INTRODUCTION
Background to the study
Reading is a vital skill for English learners, serving as the primary means to acquire both subject knowledge and understanding of the world It also provides entertainment, whether through engaging novels or humorous stories Developing strong reading skills lays a crucial foundation for higher education, making it a key goal for educational institutions worldwide.
Intensive Reading (IR) involves analyzing short authentic texts in detail, focusing on vocabulary, grammar, and language features to enhance deep understanding and develop specific reading skills Conversely, Extensive Reading (ER) emphasizes reading large quantities of texts within learners' linguistic capabilities to improve reading enjoyment, global comprehension, and reading fluency (RF) ER typically uses simplified texts or Graded Readers (GRs) designed with controlled lexis and syntax to support reading fluency and overall comprehension Both approaches play vital roles in effective reading instruction, catering to different learning objectives and skill development strategies.
At the Faculty of Foreign Languages (FFL) at the University of Technology and Education (UTE), recent observations suggest that the use of Evidence-Based Reading (ER) has been neglected, with it not being implemented in any courses Instead, Informal Reading (IR) remains the primary instructional method both inside and outside the classroom Teaching and learning reading at FFL has become routine, with lessons centered around students reading the same short passages, learning new vocabulary and grammar, answering comprehension questions, and applying reading strategies Furthermore, reading instruction is heavily influenced by standardized testing requirements, as students are expected to achieve specific proficiency levels to meet academic benchmarks.
The Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) establishes clear benchmarks for language proficiency after each reading course For instance, students at FFL are expected to attain level B1 after completing Reading 1 and Reading 2 courses, and level B2 after Reading 3 and Reading 4 courses However, the emphasis on testing and repetitive IR procedures can diminish students’ enjoyment of reading, potentially reducing their motivation and engagement with the material.
Students at FFL often struggle with slow reading, expressing frustration over their inability to complete reading tests due to limited time or lengthy passages This issue primarily stems from inadequate instruction and practice in developing reading fluency (RF), a critical component that enhances reading comprehension (RC) Despite research by Laberge and Samuels (1974) indicating RF's vital role in RC, FFL curriculum tends to focus solely on comprehension skills, neglecting the development of reading fluency, which is essential for improving overall reading performance.
Many researchers have established the close relationship between ER, especially ER using GRs, and pleasure reading and fluency development Day et al
Extensive Reading (ER) allows learners to read within their comfort zone, encountering few unfamiliar words or complex structures, which fosters a sense of enjoyment similar to reading in their first language Engaging in ER consistently enhances learners’ sight vocabulary and overall vocabulary size, both crucial for developing reading fluency Additionally, reading extensively in English broadens knowledge of different text types and expands world knowledge, further supporting improvements in reading fluency (RF) and reading comprehension (RC) Despite its benefits, there is limited research on students’ perceptions and practices of ER in the context of FLF, highlighting the need to investigate how ER influences RF and RC development Furthermore, improper ER practices—such as stopping to look up every unfamiliar word or translating—can hinder fluency growth, as studies have shown that these practices negatively impact reading speed and overall development of reading skills.
It can be seen that investigating students’ practices of ER can help improve ER guidelines so that students can take full advantage of ER.
Aims of the study
This study aims to explore students’ attitudes toward Graded Readers (GRs), the materials used in extensive reading (ER), and to identify how students’ practices with GRs influence their reading fluency and comprehension Additionally, it investigates the impact of GRs on improving these reading skills and seeks to understand students’ perceptions of the effectiveness of GRs in enhancing their overall reading proficiency.
Research questions
This study attempts to answer the following two research questions:
1 What are students’ attitudes towards and practices of using Graded Readers?
2 What is the impact of Graded Readers on students’ reading fluency and reading comprehension, and their perception of the effectiveness of the application of Graded Readers?
Research hypotheses
Based on the two research questions, three hypotheses were formulated
1 Students have positive attitudes towards Graded Readers
2 Students positively perceive the effectiveness of the application of Graded Readers
3 There is a significant improvement in students’ reading fluency and reading comprehension after the application of Graded Readers.
Significance of the study
This study represents the most rigorous application of Guided Reading (GRs) at FFL, UTE, marking a significant advancement in the institution's efforts Previously, only one teacher at FFL utilized GRs, primarily for pronunciation improvement rather than reading development, and no other teachers had incorporated GRs into their courses In this study, students read GRs for academic credit, with their performance being assessed alongside other course components To enhance engagement, students were provided with a diverse range of GRs across different genres, catering to their reading interests Their reading progress was closely monitored through weekly informal interviews, book reports, and quizzes Overall, this research is a pioneering contribution to the field of English reading (ER) at FFL, UTE, establishing a foundation for further development in using GRs in language education.
This study highlights the need for teachers and curriculum designers to recognize the importance of extensive Reading (ER) alongside Intensive Reading (IR), advocating for a fundamental shift in reading instruction to maximize learner benefits It emphasizes that, while reading instruction aims to enhance reading comprehension (RC), the role of Reading Fluency (RF) often remains overlooked, resulting in insufficient RF instruction within many reading courses Raising awareness among teachers and students about RF's significance can help address this gap, ultimately improving overall reading proficiency.
The organization of the thesis
This thesis comprises five chapters, beginning with Chapter 1, which introduces the study's background, clearly states its aims, research questions, and hypotheses, and emphasizes its significance It concludes with an overview of the thesis organization Chapter 2 provides an overview of reading, highlighting key concepts such as reading fluency and comprehension, and discusses two primary teaching approaches, including Independent Reading (IR).
This article begins with an overview of ER, emphasizing its importance, followed by a comprehensive introduction to GRs, which concludes the theoretical section It reviews relevant studies on students’ attitudes, practices, and perceptions of GRs’ effectiveness, as well as the impact of GRs on their RF and RC The chapter also identifies gaps in existing research and develops the conceptual framework for the present study Chapter 3 details the research methodology, including setting, participants, design, instruments, procedures, scoring, data collection, and analysis methods Chapter 4 presents the study results related to two key research questions, discusses key findings, and concludes with a summary Finally, Chapter 5 summarizes the main points, discusses implications, addresses limitations, and offers recommendations for future research, providing a comprehensive overview of the study’s contributions to the field.
LITERATURE REVIEW
A brief account of reading
Research on reading aims to understand how this complex cognitive task functions, recognizing that it involves multiple interconnected processes According to Grabe (2009), reading comprehension is supported by both lower-level and higher-level processes that work together to facilitate understanding Lower-level processes include basic decoding and word recognition skills, while higher-level processes involve inference making, integrating information, and critical thinking Understanding these key processes is essential for developing effective reading strategies and improving literacy skills.
Lower-level language processes, such as word recognition, syntactic parsing, and semantic-proposition encoding, operate effortlessly and often without conscious awareness These processes include sub-components like orthographic, phonological, semantic, syntactic, and morphological processing, all of which can become automatic over time Despite being termed "lower-level," these processes are crucial for efficient language comprehension and are highly demanding in terms of cognitive processing Their automatic nature allows seamless decoding of words, grammatical structures, and meaning units at the phrase or clause level, enabling fluent language understanding.
Working memory plays a crucial role in reading comprehension by serving as the cognitive space where both lower and higher-level processes interact Its limited capacity means it cannot handle multiple tasks simultaneously, emphasizing the need for automatic and resource-efficient lower-level processes For effective comprehension, these foundational processes must occur effortlessly within working memory, ensuring sufficient resources are available for higher-level understanding Therefore, fluent and automatic lower-level processes are essential for optimal reading comprehension and cognitive efficiency.
Higher-level reading processes involve the ability to create a text comprehension model, encompassing an understanding of the text's content and a situation model that integrates prior knowledge with the text to develop personal interpretation (Grabe, 2009) Developing these models enables readers to effectively grasp the meaning of the text and interpret it based on their existing knowledge and skills This process is driven by a set of reading skills and resources managed by the executive control mechanism in working memory, ultimately enhancing reading comprehension and interpretation.
According to Grabe's (2009) framework of cognitive processes in reading, reading comprehension (RC) requires the coordination of multiple cognitive processes Successful comprehension depends on the fluent and automatic processing of lower-level skills within working memory, which frees up resources for understanding the text Therefore, developing fluency in these foundational processes is crucial for improving reading comprehension The following section explores the nature of reading fluency (RF) and its key components.
2.1.2 Reading fluency 2.1.2.1 Components of reading fluency (RF)
Based on existing literature, most definitions of Radio Frequency (RF) are developed around its core components Therefore, it is essential to first explore the main elements that constitute RF to fully understand its nature and functions before arriving at a comprehensive definition.
Reading fluency (RF) comprises four core components: automaticity, accuracy, rate, and prosody Automaticity involves speed, effortlessness, autonomy, and conscious awareness, enabling effortless and rapid reading (Logan, 1997) Accuracy ensures precise word recognition, which is essential for fluent reading (Grabe, 2009) Rate refers to the ability to read quickly while maintaining comprehensive understanding of the text (Grabe, 2009) Prosody, specific to oral reading, emphasizes expressive phrasing, tone, and emphasis, demonstrating active meaning construction through appropriate volume and expression (Rasinki, 2004) Overall, these components collectively define reading fluency, with prosody being relevant only in oral reading contexts.
Many researchers have defined RF in relation to its four components Pikulski and Richard (2005) defined RF as follows:
Reading fluency is essential for effective comprehension, as it involves rapid, accurate, and expressive word recognition skills that enable readers to understand text efficiently It is demonstrated through quick, precise oral reading and plays a crucial role in silent reading comprehension, allowing readers to construct meaning seamlessly Developing strong reading fluency enhances overall reading proficiency and supports academic success.
RF serves as a crucial bridge to comprehension, achieved when word recognition becomes automatic and accurate Fluent reading, both oral and silent, is characterized by reading texts accurately, quickly, and with expression, enhancing overall understanding Developing fluency is essential for effective reading comprehension.
Kuhn, Schwanenflugel, Meisinger (2010) provided a very comprehensive definition of RF which takes into account most of its major components
Fluency, encompassing accuracy, automaticity, and oral reading prosody, is essential for effective comprehension by helping readers construct meaning seamlessly It is demonstrated during oral reading through smooth word recognition, appropriate pacing, natural phrasing, and expressive intonation As a critical component of both oral and silent reading, fluency can either hinder or enhance overall comprehension, making it a key focus for improving literacy skills.
This definition aligns with Pikulski and Richard (2005) by emphasizing the importance of components of reading fluency (RF) in supporting meaning construction It highlights that RF components are most evident during oral reading, showcasing their role in comprehension The definition also underscores the significant impact of reading fluency on overall understanding However, it overlooks the crucial component of reading rate, which is essential for reading quickly while maintaining comprehension, a key criterion of effective RF.
Several other authors viewed RF from the concept of eye fixation, which refers to momentary pauses of the eyes on a line of print (Samuels, Rasinki, & Hiebert;
Samuels, Rasinski, & Hiebert (2011) define reading fluency as the ability to decode and comprehend simultaneously within a single eye fixation They highlight that fluent readers perform both decoding and comprehension during one fixation, whereas non-fluent readers often need multiple fixations to complete these tasks Consequently, increased eye fixations slow down reading pace, emphasizing the importance of fluency in efficient reading.
Nation (2009) highlighted that slow readers often fixate on smaller units than whole words, such as parts of words or individual letters, leading to multiple fixations per word These readers tend to spend extended time on certain fixations and frequently regress to re-examine already read text, indicating decoding at sub-word levels Such eye fixation behaviors increase reading time and reduce fluency, as they hinder the ability to retain information long enough to grasp the overall meaning, causing readers to reread passages in an attempt to understand them better.
Reading fluency (RF) is fundamentally defined by key components such as automaticity, accuracy, reading rate, and prosody Eye fixation patterns during reading also play a significant role in developing reading fluency RF can be evaluated through both oral and silent reading methods, each offering different insights into a reader's proficiency Understanding the differences between oral and silent reading is crucial for determining the most suitable fluency assessment in the EFL (English as a Foreign Language) context, where the focus may vary based on learning objectives.
2.1.2.3 Oral reading fluency versus silent reading fluency
It can be seen that the definitions on RF above did not differentiate between oral
RF and silent RF Kuhn et al (2010) even stated that the literature on RF implies that oral and silent reading are essentially the same process However, one component of
Prosody, including features like intonation, stress, phrasing, and expression, can only be observed during oral reading, as these elements are difficult to perceive in silent reading While some research, such as Rasinski (2012), suggests that adults often hear themselves mentally when reading silently, making prosody relevant beyond oral reading, it remains impossible for an observer to accurately assess a reader’s prosody during silent reading Therefore, prosody is primarily demonstrated and evaluated through spoken reading, highlighting its crucial role in oral language development and comprehension.
There are several criticisms of the use of oral RF to assess reading comprehension of foreign language learners (FLLs) As Lems, Miller and Soro
Teaching reading in the ESL and EFL context
Two popular methods for teaching reading in ESL and EFL contexts are intensive reading (IR) and extensive reading (ER), both aiming to enhance students’ reading comprehension (Nation, 2009) While IR focuses on detailed understanding and analytical skills through close reading of complex texts, ER emphasizes reading large quantities of material for fluency and enjoyment Although this study primarily concentrates on ER, understanding the key features of IR provides valuable insight into the differences between these two effective reading approaches.
2.2.1 Intensive reading 2.2.1.1 Features of intensive reading
Intensive Reading (IR) aims to help students understand texts by analyzing language features like vocabulary and grammar It also focuses on improving their reading strategies to better handle challenging texts Typically, students read short, sometimes more difficult passages selected by teachers, with direct instruction on reading strategies After reading, students' comprehension is assessed through questions to ensure understanding Overall, IR promotes controlled reading development and is characterized by a teacher-centered approach, emphasizing careful analysis and strategy use.
Reading strategies are essential in improving reading comprehension, as they are defined as consciously controlled abilities that aid understanding (Grabe & Stoller, 2013) Hayashi (1999) categorizes these strategies into bottom-up, which involve text-driven processes like translation and dictionary use, and top-down, which rely on concept-driven approaches such as prediction and utilizing background knowledge Implementing both types of reading strategies can significantly enhance learners' reading proficiency and overall comprehension skills.
2.2.2 Extensive reading 2.2.2.1 Features of extensive reading
Extensive Reading (ER) in the EFL/ESL context is defined by Day et al (2011) as an approach to teaching reading aimed at developing students’ ability to read in English while fostering their enjoyment of reading According to Day and Bamford (2002), the top ten principles of ER emphasize the importance of providing learners with plentiful, easy-to-understand reading materials, encouraging voluntary reading, and focusing on enjoyment to motivate student engagement This approach promotes a natural and enjoyable way for students to improve language skills through sustained, extensive exposure to authentic reading experiences.
1 The reading material is easy
2 There’s a wide variety of materials on a wide variety of topics
3 Learners choose what they want to read
4 Learners read as much as possible
5 The purpose is usually pleasure, information and general understanding
6 Reading is its own reward
8 Reading is individual and silent
10 The teacher is a role model
ER is a learner-centered reading approach that empowers students to select their own reading materials and take control of their learning process In this method, teachers serve as facilitators, modeling effective reading strategies and guiding students through their reading journey This approach promotes student autonomy and active engagement, making reading a more personalized and motivating experience.
2.2.2.2 The role of ER in fostering learners’ reading fluency
According to Day and Bamford (1998), fluent second language reading relies on three key factors: a large sight vocabulary, a broad general vocabulary, and extensive knowledge of the target language, the world, and various text types These essential elements form the foundation for developing reading fluency in a second language Extensive vocabulary and cultural understanding enable readers to recognize words quickly and comprehend diverse texts more effectively The role of extensive reading (ER) is crucial in connecting these factors, as it immerses learners in authentic language use, thereby enhancing vocabulary acquisition and cultural awareness Ultimately, integrating ER supports learners in becoming more fluent and confident readers in their second language.
First, ER helps readers develop a large sight vocabulary Sight vocabulary are words that “are automatically recognized in their printed form” (Day & Bamford,
Reading large volumes of books allows students to encounter the same high-frequency words repeatedly, helping these words become part of their sight vocabulary The use of easy reading materials in extensive reading (ER) further facilitates exposure to common English words, increasing the likelihood of students recognizing them quickly According to CIERA in "Every Child a Reader," rapid recognition of high-frequency words is essential for developing fluent reading skills.
Extensive reading (ER) significantly enhances readers’ overall vocabulary knowledge by reinforcing existing words and exposing them to new vocabulary through incidental learning Repeated encounters with specific words strengthen long-term retention, while high vocabulary coverage in ER materials allows readers to infer the meaning of unfamiliar words from context This aligns with Krashen's (1982) comprehensible input theory, which emphasizes that learners can acquire language beyond their current level (“i plus 1”) when immersed in meaningful, comprehensible reading materials Providing learners with rich, contextually accessible content enables incidental language acquisition without the need for deliberate vocabulary instruction.
Extensive reading (ER) significantly enhances readers' understanding of language, world knowledge, and various text types, as supported by numerous studies In addition to improving vocabulary, long-term ER also leads to notable gains in grammar, spelling, listening, and writing skills Furthermore, ER contributes to a broader understanding of the world and deepens conceptual knowledge, making it a valuable tool for comprehensive language development (Grabe).
A strong knowledge of vocabulary, grammar, and spelling supports automatic word recognition and syntactic parsing, enhancing reading fluency The diverse topics in Extensive Reading (ER) provide readers with valuable world knowledge, which aids in constructing a mental model of the text and the situational context, thereby improving comprehension ER materials include both fiction and non-fiction, covering narrative and informational report genres, which help readers develop a broader understanding of different text types and structures.
2013), readers are likely to get used to these genres after reading GRs As Shafizadeh and Sajedi (2013) pointed out, genre familiarity breeds the improvement of RC
2.2.2.3 The impact of the amount of ER on learners’ reading fluency
The amount of early reading (ER) is crucial for developing reading fluency (RF), as reading a large number of easy books exposes learners to recurring patterns of letters, words, and collocations, gradually building their sight vocabulary (Day and Bamford, 1998) Developing sight vocabulary through extensive reading supports RF by enabling quick recognition of familiar words Additionally, sufficient reading provides repeated exposure to new language, helping learners retain vocabulary and grammatical structures in memory (Waring, 2000) Insufficient reading leads to poor retention, causing learners to forget words and re-decode them, which hampers reading speed and fluency.
Research indicates that frequent reading is essential for developing fluent reading skills; however, Day and Bamford (1998) emphasized the importance of setting specific reading targets to motivate students and ensure they stay focused on reading rather than other activities Waring (2000) and Day et al (2011) recommend that students aim to read at least one book per week at an appropriate level, making this a practical and achievable goal Additionally, Nation (2009) suggests that a yearly target of 500,000 running words can effectively support reading development, reinforcing the idea that consistent, measurable reading goals are vital for progress.
2.2.2.4 The role of strategy use in ER in fostering reading fluency and reading comprehension
Effective engagement in Extensive Reading (ER) requires readers to employ strategic reading techniques to improve comprehension Additionally, adopting strategies that enhance reading fluency and removing those that hinder it are essential for maximizing the benefits of ER.
Grabe and Stoller (2013) outlined a list of effective reading strategies that learners can use to improve reading comprehension (RC) Most of these strategies are primarily top-down approaches, emphasizing understanding and interpreting text However, during extensive reading (ER) practices, learners also adopt bottom-up strategies, such as referring to glossaries for new words (Nishino, 2007) and using translation techniques (Sakurai, 2015) Additionally, engaging in book discussions with peers about storylines and characters further supports comprehension and language development (Lin) Incorporating these diverse strategies can significantly enhance learners' reading skills and overall language proficiency.
2010) Learners with auditory learning style may read aloud or listen to the audio recordings of GRs while reading
Table 2.2: A list of reading strategies (Grabe & Stoller, 2013)
Planning what to do / what steps to take
Predicting the contents of the text or section of the text
Paying attention to text structure
Guessing the meaning of new words from context
Using discourse markers to see relationships
Posing questions about the text
Finding answers to posed questions
Connecting texts to background knowledge
Connecting one part of the text to another
Taking steps to repair faulty comprehension
Judging how well purposes for reading were met
Reflecting on what has been learnt from the text
Adopting effective reading strategies in extensive reading (ER) is crucial for improving reading fluency (RF), while certain strategies may hinder progress Sakurai (2015) found that avoiding translation enhances reading speed, indicating that refraining from translating can boost fluency Conversely, Luppescu and Day (1993) discovered that students who used dictionaries took longer to read a story compared to those who did not, suggesting that relying on dictionaries may slow reading progress Day and Bamford (1998) emphasized that strategies such as guessing the meaning of unknown words or ignoring them are important for fluent reading Furthermore, Campbell et al (2015) reported that successful ER learners often avoid note-taking and dictionary use, highlighting that certain strategies can reduce the effectiveness of ER in promoting reading fluency.
Relevant studies
This article reviews key research exploring students’ attitudes towards group roles (GRs) and their engagement in practices that enhance their reflective function (RF) and relational communication (RC) It highlights studies that evaluate the perceived effectiveness of GRs in improving these skills, emphasizing their importance in student development Additionally, the review includes related research on emotional regulation (ER) and its influence on RF and RC, demonstrating how ER strategies contribute to better communication and reflection among students Overall, these studies underscore the critical role of GRs and ER in fostering academic and social success.
2.3.1 Related studies on students’ attitudes towards GRs
This article reviews key components of attitude, as defined by researchers, to understand students’ attitudes towards GRs According to Schiff (1970), attitude is an organized set of feelings and beliefs that influence behavior, comprising three components: affection (feelings), cognition (beliefs), and conation (behaviors) Most studies on attitudes focus on examining these components, providing valuable insights into the psychological aspects shaping students’ perspectives on GRs.
Robb and Susser (1989) investigated Japanese college freshmen's attitudes toward two reading approaches: extensive reading (ER) and skills-based methodology The study found that students in the ER group engaged in significantly more reading, completing at least 500 pages at home annually and writing summaries, while the skills-based group read fewer pages and focused more on textbook reading Despite similar perceptions of their progress and attitudes towards the teaching methods, the ER group showed a greater preference for homework, likely influenced by their ability to choose preferred reading materials These findings suggest that autonomy in selecting reading materials can enhance students' motivation and enjoyment of homework in language learning.
Taguchi, Maass, and Gorsuch (2004) explored first-year Japanese linguistic students' attitudes towards repeated reading (RR) and extensive reading (ER) methods Both groups read graded readers (GRs), with the ER group engaging with significantly more GRs than the RR group The study found that students held positive attitudes towards GRs, highlighting their enjoyment and perceived usefulness Participants reported that these reading methods enhanced their enjoyment of reading long passages in English and improved their ability to comprehend unknown words through contextual guessing or skipping irrelevant words.
Yamashita (2013) investigated the effects of an extensive reading (ER) course using graded readers (GRs) on students’ reading attitudes, involving 61 second-year students from agricultural studies, economics, and informatics The study examined two components of reading attitude: affection, measured by comfort and anxiety, and cognition, assessed through intellectual and practical value Findings revealed that ER significantly increased students' comfort and reduced anxiety while reading, and positively influenced perceptions of intellectual value, though it had less impact on practical value Additionally, the results showed that ER had a stronger effect on students’ feelings than on their beliefs and thinking processes.
2.3.2 Related studies on students’ practices of using GRs
To the best of the researcher’s knowledge, studies on students’ practices of
Research on emotion regulation (ER) practices is limited, with most studies focusing on teachers' approaches rather than students' actual use of growth records (GRs) There is a noticeable gap in understanding how students engage with and implement GRs in their learning processes This section aims to provide insights into students' real-world practices when interacting with GRs, shedding light on their behaviors and strategies during reading assignments.
Nishino (2007) conducted a detailed case study on two novice Japanese learners of extensive reading (ER) over a period of two and a half years, revealing that they employed diverse strategies such as referring to glossaries and marginal annotations, grouping words, leveraging background knowledge, guessing meanings, and using dictionaries to enhance comprehension of graded readers (GRs) and native English books Campbell et al (2015) surveyed successful students and teachers to identify best practices in ER, focusing on their attitudes, behaviors, and strategies, with the goal of developing effective guidelines for future ER programs.
ER The result indicated that successful students of an ER program were those who were eager to try new stories and unknown titles and chose books with easy quizzes
They incorporated daily reading habits by making reading books a part of their routine and engaging in reading wherever they went Their reading strategies included avoiding note-taking and not using a dictionary during reading sessions Additionally, they practiced sustained silent reading in their classes to enhance comprehension and language skills.
2.3.3 Related studies on students’ perception of the effectiveness of GRs
There are numerous studies investigating students’ perception of the effectiveness of GRs, and these studies yielded very positive results
Leung (2002) conducted a diary study as a beginner Japanese learner to explore how extensive reading (ER) impacts vocabulary development, reading comprehension, and reading attitude Her diary entries, complemented by vocabulary tests and tutoring recordings, revealed that ER helped improve word recognition and reinforce vocabulary through context and visual clues Additionally, ER facilitated her discovery of new word meanings and contributed to better reading comprehension Her positive attitude towards reading was maintained when the materials were appropriate for her proficiency level This study underscores the effectiveness of ER in supporting language learners' vocabulary growth, comprehension skills, and motivation.
Lemmer (2010) found that after completing a 15-week English reading course using GRs and various materials, Japanese university students significantly increased their weekly reading time and showed a stronger preference for reading novels The study revealed notable improvements in students’ perceived skills, particularly in vocabulary, reading speed, and comprehension, though gains in pronunciation, listening, and writing were less pronounced Additionally, students reported adopting more effective reading strategies, with "guessing the meaning of unknown words" being the most frequently used strategy post-course.
Yphantides and Gallagher (2014) conducted a survey with teachers and students in an ESP course to evaluate their perceptions of a GRs program, focusing on reading interest, fluency, vocabulary enhancement, summarizing, writing, and discussion skills The study found that both groups held a positive attitude towards the program, recognizing improvements across all examined areas While the results were encouraging, the survey's broad questions limited detailed insights into each specific skill area.
Tien (2015) conducted a large-scale study on an English reading (ER) program, examining the attitudes and perceptions of 5,711 non-English majors and 36 instructors The study revealed that most teachers and students held positive views, recognizing benefits such as developing reading habits, enhancing reading fluency, improving comprehension, and expanding vocabulary Factors influencing students' attitudes included gender, the freedom to select books, additional English exposure, time spent reading, and test pressure These findings highlight the importance of motivational and contextual factors in the success of English reading programs.
Table 2.4 below summarizes the reviewed studies on students’ attitudes, practices and perception of GRs in terms of constructs focused and study results
Table 2.4: A summary of the reviewed studies on students’ attitudes, practices and perception of GRs
Researchers Constructs focused Study results
- Cognition: Sense of improvement, usefulness of the classwork
- Conation: The desire to be taught the same method in the future
- Positive attitudes in terms of enjoyment and skills improvement
- Cognitive: Intellectual value and practical value
- Increasing comfort and reducing anxiety, bringing intellectual value but not practical value
- Greater impact on feeling than on thinking and belief
Nishino (2007) Reading strategies A variety of strategies adopted
Best practices of ER in terms of attitude, behaviors and strategies
Profile of a successful student of an
ER course: being eager to try new stories and unknown titles, choosing books with easy quizzes, making books part of their daily routine, never taking notes or using dictionary
Leung (2002) Vocabulary acquisition, reading comprehension, reading attitude
- Improving word recognition, reinforcing words, guessing the meaning of words and identifying multiple meanings of a word
- Improving reading comprehension and reading attitude
Lemmer (2010) Reading habit, perceived gains in skill areas and reading strategies
- Increased reading time, preference for novels
- Perceived gains in vocabulary, speed and comprehension
Reading interest, reading fluency, vocabulary improvement, summarizing skill, writing and discussion ability
- Improvements reported in all areas investigated
Tien (2015) Perceived benefits of ER
Building reading habits, reading fluency; improving reading comprehension and enlarging vocabulary
2.3.4 Related studies on the impact of GRs on RF and RC
Bell (2001) investigated the impact of an extensive reading (ER) program on students’ reading speed and reading comprehension (RC) among 26 elementary English students The study compared a treatment group of 14 students who read graded readers (GRs) with a control group of 12 students who read short passages and completed follow-up tasks Both groups were tasked with homework, book reports, and oral presentations to develop their reading skills Reading texts were selected based on teacher preferences, readability, and length, ensuring appropriate difficulty levels Reading speed was assessed using a three-minute reading test, where students marked the last word they reached, and speed was calculated in words per minute (wpm) The results demonstrated that the ER program significantly improved students’ reading speeds compared to the IR (intensive reading) program Additionally, students in the ER group scored notably higher on the comprehension post-test, highlighting the effectiveness of extensive reading in enhancing reading skills.
Sheu (2004) examined the impact of extensive reading (ER) on Taiwanese junior high school students’ vocabulary, grammar, reading comprehension, and reading attitudes, revealing that students who engaged with graded readers (GRs) or books for native English-speaking children (BNESC) outperformed those in traditional grammar-based lessons, with the GRs group excelling in grammar and the BNESC group in reading comprehension, alongside more positive attitudes toward learning English Iwahori (2008) studied how graded readers influence high school students’ reading speed and overall language proficiency over seven weeks, finding significant improvements in reading rate—from 84.18 to 112.82 words per minute—although there was no notable enhancement in general language proficiency, indicating that GRs effectively boost reading fluency but may not directly improve language skills These studies highlight the benefits of graded readers in enhancing reading abilities and student motivation in English language learning.
Huffman (2014) investigated the impact of Guided Reading (GRs) on reading rate improvements over one semester, emphasizing the use of timed reading techniques for the treatment group Specifically, students reading GRs were assessed with expository texts during pretests and posttests to determine if GRs could enhance reading rates across different text genres Unlike previous studies, Huffman calculated reading speed using "standard wpm," where each 6-character unit, including spaces and punctuation, counts as a word, providing a more precise measurement The study utilized the entire text method to assess reading rate changes and found that the GRs group’s reading speed increased significantly from 110.59 to 131.33 standard wpm after one semester, whereas the independent reading (IR) group experienced a decline in standard wpm.
Gaps from the studies reviewed
Most attitude studies primarily focus on measuring the affective and cognitive components, with less emphasis on the conative component Regarding the affective dimension, research predominantly explores factors like liking and enjoyment (Robb & Susser, 1989; Taguchi, Maass & Gorsuch, 2004), while few studies examine how Game Records (GRs) influence other emotional aspects such as confidence, comfort, or anxiety Notably, Yamashita (2013) is among the few to investigate the effects of GRs on comfort and anxiety, highlighting a research gap in understanding their broader emotional impact.
A 2009 study explored the impact of Guided Reading (GR) on learners' confidence in reading Most research in this area focus on students' willingness to experience the same explicit reading (ER) methods in future lessons, highlighting the importance of student motivation However, few studies have examined whether students are willing to independently continue reading GRs outside the classroom, indicating a gap in understanding long-term autonomous reading behaviors with Guided Reading.
Research on attitudes and perceptions towards GRs often lacks depth, with studies like Yphantides and Gallagher (2014) and Lemmer (2010) relying on single, superficial items that do not explore the components of each category, limiting insights into respondents’ beliefs about GRs' effectiveness There are few studies examining students’ practices of extensive reading (ER), but existing research suggests that students employ various strategies to improve comprehension, although some strategies—such as taking notes or using a dictionary—may not be effective in ER, and avoiding translation can enhance reading speed (Sakurai, 2015) Overall, limited research exists on how specific reading strategies either support or hinder the development of reading fluency (RF) and reading comprehension (RC) through GRs, highlighting a gap in understanding effective practices in this area.
Experimental studies on the impact of GRs on RF and RC face several limitations Notably, key studies such as those by Bell and Sheu did not evaluate comprehension of RF tests, despite this being essential to determine if RF is achieved without compromising RC Prioritizing speed without adequate understanding is ineffective, and sacrificing RC for RF is undesirable (Huffman).
Iwahori’s 2008 study used the same reading rate test for both pretest and posttest, which may compromise the validity of the results due to potential practice effects Additionally, the study’s short duration of only seven weeks raises concerns about the participants’ ability to retain the reading rate improvements Furthermore, many studies selected participants from intact classes, making it difficult to isolate the effects of Guided Reading (GRs) as students are also exposed to other English lessons, which could influence their reading rates and impact the reliability of the findings.
The conceptual framework of the study
This study explores students’ attitudes, practices, and perceptions of graphic novels (GRs), as well as their impact on reading frequency (RF) and reading comprehension (RC) It specifically investigates two components of attitudes: affection, measured by enjoyment and confidence, and conation, assessed through students' willingness to continue reading GRs and recommend them to others The research aims to address existing gaps in understanding how students’ emotional and motivational responses to GRs influence their reading habits and comprehension skills.
This study investigated students' strategies for selecting and utilizing grammatical resources (GRs) across different reading stages It examined the reading strategies students employed before, during, and after engaging with GRs The research identified specific strategies that either support or hinder the development of reading fluency (RF) and reading comprehension (RC) Understanding these strategies provides valuable insights into how students effectively or ineffectively navigate GRs, ultimately influencing their overall reading proficiency.
This study examines students' perceptions of the effectiveness of grasping reading fluency (RF) and reading comprehension (RC), highlighting key influencing factors such as vocabulary knowledge, reading skills, reading volume, and follow-up activities Effective extensive reading (ER) enhances RF by increasing vocabulary size and sight vocabulary, underscoring the vital role of vocabulary knowledge in improving RF Additionally, vocabulary knowledge is fundamental to developing RC ability, as supported by research (Grabe, 2009; Schmitt, Jiang & Grabe, 2011) Beyond vocabulary, reading skills, the amount of reading, and follow-up activities significantly impact both RF and RC, emphasizing the importance of a comprehensive approach to reading development.
Griffee (2012) highlights that survey studies are limited in directly assessing whether learning has occurred, making it difficult to determine actual skill improvement While a survey alone could reveal students’ attitudes and perceptions of Guided Readings (GRs) within the context of Reading Fluency (RF) and Reading Comprehension (RC), it would not reveal whether their RF and RC abilities genuinely improved after the intervention To address this limitation, the study employed a one-group pretest-posttest design, enabling the researcher to measure changes in students’ RF and RC abilities after a semester of reading GRs.
This study employed a one-group pretest-posttest design, replicating standard procedures used in previous research to measure reading fluency (RF) and reading comprehension (RC), while addressing some acknowledged limitations (see Chapter 3) RF was operationalized as reading rate, consistent with Huffman (2014), to facilitate empirical measurement For RC, Cohen (1994) identified four types of meaning; however, this study focused solely on assessing students’ understanding of informational meaning, including main ideas and details, to evaluate their comprehension accuracy.
Figure 2.1 describes the conceptual framework of this study
Figure 2.1: The conceptual framework of the study
