement and promotes student engagement in the learning process.
Rationale for the study
Since the rise of student-centered and communicative teaching approaches, students now expect more comprehensive feedback from their teachers Ferris and Hedgcock (2013) highlighted that student writers value a balanced combination of encouragement and constructive criticism in teacher feedback Richards (2015) emphasized that effective formative feedback should be descriptive rather than evaluative, guiding students on how to enhance their learning Ultimately, teacher feedback should focus on identifying strengths and areas for future improvement to support student development.
Effective teacher constructive feedback highlights students' strengths and identifies areas for improvement, guiding their learning progress However, students may struggle to close the gap between their current performance and desired outcomes if they do not understand or utilize the feedback effectively According to Cheng and Fox (2017), the success of feedback largely depends on how students interpret and apply it to their learning.
171) Therefore, teacher constructive feedback will be of much use when it enables students to internalise it through student self-assessment
Research by Brookhart (2013), Brown & Abeywickrama (2018), Gibbs & Simpson (2004), Hounsell et al (2008), and Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick (2006) highlights the importance of integrating teacher feedback with student self-assessment to enhance learning progress Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick (2006) emphasize that teachers are more effective than peers or students at identifying errors and misconceptions, thereby supporting student self-regulation Therefore, educators must provide constructive feedback that fosters both self-assessment and self-regulation, ultimately empowering students to monitor and achieve their learning goals.
Recent research emphasizes the importance of combining teacher feedback with student self-assessment to enhance learning outcomes in EFL writing courses, especially in higher education Studies suggest that college students are typically more responsible for evaluating their performance; however, experimental research by McDonald and Boud (2003) indicates that introducing student self-assessment in high school, supported by effective teacher feedback, can significantly improve academic performance Experts like Stiggins (1999), Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall, and Wiliam highlight that fostering self-assessment skills early on helps young learners recognize the value of their learning process, promoting greater engagement and responsibility Incorporating these strategies into educational practices aligns with SEO best practices by emphasizing keywords such as 'teacher feedback,' 'student self-assessment,' 'higher education,' and 'learning outcomes.'
Research by Cheng and Fox (2017) highlights that high school students can enhance their metacognitive skills and self-assessment abilities through effective teacher constructive feedback This underscores the importance of formative assessment strategies in fostering student self-regulation and learning autonomy.
Research on the use of teacher feedback and student self-assessment in EFL writing classrooms within Vietnamese tertiary education remains limited, especially at high school and lower levels, despite growing interest in both academic literature and practical application Many students aspire to improve their English writing skills to pursue higher education and enhance their employment prospects locally and internationally Currently, assessments are predominantly summative, focusing on grammar and vocabulary tests rather than ongoing skill development, which leads to a disconnect between students’ learning goals, instruction, and evaluation methods Recognizing this mismatch, I decided to shift from a primarily summative assessment approach to a formative one, aiming to improve my teaching practices and help students develop better English writing skills through continuous, meaningful feedback and self-assessment.
This study is motivated by the observation that tenth-grade Vietnamese learners at Le Quy Don High School struggle significantly with English writing skills The research aims to explore the effectiveness of implementing formative assessment in EFL writing classes, which involves both teacher feedback and student self-assessment The goal is to improve students’ writing performance through this innovative assessment approach.
Improving English writing skills and enhancing teaching practices are essential goals for EFL educators Despite ongoing interest, there has been limited empirical research on the effectiveness of teacher constructive feedback and student self-assessment in Vietnamese EFL writing classrooms This persistent gap in the literature highlights a significant opportunity for further investigation Bridging this research gap is crucial for developing more effective teaching strategies, which motivated me to pursue this thesis, making my study both relevant and unique in the field.
The aforementioned reasons altogether leave a research gap that forces me to conduct this study which is entitled “IMPROVING STUDENTS’ ENGLISH WRITING SKILLS
This research explores the implementation of teacher constructive feedback and student self-assessment in an EFL writing class at Le Quy Don High School, aiming to improve students’ English writing skills and develop transferable skills The study demonstrates how effective teacher feedback and self-assessment strategies positively impact student writing performance and overall language proficiency Findings offer valuable insights for enhancing teaching, learning, and assessment practices of EFL writing at Le Quy Don High School, with significant implications for promoting student autonomy and reflective learning.
Aims of the study
To help students at LQDHS improve their English writing skills, I am constantly exploring effective teaching methods This study aims to identify and evaluate strategies that can enhance students' writing abilities, ensuring they develop stronger language proficiency.
(1) the extent to which teacher feedback and student self-assessment help improve the students’ English writing skills;
(2) the extent to which teacher feedback and student self-assessment help the students develop transferable skills;
(3) advantages and disadvantages the students experience as well as their suggestions for the better implementation of teacher feedback and student self-assessment
The thematic analysis highlights valuable and practical suggestions to assist students in overcoming challenges in learning English writing skills Implementing these strategies can help students improve their written communication, enabling them to express themselves more accurately and fluently in English By focusing on targeted guidance, students can develop greater confidence and proficiency in English writing, ultimately enhancing their overall language competence.
Research questions
To achieve the aforesaid aims of the thesis, three guiding research questions that help the study to be on track are given as follows:
(1) Do teacher feedback and student self-assessment help improve the students’ English writing skills? If so, how?
(2) Do teacher feedback and student self-assessment help the students develop transferable skills? If so, in what ways?
(3) What advantages and disadvantages do the students experience during the implementation of teacher feedback and student self-assessment? What are their suggestions?
The research questions are employed to formulate the conceptual framework and to then analyse the findings of the study.
Significance of the study
This study achieves its aims by addressing three key research questions, highlighting its valuable theoretical and practical contributions It examines the essential characteristics of teacher feedback and student self-assessment, alongside identifying challenges faced by students at LQDHS in developing English writing skills The findings aim to establish a solid theoretical foundation for implementing formative assessment strategies in EFL writing classrooms, specifically within Vietnamese high schools Ultimately, this research contributes to the growing body of knowledge on formative assessment in EFL education, enhancing teaching practices and student learning outcomes.
This project aims to enhance students’ English writing and transferable skills, opening up greater opportunities for scholarships, better jobs, and professional growth Understanding effective teacher feedback, student self-assessment, and employing strong learning strategies can inspire and motivate students at LQDHS to develop academic excellence and lifelong learning habits Additionally, this action research not only supports students’ linguistic, cognitive, and meta-cognitive development but also helps me improve my research abilities, adopt innovative pedagogical techniques, master classroom management, and advance my teaching career.
Scope of the study
This study aims to improve students’ English writing skills through teacher constructive feedback and student self-assessment at LQDHS, focusing specifically on the editing and revising phase in the post-writing stage The scope is limited to examining how these feedback methods influence students’ development of transferable skills within English writing, excluding reading and listening components The research centers on students’ experiences, including the advantages, disadvantages, and suggestions for enhancing the implementation of teacher feedback and self-assessment It does not analyze factors affecting students’ or the researcher’s perspectives on these methods Findings are guided solely by three research questions, providing insights into the impact of feedback strategies on students’ writing improvement.
Structure of the thesis
This thesis comprises five key chapters: Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, Findings and Discussion, and Conclusion and Recommendations, excluding Acknowledgements, Abstract, References, and Appendices Each chapter serves a specific purpose, with the Introduction providing the research context and objectives, the Literature Review summarizing existing studies and identifying gaps, the Methodology detailing research methods and processes, the Findings and Discussion presenting and analyzing results, and the Conclusion and Recommendations offering final insights and future proposals This structured approach ensures a comprehensive exploration of the research topic aligned with academic standards and SEO best practices.
The Introduction chapter provides essential background information on the study and explains the rationale behind conducting the research It clearly states the research aims and highlights the significance of the study, addressing key research questions Additionally, the chapter outlines the scope of the research and presents the overall organization of the thesis, offering a comprehensive overview for readers.
Chapter 2, Literature Review, provides a comprehensive overview of existing research, establishing a solid theoretical foundation for the study It is divided into two main parts: the first explores the theoretical concepts related to English writing skills, transferable skills, teacher feedback, and student self-assessment; the second reviews previous empirical studies on how teacher feedback and student self-assessment influence these skills This literature review informs the development of a conceptual framework that guides the research design, data collection, and analysis processes.
The Methodology chapter details the research design and methods used to conduct the study, providing a clear overview of the approach It elaborates on the research questions, offering deeper insights into their development and significance Additionally, the chapter explains the procedures for data collection and analysis, ensuring transparency and reproducibility of the research process.
The "Findings and Discussion" chapter offers a comprehensive analysis of the collected data and highlights the major outcomes of the study This chapter addresses the research questions and provides crucial insights that form the foundation for the pedagogical implications discussed in the subsequent chapter.
The concluding chapter summarizes the key findings, discusses limitations, and highlights implications for future research in English Language Teaching (ELT) It emphasizes the importance of translating these findings into effective ELT materials that enhance LQDHS students’ English writing skills The chapter also explores pedagogical implications, focusing on how teacher feedback and student self-assessment can be utilized to improve writing proficiency Overall, these insights provide valuable guidance for developing targeted instructional strategies to support student learning and foster autonomous learning through feedback and self-evaluation.
This chapter provides an overview of key issues related to teacher feedback and student self-assessment in EFL instruction, focusing specifically on EFL writing skills It lays the foundation for Chapter 2, which offers a detailed literature review analyzing the underlying theoretical concepts and frameworks that inform effective feedback and self-assessment practices in language learning.
LITERATURE REVIEW
English writing skills
This section reviews the existing literature on EFL writing skills, highlighting the significant challenges faced by both teachers and students It explores the historical and current approaches to teaching and learning EFL writing, emphasizing the importance of understanding what writing entails and the methods used to develop it Additionally, the review identifies the key writing skills that EFL learners need to enhance for effective language proficiency.
Research indicates various perspectives on defining L2 writing; White and Arndt (1991) view it as a problem-solving process that involves generating ideas, discovering a writer’s voice, planning, goal setting, monitoring, evaluating, and expressing precise meanings through language Byrne (1996) describes L2 writing as the encoding of messages or ideas into systematically organized sentences, emphasizing the importance of conscious mental effort in planning, drafting, and revising Overall, successful L2 writing relies on thorough preparation and extensive revision to produce clear and effective communication.
English writing presents a significant yet captivating challenge for EFL learners, requiring them to develop a comprehensive understanding of syntactic and lexical standards Additionally, mastering rhetorical patterns and discourse structures over time is essential for effective writing (Cumming, Kantor, & Powers, 2002) Writing is also a social-cognitive activity where learners must establish themselves as writers and professionals through repeated, increasingly complex practice in meaningful contexts (Craig, 2012).
This study adopts Brown and Lee’s (2015) comprehensive definition of English writing, viewing it as a complex inner thought process focused on English literacy Effective writing involves generating ideas, organizing them logically, and revising to produce a coherent final product Good English writing requires a strong understanding of syntactic rules, lexical diversity, logical connections, and discourse standards Achieving fluent, coherent, and extended English texts demands significant mental dexterity and cognitive effort.
2.1.2 Approaches in the teaching and learning of English writing
Effective L2 writing instruction is essential for helping students develop their English writing skills Educators and researchers emphasize the importance of teaching students how to write in English to achieve proficiency There are two main approaches to teaching English writing: product-oriented writing, which focuses on the final written product, and process-oriented writing, which emphasizes the stages of drafting, revising, and editing Understanding these contrasting methods can enhance teaching strategies and improve student outcomes in English writing.
Product writing, as defined by Hyland (2003b), involves reinforcing language patterns through habit formation by imitating and manipulating models provided by the teacher, while process writing emphasizes writers discovering and reformulating their ideas as they work towards meaning In the Vietnamese context, product writing focuses on careful analysis of sample texts, whereas process writing encourages learners to become independent producers of language, discovering their own way in learning English.
The debate over different writing approaches raises important questions about how models should be utilized in EFL classrooms Supporters of the process approach argue that English writing is a thinking process centered on cognition, with intrinsic motivation playing a key role (Brown & Lee, 2015) This approach emphasizes teaching students to generate, select, and connect ideas, fostering creativity without relying solely on model texts (Nation, 2009).
EFL student writers should receive guidance in developing strategies for generating, drafting, and refining ideas through teacher intervention, emphasizing that writing is "essentially learnt, not taught," with the teacher acting as a facilitator to help students express their own meanings (Hyland, 2003a) Hedgcock (2005) highlights three key principles of process writing: engaging learners in meaningful writing, encouraging multiple drafts and revisions, and providing teacher feedback alongside student self-assessment Effective process writing should focus on discovery-based approaches rather than relying solely on sample texts, making it particularly suitable for intermediate and advanced-level EFL learners.
Supporters of process writing argue that overreliance on models in product writing can be detrimental, as it may lead to accelerated language learning and uncertain knowledge (Hyland, 2010; Nation, 2009) They warn that dependence on sample texts might prevent teachers and students from perceiving writing primarily as a means of effective communication (Majchrzak, 2017), emphasizing the importance of a balanced approach to developing writing skills.
Although the process approach has predominantly influenced Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and English Language Teaching (ELT), the use of model texts remains essential in the classroom They are particularly valuable when helping students understand and apply textual conventions, making complex language structures transparent and accessible Learner-centered and communicative methods focus on active language use, yet incorporating model texts supports these approaches by providing clear examples for effective language learning (Hyland).
Recent research increasingly supports the use of model texts in EFL writing classes, emphasizing their effectiveness in improving student output Scholars like Hasan & Akhand (2011) and Silva, Cumming, & Leki (2008) have critically examined product theory, highlighting its significance in language learning These arguments underscore the importance of incorporating authentic models to enhance writing skills in EFL learners.
Research indicates that ELT techniques involving model texts are highly effective for language teaching (Grabe & Kaplan, 1997; Johns, 2011; Richards, 2015) These techniques include setting the scene, explaining how linguistic features of texts vary by context, and highlighting the social aspects of writing, which help low-proficiency EFL students build confidence Utilizing model compositions to introduce core functional writing categories offers clear guidance for beginners, making it easier to learn different text types Unlike process writing, which emphasizes the writer's internal cognitive process, product-oriented writing provides concrete structures for students to follow Brown and Lee (2015) further emphasize the importance of this approach in developing effective writing skills.
“the product is, after all, the ultimate goal; it is the reason that we go through the process of prewriting, drafting, revising and editing” (p 349)
While process writing remains the dominant approach, researchers are reevaluating its assumptions and practices to improve effectiveness There is increasing emphasis on integrating both product and process approaches in English writing classrooms, recognizing that writing is a complex composing process that typically involves multiple drafts before producing an effective final piece This balanced approach addresses the often-overlooked justifications for combining these methods to enhance student writing skills.
The process-product distinction in language teaching is often considered problematic, but it remains essential to focus on both aspects As language educators, emphasizing both process writing and product writing ensures comprehensive skill development Process writing serves as a means to achieve the final crafted product, rather than an end in itself Renowned L2 writing expert Ann Raimes affirms that integrating process and product approaches is crucial for effective language instruction, highlighting their complementary roles in developing proficient writers.
Effective writing instruction in the classroom should integrate both process-oriented skills and product-focused outcomes It is essential to teach students how to leverage the writing process as a tool for language development and as a means to produce high-quality work on demand Recognizing that process and product are interconnected, rather than mutually exclusive, helps students see writing as a versatile instrument for learning Additionally, while exam preparedness is important, students must understand that writing skills are valuable beyond assessments, serving as a lifelong resource in their personal and professional lives (Raimes, as cited in Nunan, 2015b, p 119)
Transferable skills
Transferable skills are essential competencies that enable students to succeed across various disciplines and real-world contexts, making their development a key focus for educators and researchers Developing these skills promotes deeper learning and prepares learners for the demands of 21st-century careers, especially within specific subject areas such as EFL writing classrooms Understanding the definition and significance of transferable skills is crucial for designing effective educational strategies, and numerous comprehensive studies highlight their vital role in enhancing student outcomes Integrating transferable skills into language education fosters critical thinking, communication, and adaptability, ensuring learners are well-equipped for future challenges.
Since Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy of learning objectives, significant progress has been made in defining 21st-century skills Researchers distinguish between generic skills, which are applicable across various contexts, and transferable skills, which are adaptable to different tasks and situations with some modifications (Denicolo & Reeves, 2013) Both types of skills are recognized as essential for success in the modern era, with transferable skills offering greater flexibility for diverse applications.
Transferable skills are broad abilities essential for career development, learning, and adapting to new work environments (Assiter, 2017) They enable individuals to smoothly transition between careers and apply knowledge in diverse situations, making them vital for survival in the 21st century (Kennedy and Loeb, 1998; Pellegrino and Hilton, 2012) Educators widely agree that these skills are crucial across all fields and for personal growth in a rapidly changing society.
Transferable skills can be defined in various ways, with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2012) offering a particularly specific definition Their research-based approach highlights the versatility of transferable skills across different roles and industries This definition has been adapted in this thesis to align with its specific aims and scope, emphasizing the importance of these skills in career development and employability.
Transferable skills are valuable abilities gained through research that can be applied across various fields, including future employment in research, business, or other industries These skills act as a bridge connecting academic study to the professional world, allowing individuals to transition smoothly between careers By leveraging subject-specific and research-related skills, professionals can adapt and thrive in diverse work environments, enhancing their career flexibility and growth.
This study defines transferable skills as skills that can be developed alongside learning English, particularly English writing skills, serving as a bridge to enhance other competencies For example, when writing a letter to a penfriend from a different culture, students must navigate cultural differences, applying problem-solving skills to real-life situations EFL students are encouraged to utilize these transferable skills to adapt effectively to diverse learning environments and challenges, fostering growth in their language learning journey.
Student-centered English teaching emphasizes developing both language proficiency and essential transferable skills, preparing EFL students for future academic and career success (Denicolo & Reeves, 2013) Beyond classroom knowledge, students need to strengthen and expand their transferable skills to adapt to diverse learning environments and advance their career prospects According to Murray and Christison (2010), enhancing EFL students’ transferable skills can facilitate their adaptation to various future learning contexts and foster innovation beyond the English classroom.
2.2.3 Transferable skills for EFL classrooms
Recent discussions highlight the importance of transferable skills in EFL classrooms, emphasizing that these skills are closely connected to language learning success While it's common to focus solely on key EFL writing skills, integrating transferable skills enhances students' ability to monitor their progress and fosters greater independence Transferable skills not only improve EFL learners' writing abilities but also encourage them to become more motivated and autonomous in their language acquisition journey (Pei, Zheng, Zhang, & Liu, 2017).
EFL learners gain valuable transferable skills that enhance their ability to learn the target language effectively and prepare them for future academic challenges According to Pellegrino and Hilton (2012), these skills can be categorized into three broad types, forming a comprehensive typology essential for EFL learners' success Developing these transferable skills not only facilitates language acquisition but also equips students to navigate diverse academic environments with confidence.
Table 2.2 Two key clusters of transferable skills (Adapted from Pellegrino & Hilton, 2012, pp
Cognitive skills Critical thinking skills
Transferable skills are generally categorized into cognitive skills, which involve thinking about our learning processes, and metacognitive skills, which focus on thinking about our thinking strategies As shown in Table 2.2, metacognitive skills and self-regulation skills play a crucial role in enhancing our ability to plan, monitor, and evaluate our learning effectively Developing strong metacognitive skills enables learners to become more aware of their cognitive processes, leading to improved learning outcomes and greater self-regulation These skills are essential for fostering independent learning and adapting strategies to various academic and real-world situations.
Cognitive skills, such as critical thinking and problem-solving, are essential components of transferable skills in education Metacognitive skills, which include self-regulation, play a crucial role in learning processes Both domains encompass various subsets, with the skills listed being particularly important for development in second language classrooms and across other subjects (Pellegrino & Hilton, 2012) Developing these skills enhances students' overall learning effectiveness and adaptability in diverse academic contexts.
According to Pellegrino and Hilton (2012), cognitive skills involve thinking and related abilities such as reasoning, critical thinking, problem-solving, and memory, forming a crucial subset of transferable skills These skills are essential for understanding the connection between thinking and learning Among these, critical thinking and problem-solving are two of the most extensively studied cognitive skills that significantly enhance learning outcomes and foster higher-level thinking abilities.
Critical thinking has long been central to education, with its importance dating back to the very roots of learning itself (Moore, 2011) Developing these skills enables students to become independent thinkers and lifelong learners, crucial for success in today’s evolving world.
(Bassham et al., 2012) To understand what critical thinking is, we need to first look at the word
‘critical’ We must dispel the notion that ‘critical’ means ‘fault-finding’ Moore (2011) interpreted
'Critical' can refer to a human disposition characterized by adverse or unfavourable judgment, as well as a general intellectual method involving careful judgment or observation Critical thinking, a vital branch of cognitive skills and intellectual dispositions, encompasses the abilities to identify, analyze, and evaluate arguments and truth claims, overcome personal biases, and formulate convincing reasons to support conclusions It also involves making reasonable and intelligent decisions about what to believe and how to act, highlighting its importance in effective reasoning and sound decision-making.
Fostering critical thinking skills is essential in EFL writing, as it enhances students' ability to make reflective and analytical choices during the writing process According to Swartz (2003), "thinking about their thinking has dramatic effects on students’ learning," highlighting the importance of developing critical thinking even at primary levels EFL students should learn to critically evaluate their writing by making informed decisions, such as removing redundancy, combining sentences effectively, and creating lexical and syntactic variety (Brown & Lee, 2015) Hyland (2010) emphasizes that students must "make critical and reflective choices when they write," which directly contributes to improving their writing quality Moreover, critical thinking skills are closely intertwined with English writing proficiency and are characterized by key attributes outlined by Northedge (2005), reinforcing their vital role in L2 writing development.
Table 2.3 Critical thinking skills for writing (Adapted from Northedge, 2005, pp 287-288)
▪ Argue different points of view
▪ Be aware of what has been written and know how to cite it correctly
▪ Develop points in a logical sequence which leads to a conclusion
▪ Look at the strengths and weaknesses of the writing
▪ Provide relevant and valid examples to support the argument
▪ Ensure that the writing is detached
▪ Exclude irrelevant points which do not back up the argument
Formative Assessment
Assessment is essential to the teaching and learning process, as effective instruction cannot occur without proper evaluation Educators and researchers emphasize that “assessment and teaching are partners in the learning process” (Brown & Lee, 2015, p 433), highlighting their interdependence Birnie (2016) underscores the central importance of assessment, affirming its vital role in shaping educational outcomes and ensuring student success.
Assessment plays a crucial role in identifying students' strengths and needs, while also revealing gaps in the instructional program This valuable information not only supports preparation for high-stakes tests but is even more essential for helping students develop effective thinking and writing skills Implementing comprehensive assessments ensures targeted instruction that promotes student growth and academic success.
Assessment has evolved in its meaning and it has spawned substantial interest and research
This article explores the concept of assessment, with a particular focus on formative assessment and its key differences from summative assessment It emphasizes the two essential components of formative assessment: teacher constructive feedback and student self-assessment Understanding these elements is crucial for enhancing educational effectiveness and promoting student engagement and learning outcomes.
Assessment is defined as the activity of gathering and evaluating relevant information about student academic achievement from various sources, as described by Cronbach (Flores, 2016) It is also viewed as a tool to observe student behavior and gather data to make informed inferences about their understanding, according to Pellegrino, Chudowsky, and Glaser (Irons, 2008) Furthermore, Richards (2015) emphasizes that teachers must assess students’ learning to evaluate the effectiveness of their teaching strategies and materials through methods such as student work and classroom observations.
Effective assessment in education shares a common goal: to enhance the student learning experience by transforming theoretical knowledge into practical understanding Regardless of how assessment is defined, researchers agree it plays a crucial role in shaping every aspect of learning within the classroom As Black et al (2003) emphasize, “any attempt to turn ideas into practice will be a learning experience,” highlighting the importance of assessment in supporting second language acquisition (SLA) processes Ultimately, assessment serves as a vital tool to facilitate meaningful learning and practical application.
2.3.1 Formative assessment and summative assessment
Formative assessment plays a crucial role in supporting ongoing learning by providing continuous feedback, contrasting with the high-profile summative assessment, which focuses on evaluating student achievement at specific points Understanding the key features of formative assessment—such as its emphasis on improvement and learner engagement—helps educators choose the appropriate assessment type based on the educational context While formative assessment is ideal for guiding instruction and fostering student development, summative assessment remains valuable for final evaluations and accountability purposes Recognizing the appropriate contexts for each assessment method ensures effective and targeted use in educational settings.
Summative assessment evaluates the impact of instructional practices on students' EFL learning, typically conducted at the end of a unit or course through formal tests or essays to demonstrate learning and assign grades (Cizek, 2009) Its primary purpose is to summarize and report students' skill acquisition and academic achievement at a specific point in time (Cheng & Fox, 2017) While students receive scores or marks for their final evaluations, these figures only partially reflect how much has been learned, offering limited insight into what has been learned or what needs improvement (Brownlie & Schnellert, 2009) Marks serve as snapshots, providing a measurement of student learning but failing to reveal the next steps for enhancing student progress.
Formative assessment is an approach that emphasizes promoting student learning through various practices such as journals, conferences, teacher observations, self-assessment, peer assessment, and portfolios conducted during the course Unlike summative assessment, formative assessment typically does not involve assigning marks or scores; instead, educators provide constructive feedback to support continuous improvement This assessment method helps students actively apply feedback to enhance their understanding and skills, making it a vital component of effective teaching and learning strategies.
Formative assessment is designed to support student learning by providing ongoing feedback on their progress and guiding them on how to improve It helps students understand their current achievements and identify the steps needed for further development, thereby enhancing the overall learning process According to Nikolov, formative assessment ensures students receive targeted support to facilitate continuous improvement.
According to 2016, formative assessment is essential for student development, as learners should benefit from ongoing classroom testing Teachers are encouraged to see assessment as a vital component of their teaching process, using test results to tailor and improve instructional strategies This approach ultimately supports the broader goal of education: fostering lifelong learning.
Table 2.5 Formative and summative assessment (Brown & Abeywickrama, 2018, p 13)
Long-term assessment emphasizes continuous evaluation over one-shot, standardized exams, providing a comprehensive view of learner progress Unlike untimed, free-response formats, timed, multiple-choice tests focus on quick recall and objective scoring Incorporating contextualized communicative tasks assesses real-world language use, whereas decontextualized test items measure isolated language skills Personalized feedback and washback from assessments help learners improve, whereas relying solely on scores offers limited insight into individual language development.
Criterion-referenced scores Norm-referenced scores
Open-ended, creative answers Focus on the ‘right’ answer
Oriented to process Oriented to product
Interactive performance Non-interactive performance
Fosters intrinsic motivation Fosters extrinsic motivation
The primary difference between formative and summative assessment lies in their purpose and the decisions made based on their results, rather than the test structure itself Formative assessment has become central to educational reform efforts, emphasizing the active role of learners in drawing inferences from assessment data and taking informed actions with teacher support (Cheng & Fox, 2017) Key elements of effective formative assessment include timely teacher feedback and opportunities for student self-assessment, which work together to boost intrinsic motivation and improve learning outcomes (Brown & Abeywickrama, 2018) The effectiveness of formative assessment heavily depends on the quality and application of feedback and self-evaluation practices.
Extant research indicates that understanding the nature and characteristics of formative assessment is essential to improving its quality There has been increased interest among educators and researchers in identifying the key features of formative assessment (Andrade, 2000; Andrade, Du, & Wang, 2008).
Black & Jones, 2006; Hall & Burke, 2004; Nicol & Macfarlane‐Dick, 2006; Shute, 2008; Stiggins,
2008) have tried to described key characteristics of formative assessment Among them, Cizek
In 2009, the researcher analyzed previous scholarly findings on formative assessment from experts such as Andrade (2000), Andrade, Du, and Wang (2008), Shute (2008), and Stiggins (2008) Based on this review, they identified a set of key characteristics that define formative assessment, which are detailed in Table 2.6.
Each characteristic of formative assessment is increasingly recognized for its potential to enhance achievement, development, and benefits Importantly, not all characteristics must be present simultaneously in any given implementation, allowing flexibility and adaptability in applying formative assessment strategies to maximize learning outcomes.
Table 2.6 Characteristics of Formative Assessment (Cizek, 2009, p 8)
▪ Requires students to take responsibility for their own learning
▪ Communicates clear, specific learning goals
▪ Focuses on goals that represent valuable educational outcomes with applicability beyond the learning context
▪ Identifies the student’s current knowledge/skills and the necessary steps for reaching the desired goals
▪ Requires development of plans for attaining the desired goals
▪ Encourages students to self-monitor progress toward the learning goals
▪ Provides examples of learning goals including, when relevant, the specific grading criteria or rubrics that will be used to evaluate the student’s work
▪ Provides frequent assessment, including peer and student self-assessment and assessment embedded within learning activities
▪ Includes feedback that is non-evaluative, specific, timely, related to the learning goals, and provides opportunities for the student to revise and improve work products and deepen understandings
▪ Promotes metacognition and reflection by students on their work
Impacts of teacher feedback and student self-assessment on students’ English writing skills
2.4.1 Impacts of teacher feedback on students’ English writing skills
Research indicates that constructive feedback from teachers significantly enhances learning outcomes in the EFL writing classroom (Ferris & Hedgcock, 2013; Hyland & Hyland, 2006b; Ivanic, Clark, & Rimmershaw, 2000) Such feedback contributes to improvements across various skill levels, from micro-level writing techniques to broader macro-level writing skills By providing targeted, supportive guidance, teachers facilitate students' development of both foundational language accuracy and overall writing coherence.
2.4.1.1.Impacts of teacher feedback on students’ micro English writing skills
Grammar is a fundamental aspect of micro English writing skills, emphasizing the importance of sentence completeness, correctness, and variety for effective short writing Addressing common issues such as tenses, subject-verb agreement, articles, and prepositions through constructive feedback helps learners identify and correct errors This focused approach enables learners to develop into more careful and accurate writers, enhancing their overall writing proficiency (Ferris & Hedgcock, 2013; Lee, 2003).
Effective word choice is essential for clear L2 writing, as EFL students must develop the ability to convey their intended messages through their mental lexicon According to Brown and Lee (2015), constructing main ideas, supporting details, generalizations, and examples with appropriate linguistic choices ensures effective written communication in the target language Constructive feedback plays a crucial role in improving students’ vocabulary use, encouraging them to include new information, thoroughly check their work, and express their ideas more precisely in revised papers (Hyland, 2000; Ruegg, 2015).
Conventions such as proper use of capitalization, punctuation, spelling, and handwriting are minor but essential elements of polished second language (L2) writing Effective teacher feedback plays a crucial role in correcting these local issues, particularly focusing on comma usage and spelling errors (Andrade, 2005; Bitchener & Ferris).
2012) To sum up, teacher feedback which is none-evaluative but constructive can guide students through micro-level errors in their papers
2.4.1.2.Impacts of teacher feedback on students’ macro English writing skills
Effective English writing skills require proficient organization and development of text, which involves understanding semantic relationships (coherence) and using cohesive devices (cohesion) to manage information flow EFL learners must master both the underlying meaning connections among ideas and their surface realization through textual resources At the macro level, strong writing is characterized by well-structured grouping and sequencing of ideas, which can be improved through constructive teacher feedback Such guidance helps students demonstrate better organization, develop cohesive text, and convey unity and coherence more effectively in their writing.
Constructive feedback plays a crucial role in enhancing students’ EFL writing by increasing their awareness of the audience, purpose, and rhetorical elements such as clarity and tone (Parr & Timperley, 2010) It encourages students to provide more relevant details and appropriate examples, making their writing clearer and more effective Additionally, constructive feedback fosters students’ understanding of their responsibility as writers, guiding them on how to effectively communicate and clarify their intended messages across cultural differences (McGarrell & Verbeem, 2007) It also offers suggestions for elucidating meanings by distinguishing between literal and implied messages, helping learners navigate cultural nuances (Weaver, 2006) According to Lee (2008), effective feedback helps students unpack culturally specific meanings, enabling readers to interpret and engage with the text more meaningfully.
2.4.2 Impacts of student self-assessment on students’ English writing skills
Research on student self-assessment has significantly increased over the past decades, highlighting its impact on improving English writing skills Numerous studies suggest that student self-assessment positively influences overall writing ability as well as specific micro- and macro-skills in English (Andrade & Boulay, 2003; Brown, 2005; Cumming, 2001; Lee, 2011; Zimmerman, 2001) Incorporating self-assessment practices in language learning can enhance learners’ writing proficiency and foster independent learning. -Boost your learners’ writing skills effortlessly with AI-powered self-assessment tools—[discover more](https://pollinations.ai/redirect/2699274).
2.4.2.1.Impacts of student self-assessment on students’ micro English writing skills
Recent research highlights that student self-assessment significantly improves grammatical accuracy in English writing by helping students notice and correct errors such as incorrect tenses, articles, word forms, and prepositions (Diab, 2016; Xiang, 2004) However, a key limitation of these studies is the lack of investigation into the long-term effects of student self-assessment on grammatical mastery.
Research indicates that student self-assessment can enhance vocabulary development and reduce lexical errors in EFL writing (Andrade, Du, & Wang, 2008; Andrade, Du, & Mycek, 2010; Andrade, Wang, Du, & Akawi, 2009; Andrade & Valtcheva, 2009; Brown, 2005; Diab, 2016) Diab (2016) found that self-assessment activities significantly decreased collocation and register errors in student essays, demonstrating its effectiveness Additionally, self-assessment helps activate and expand students' lexical repertoire over time, leading to more careful and accurate word choices (Brown, 2005) However, these benefits depend on the careful design of rubrics to guide students effectively in vocabulary development efforts.
Conventions which are an important quality of L2 writing are also worth noticing Research has found that EFL students are more effectively handle with mechanics such as better spelling and handwriting through repeated self-assessment activities (Andrade & Boulay, 2003; Ross, Rolheiser, & Hogaboam-Gray, 1999) In brief, self-assessment gives students opportunities to revise and improve their papers not only sentence-level but also discourse-level
2.4.2.2.Impacts of student self-assessment on students’ macro English writing skills
A number of studies which proved that sophisticated qualities such as clarity and tone can be improved through student self-assessment remains relatively modest There are only several studies that pointed out that student self-assessment can make some improvements in students’ writing such as their generating more clear, focused and relevant ideas (Andrade, Du, & Wang, 2008; Andrade, Wang, Du, & Akawi, 2009) Also, Andrade and Valtcheva (2009), and Andrade,
Du, and Mycek (2010) reported that students were also more inclined to use an appropriate voice, personal anecdotes, gripping examples and details to enrich the central theme to hold the reader’s attention in their revised papers
EFL students can develop the basic organisation of paragraph or essay writing such as better topic and concluding sentences, more logical sequencing, and stronger internal coherence and cohesion thanks to student self-assessment (Andrade, Wang, Du, & Akawi, 2009) In another study, Matsuno (2009) contended that students could produce essays with logical and smooth flow when they considered their idea development with critical consciousness during student self- assessment Besides, student self-assessment when correctly designed and administered can help students create texts with thoughtful conjunctive linking items, thereby increasing cohesion and coherence (Andrade, Du, & Wang, 2008; Andrade & Valtcheva, 2009)
Awareness of the relationship between the writer and the audience may be built over time during student self-assessment (Cumming, 2001) Students learn to carefully formulate ideas and support them to make sense to the audience, which is also known as the writer’s awareness or responsibility Another aspect of awareness in writing that Cumming (2001) and Hung (2009) mentioned in their studies is acculturation Acculturation can be understood as the ability to take into account any cultural differences between the writer and the reader Students may develop acculturation in writing via self-assessment as they make students more conscious of a foreign audience and the purpose of their L2 writing
To sum up, teacher feedback and student self-assessment have certain impacts on students’ English writing skills Reviewing previous studies, it can be noticed that micro- and macro-level skills for EFL writing can be improved to some extent with the use of teacher feedback and student self-assessment according to conditions in which learning occurs
2.5 Impacts of teacher feedback and student self-assessment on students’ transferable skills
2.5.1 Impacts of teacher feedback on students’ transferable skills
Conceptual framework of the study
Thus far, the relevant literature tells us that teacher feedback and student self-assessment should be undertaken by the teacher and the learner working as allies in the cycle of formative assessment in the EFL writing classrooms, toward common learning goals (Andrade & Du, 2007; Andrade & Heritage, 2017; Black et al., 2003; Butler & Lee, 2010; Gibbs & Simpson, 2004; Jonsson, 2012; Nguyen, 2009; Nicol & Macfarlane‐Dick, 2006)
Key terms and the relationships among them are presented in the conceptual framework (see Figure 2.2 on the next page) For the sake of brevity, I would like to make just three points about this conceptual framework First, under the umbrella of formative assessment, teacher constructive feedback should be bound up with student self-assessment because “there is no one best method for language teaching This is equally true of assessment” (Cheng & Fox, 2017, p
22) Second, what has been under consideration is the impacts of teacher feedback and student self-assessment on students’ English writing skills (including micro-skills and macro-skills) and transferable skills (i.e cognitive skills and metacognitive skills) as addressed in research questions
1 and 2 Last but not least, during the incorporation of teacher constructive feedback and rubric- based student self-assessment, what problems students may encounter are under investigation (research question 3) The research questions, the research instruments and the research findings are aligned with the conceptual framework of the study
Figure 2.2 Conceptual framework of the study
Cognitive skills Meta-cognitive skills
In this chapter, I reviewed a voluminous body of research on English writing skills, approaches in the learning and teaching of English writing skills, micro- and macro-skills for writing As English writing skills are linked to transferable skills, subsets of transferable skills are provided Formative assessment is revisited with its two critical components: teacher constructive feedback and student self-assessment I explained the role and types of teacher feedback in the English writing classrooms before moving on to constructive feedback and its characteristics Having presented key characteristics of student self-assessment I then justified my choice of a holistic rubric and elaborated on the principles for incorporating teacher feedback and student self- assessment The impacts of teacher constructive feedback and student self-assessment on students’ English writing skills and transferable skills were discussed Last but not least, the conceptual framework, the linchpin of the study, which helps to keep the study on the right track of its objectives was introduced The next chapter, Methodology, will expound to you the research design, research methods, data collection procedures and data analysis procedures of the study.