INTRODUCTION 1
Background to the study
Reading skills and vocabulary knowledge are crucial in foreign language learning, significantly impacting overall language proficiency Cohesion and coherence are essential discourse features that enhance understanding in English reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition For ESP students at FTU, developing strong reading comprehension skills is particularly important for academic and professional success Common challenges faced by teachers and learners include limited vocabulary, difficulty in understanding complex texts, and achieving effective cohesion and coherence in writing and speaking Addressing these issues is vital to improve English teaching effectiveness and learner performance in ESP contexts.
Reading in one's first language is essential for learning, acquiring information, expanding knowledge, and entertainment, while reading a foreign language in academic contexts holds even greater importance, as affirmed by researchers like Grabe (1991, 2009), Celce-Murcia & Olshtain (2000), and Carrell & Grabe (2002) It is a fundamental language skill in EFL education, offering learners vital exposure to English through printed materials Vocabulary knowledge closely relates to reading ability, with words serving as the building blocks of language essential for meaning and comprehension; as Read (2000) states, “words are the basic building block of language, the units of meaning from which larger structures such as sentences, paragraphs and whole texts are formed,” making vocabulary crucial for communicative competence and text interpretation.
Continuous acquisition and enhancement of vocabulary are essential for foreign language learners to master the language and become skilled readers Since students cannot learn every new word they encounter, it is crucial to teach them strategies for coping with unfamiliar words and developing effective reading and vocabulary learning techniques for better comprehension Importantly, reading and vocabulary development extend beyond the classroom, occurring throughout students' lives even after graduation Implementing effective study strategies for English reading comprehension and vocabulary enables students to become autonomous, lifelong learners.
1.1.2 Cohesion and coherence in relation to English reading comprehension and vocabulary learning
With the rapid development of discourse analysis, cohesion and coherence have emerged as key features of effective texts, attracting significant research attention Halliday and Hasan (1976, p 26) highlight that cohesion and coherence are essential qualities that ensure a text's clarity and logical flow, making them critical areas of investigation for understanding how language functions in communication.
Cohesion plays a vital role in distinguishing text from non-text by semantically connecting different parts of the discourse, ensuring continuity throughout the text These connections, known as cohesive chains, enable readers to reconstruct and understand the entire message by linking preceding and following segments Understanding the relationships between lexical items within these chains provides students with essential tools for decoding texts, which can also enhance their vocabulary knowledge.
Cohesion plays a vital role in text formation, primarily through grammatical and lexical devices, as highlighted by Celce-Murcia & Olshtain (2000) They emphasize that a reader’s understanding of cohesion depends heavily on their language ability; without sufficient knowledge of cohesive devices, readers may miss critical clues and struggle with comprehension Nunan (1999) reinforces this by suggesting that understanding text-forming devices is essential for creating coherent text and that explicit instruction on their use can significantly benefit English learners in both reading and writing.
ESP programme at Foreign Trade University
1 2.1 Descriptions of ESP courses at FTU
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is crucial in higher education due to the increasing number of non-English majors and the rising societal demand driven by international integration and globalization Its primary goal is to address the specific linguistic needs of learners, equipping them with the specialized English skills required for their future careers (Dang, 2004; Do & Cai, 2010) Dang emphasizes that ESP involves a diverse range of activities in foreign language teaching, aiming to develop all four language skills to meet the comprehensive communication needs of learners, especially within the Vietnamese context.
FTU is renowned for training students to become international business professionals and has a long-standing reputation for excellence in teaching foreign languages, especially for specific purposes The university offers key programs in international economics, business administration, international business, finance, banking, and technology, complementing its language education FTU specializes in business-oriented foreign languages such as English, French, Russian, Japanese, and Chinese, with each language taught by a dedicated faculty Notably, English is offered through two faculties—the Faculty of Business English and the Faculty of English for Specific Purposes—to meet diverse learner needs for professional language skills.
At the Faculty of ESP, English teaching aims not only to develop language skills but also to achieve non-linguistic objectives, such as preparing students to work effectively with international partners in various professional contexts The primary goal is to enhance communication skills in English necessary for future career success, with a special emphasis on reading, writing, and translation To meet FTU’s educational objectives, strengthening reading abilities and expanding business vocabulary are essential components of any ESP course offered at the university.
English is a core subject for students in non-foreign language majors, with a total of 630 periods allocated throughout their university program The curriculum is divided into two phases: the first four semesters focus on teaching basic English, while the subsequent three semesters emphasize specialized English alongside advanced general English skills The textbook used during both phases is the Market Leader, New Edition (Pearson, Longman), a multi-level business English course designed to build students' understanding of English structures and vocabulary These courses aim to develop effective communication skills in English, enabling students to achieve a minimum TOEIC score of 400 after the first phase and at least 620 after completing the second phase, which are essential for their academic and professional success.
In the second phase, besides the Market Leader, teaching materials in use consist of the following:
1) A Handbook of Commercial Correspondence(by A Asley, 1995, Oxford);
2) Giáo trình Thư tín Thương mại (by Dr Nguyen Trong Dan); and
3) ESP I, ESP II compiled by ESP teachers to meet learners’ specific needs.
Commercial correspondence is a key subject aimed at equipping students with the skills needed to handle various business letters across diverse commercial contexts The ESP I and ESP II courses, as outlined in the Course Introduction, focus on familiarizing students with fundamental business concepts through engaging classroom activities such as reading, discussions, mini-presentations, and practical exercises Each course spans five weeks with a total of 45 teaching periods, including a mid-term test and final exam, with a weekly schedule of nine periods Student performance is assessed continuously based on class attendance and participation (10%), mid-term test results (20%), and the final exam (70%).
Course syllabuses for ESP I and ESP II with a focus on FTU specialized subjects are as follows:
Class 1 Company structure International trade
Class 2 Management and cultural diversity Banking
Class 3 Human resources Finacing foreign trade
Class 4 Work motivation Accounting and financial statements
Class 5 Marketing Stock and bond
Class 6 Pricing Mid-term test (60 minutes)
Class 7 Advertising Futures and derivatives
Class 8 Mid-term test (60 minutes) Merger and acquisition
The teaching materials used in the Faculty of ESP at FTU provide valuable insights into the core course structure and teaching methods employed in their ESP training program In ESP I and ESP II, lesson plans for class activities are carefully designed to foster effective language skills development, emphasizing practical application and targeted communication strategies This approach highlights the faculty's commitment to delivering tailored ESP courses that meet specific professional and academic needs.
Answering questions; some small discussion may be employed before reading.
Vocabulary: selecting key words to focus on.
Reading the text, and answering the questions.
Enhance your reading comprehension skills with a diverse range of exercises, including identifying equivalence between words and expressions within the text, discovering synonyms, and understanding logical connections among words or phrases Practice true/false questions to strengthen your comprehension and critical thinking abilities These targeted activities are effective for improving vocabulary, comprehension accuracy, and overall reading proficiency.
Practising summarizing skill with a variety of exercise types
Discussion: involving a variety of exercises done by pair work or group work
- Putting words in their correct places;
- Matching up nouns/verbs to make common collocations;
- Matching words with their definitions/examples/explanations;
- Doing exercises concentrating on grammar,
At FTU, the ESP program leverages the Market Leader to enhance students' general English knowledge while focusing on business-related topics The program aims to develop all four language skills—listening, speaking, reading, and writing—through targeted activities and exercises In the second phase, ESP I and ESP II specifically emphasize improving reading comprehension and writing skills, tailored to meet the specialized business communication needs of FTU students.
1.2.2 ESP students’ problems in English reading comprehension and vocabulary learning
Reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge are crucial for ESP students at FTU, as they are expected to communicate effectively in English and handle various technical texts such as contracts, insurance policies, and bills of lading However, due to the persistent influence of the Grammar-Translation method—resulting in slow reading and passive learning—many students struggle to develop practical language skills Despite achieving high academic scores, students often lack the ability to apply English in real work situations, indicating a gap between their proficiency and occupational needs This highlights the need for more effective ESP teaching strategies to better prepare students for professional language use.
Le (2006), an ESP teacher at FTU who studied lexical devices in the textbook
In her research on students' challenges in studying “International Business” at FTU, it was found that students can easily identify grammatical cohesive devices but often overlook lexical cohesive devices or use them incorrectly during reading and writing This deficiency in analysis and interpretation may stem from limited vocabulary knowledge and a lack of awareness of various English cohesive devices and their role in creating coherent text Therefore, developing an awareness and understanding of cohesive devices is essential for improving students' reading comprehension and translation skills (Le, 2006, p 2).
As a student of FTU and later an EFL learner at the Department of English Linguistics and Literature, USSH, National University of HCMC, I agree with Le’s view that most students lack sufficient knowledge of English vocabulary, especially cohesive devices and discourse organization This gap significantly impacts their ability to understand texts and produce coherent writing From my professional experience, I’ve observed that while textbook texts are often simplified, authentic business texts are more complex and pose challenges for learners Without a solid understanding of cohesive devices and discourse structure, readers struggle to analyze authentic texts and overcome language barriers effectively.
Understanding and awareness of specific language devices at university enable students to independently interpret various texts, improving their future job performance Beyond reading skills, ESP learners must expand their vocabulary related to international economics and foreign trade Mastering cohesive devices helps bridge lexical gaps, allowing for more effective reading comprehension Therefore, it is essential to raise ESP students' awareness of these cohesive devices to enhance their understanding of text organization and support vocabulary acquisition.
I have been teaching English reading and writing to my young colleagues at work as part of a training program for several months, which has deepened my interest in this area I plan to dedicate more time to teaching after completing my TESOL course, leveraging this experience to enhance my skills Moreover, this teaching experience motivates me to successfully complete my TESOL studies, hoping it will be valuable for my future teaching endeavors.
The aims of the study
Research opinions on the impact of cohesive devices on reading comprehension vary due to limited empirical studies in this area There is a significant need for evidence-based approaches to teaching English cohesion, particularly to enhance reading skills and vocabulary acquisition at the tertiary level Building on previous research and motivated by the goal of leveraging discourse-based cohesion strategies, this study aims to explore how cohesive devices can be utilized to improve reading comprehension and vocabulary learning among ESP students at FTU.
Finding out whether FTU students are able to identify and use specific cohesive devices to promote the study of English reading comprehension and vocabulary;
Looking for some effective ways to help the learners promote their learning of English reading comprehension and vocabulary through using these specific language elements.
In order to achieve the aims of the study, the research process is guided by three research questions as follows:
1) What are the most common problems ESP students at FTU have in reading comprehension and vocabulary learning, particularly the problems in relation to cohesive devices?
2) What kinds of cohesive devices are frequently recognised by the students while reading an English text?
3) To what extent can these cohesive devices help students with their effective studying of English reading comprehension and vocabulary?
Significance of the study
This study investigates the role of English cohesive devices and their impact on reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition from both theoretical and practical perspectives The research highlights the importance of understanding cohesive devices for ESP students at FTU, emphasizing their significance in improving language skills Findings suggest that effective use of cohesive devices can enhance students' reading comprehension and expand their vocabulary, contributing to more successful language learning outcomes These insights underscore the value of integrating cohesive devices into ESP curricula to support students' academic and professional language proficiency.
The study offers empirical evidence that teaching cohesive devices can enhance students' English reading comprehension and vocabulary skills through active interaction with texts It helps students recognize various cohesive devices and understand their functions in text organization, leading to improved text analysis and comprehension.
This study highlights important implications for reading pedagogy and future research on reading strategies It suggests exploring various reading activities to enhance students’ comprehension skills Incorporating exercises focused on English cohesion can effectively draw students’ attention to text features, helping them navigate new vocabulary and complex texts more efficiently Implementing targeted strategies in reading instruction can significantly improve students’ English reading proficiency and expand their vocabulary knowledge.
This research offers practical benefits by training students to develop independent learning skills in English reading comprehension and vocabulary, essential for their future careers It aims to equip students with effective strategies for understanding unfamiliar words and complex texts, enabling them to handle authentic materials of varying length, complexity, and content By enhancing their vocabulary size and comprehension abilities, students will be better prepared to succeed in real-world professional contexts.
The organization of the study
This research is structured into five chapters, beginning with an introductory chapter that provides the background and rationale for the study It outlines the research questions, aims, and the significance of the study, setting the foundation for the subsequent chapters The introduction also details the organization of the entire research, guiding readers through its comprehensive framework This chapter establishes the context and importance of the research, ensuring clarity and focus for the study's progression.
Chapter Two reviews relevant literature on cohesion and coherence, highlighting different types of cohesive devices that enhance text organization It emphasizes the importance of reading comprehension and explores the relationship between reading ability and vocabulary acquisition The chapter also discusses the role of discourse markers and text-structuring patterns as advanced cohesion mechanisms that are crucial for interpreting and understanding texts effectively.
Chapter Three outlines the research methodology, including specific research questions, an appropriate research design, and detailed characteristics of the study subjects It also describes the data collection methods used to gather relevant information This chapter establishes the foundation for subsequent data analysis and discussion of the findings in Chapter Four.
Chapter Five concludes the study by highlighting key insights into enhancing reading comprehension and vocabulary development It emphasizes the importance of teaching students to recognize and utilize cohesive devices to improve text organization and coherence The chapter suggests that awareness of cohesive devices can significantly aid students in understanding and constructing well-organized texts, ultimately boosting their reading skills and vocabulary growth These findings have important implications for educators aiming to improve reading instruction through focused teaching of cohesive devices and text structure strategies.
This chapter has just presented the Introduction, next chapter – chapter Two introduces the theoretical framework for the study.
LITERATURE REVIEW 13
The concept of cohesion
The research on English cohesion conducted by Halliday and Hasan (1976) is considered the most influential theory of English cohesion as commented by Brown
Yule (1983) describes cohesion as a comprehensive and standard framework for understanding how meaning relates within texts, emphasizing its importance in creating coherence at the sentence level Cohesion theory analyzes specific meaning relationships that connect text elements to generate texture, with Halliday and Hasan’s model serving as the primary theoretical basis for examining cohesion as a text-forming device Additionally, the study considers insights from scholars like Nuttall (1982), Celce-Murcia and Olshtain (2000), McCarthy (1991), and Grabe (1991, 2009), whose work on cohesion, reading comprehension, and vocabulary pedagogy informs the conceptual foundation of the research.
Cohesion is a relational concept that involves meaning relations between different elements within a text, giving it "texture" (Halliday & Hasan, 1976) According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), a text is considered cohesive when interpreting any item requires referencing other elements in the discourse, ensuring clarity and connectedness throughout the text.
Halliday and Hasan (1976) emphasize that cohesive relations are not about structural sentence relations but focus on meaning connections across sentences that are essential for text interpretation They explain that cohesion can be established through grammar and lexical choices, serving as a key element in organizing a text as a “semantic edifice.” Cohesion is unrelated to the overall meaning of the text itself but pertains to how the text is structured, functioning as a vital part of the text-forming component in the linguistic system It involves utilizing language resources to create semantic relationships between different elements, thereby forming the texture of the text.
Halliday and Hasan highlight that cohesion provides continuity in a text by supplying readers with crucial clues, enabling them to infer missing information essential for understanding This cohesive linking helps maintain the flow of the narrative and supports seamless interpretation, making the text more coherent and comprehensible.
Cohesion, as defined by Beaugrande and Dressler (1981), refers to how the components of a text are mutually connected within a sequence, establishing clear relationships among surface elements They emphasize that cohesion plays a crucial role in signaling these relationships, thereby enhancing the overall coherence and readability of the text Effective cohesion is essential for helping readers understand the connections between ideas and ensuring the text flows logically.
Cohesion, as defined by Carter et al (1997), is the key factor that distinguishes connected text from a mere sequence of unconnected sentences Following Halliday and Hasan (1976), cohesion involves language patterns that organize larger text units, such as paragraphs, by linking related meanings across sentences It is achieved through grammatical and lexical means, with lexical cohesion referring to the relationship between words that connect different parts of a text, and grammatical cohesion involving the use of grammar to bind the text together effectively.
Cohesion, as defined by Celce-Murcia and Olshtain (2000), refers to the use of various cohesive ties to explicitly connect all propositions within a text, creating cohesive and well-structured content Based on Halliday and Hasan's (1976) identification of cohesive ties, cohesion is the key textual feature that ensures the logical flow and unity of a text Implementing effective cohesion techniques enhances readability and coherence, making your content more engaging and SEO-friendly.
Surface evidence of a text’s unity and connectedness is demonstrated through cohesion, which is primarily achieved by using grammatical and lexical ties (Celce-Murcia & Olshtain, 2000, p 126) This cohesive device plays a crucial role in ensuring the coherence and flow of a text.
Similarly, Grabe (2009) also describes cohesion as “surface-level signals that reflect the discourse organization of the text and the intended purpose of the writer” (p 244).
Cohesion plays a vital role in guiding readers to understand the implied meaning within texts, even though it is not the same as coherence According to Halliday and Hasan (1989), the concept of 'cohesive harmony' offers a clearer understanding of cohesion by emphasizing lexical relations as key clues for analyzing and uncovering discourse structure As Grabe (2009) highlights, cohesive harmony provides a helpful framework for interpreting how different parts of a text are connected, enhancing overall comprehension.
Cohesion, as explained by various authors, is a fundamental language resource that contributes to creating coherent texts by establishing meaningful relationships between different parts According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), cohesion is essential for providing a text with texture, ensuring that all components work together to produce clarity and understanding Effective cohesion enhances the overall coherence of a text, making it easier for readers to comprehend the intended message.
Cohesion plays a vital role in organizing texts by establishing semantic relationships such as register and cohesion, but alone it is insufficient for creating a coherent passage of discourse (Halliday & Hasan, 1976) Hasan (1984) emphasizes that while cohesion forms the foundation of text coherence, it must be complemented by other factors, as cohesion is “not sufficient by itself” for achieving full coherence (p 94) According to schema theory, textual coherence also heavily depends on the reader’s interpretation and explanation of the text, highlighting that coherence extends beyond formal cohesion to include the reader’s cognitive processes (Celce-Murcia & Olshtain, 2000).
Cohesion and coherence are key features that influence how easily readers can follow a text and understand the writer’s ideas, with cohesion referring to linguistic devices that establish relationships between text elements and coherence representing the organization and underlying meaning of the message (Nuttall, 1982) While cohesion is considered an objective aspect of a text that can be recognized automatically, coherence is subjective and depends on the reader’s assessment of the text’s overall logical flow and clarity (Hoey, 1991) Importantly, Hoey emphasizes that cohesion alone does not guarantee coherence, as meaningful understanding relies on more than just cohesive ties; effective organization and context are essential for a text to be truly coherent, ensuring a clearer connection between the writer’s intentions and the reader’s comprehension.
Celce-Murcia and Olshtain (2000) explore the relationship between cohesion and coherence from a functional grammar and schema-theoretical perspective, emphasizing that these are key discourse features that organize ideas and propositions within a text They clarify that coherence is central to a text's meaning, while cohesion is a linguistic consequence of coherence, meaning a well-structured text may be cohesive without explicit links Importantly, they highlight that a text can be coherent without overt cohesive markers, underscoring the distinct roles of these features Their work underscores the significance of both cohesion and coherence in reading comprehension, illustrating that understanding a text relies on more than just structural cohesion.
A well-written text is characterized by coherence and cohesion, which are essential for guiding readers smoothly through the content These features enhance comprehension by ensuring the ideas are logically connected and easily interpretable Writers dedicate time and effort to develop coherence and cohesion, making their texts more effective and engaging for readers Skilled readers can then better understand and interpret the message, benefiting from these well-crafted textual features.
Halliday and Hasan’s (1976) theory of cohesion, which emphasizes the importance of linguistic links in measuring text coherence, has been critically challenged by researchers such as Carrell (1982, 1984), Carrell & Eisterhold (1983), Freebody & Anderson (1981), Brown and Yule (1983), and Alderson (2000).
Cohesive devices and the organization of texts
Understanding the distinction between cohesion and coherence is essential, as cohesion involves using cohesive devices to connect sentences, while coherence depends on the reader’s ability to interpret and relate ideas meaningfully A well-structured text requires more than just grammatically correct sentences; it also depends on the reader’s perspective and understanding to establish coherence Recognizing discourse signaling systems and text structures significantly enhances reading comprehension and helps in effective information retrieval Developing awareness of these elements is a powerful strategy for improving overall understanding of written texts (see Grabe, 2009).
212), now we shall look at how a text is generally organised, and also examine the way cohesive devices help with text organization.
While the terms "text" and "discourse" are often used interchangeably to refer to language at the sentence level, there is a meaningful distinction between them Beaugrande and Dressler (1981) define a text as a communication event that must meet seven standards—cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality, and intertextuality—to ensure its textuality Among these, cohesion and coherence are considered "text-centered notions" vital for processing the text material effectively.
Following Widdowson (1978), Nuttall (1982, p.16) says that discourse has
Coherence in a text ensures clarity and logical flow, while cohesion involves the use of language features to connect ideas smoothly Discourse refers to the organization of meanings that underpin the conveyed message, beyond mere sentence structure Carter et al (1997) describe the term "text" as something "woven," highlighting how language elements create a textured whole through relationships between parts Texture results from these interconnected relationships, emphasizing the importance of organization in conveying meaning According to McCarthy (2001), texts are viewed as integrated units of communication that rely on cohesive and coherent structures to effectively inform and engage the reader.
“products of language use” while discourse as “the process of meaning creation and interaction” both written or spoken (p 96).
Hoey (1991) emphasizes that text organization can be approached in multiple ways, with a common view being that "text does permit full structural description." However, he offers an alternative perspective, suggesting that texts are organized through specific patterning, with lexical cohesion playing a crucial role in establishing these patterns Hoey highlights the importance of lexical relations in text formation, identifying various repetition types such as simple lexical repetition, which involves limited variations like singular and plural nouns, and complex lexical repetition, which can be further subdivided, all contributing to cohesive text structure.
‘text-forming’ and ‘chance’ lexical repetitions; and simple and complex paraphrase; substitution, co-reference and ellipsis (Hoey, 1991, pp 51-74).
In exploring some of the language devices to “weave” a text, Carter et al (1997, p.167) put forward three possible ways to look at how texts work across sentence boundaries, that are:
(1) Lexical cohesion – the way vocabulary links parts of texts together;
(2) Grammatical cohesion – the important way grammar holds texts together;
(3) Information structure – the way in which information within a text is presented and arranged in certain order to shape a particular type of texts.
This article explores how information is organized within texts, emphasizing the importance of paragraph structure alongside thematic development According to Goatly (2000), texts are primarily arranged in a linear order, with two main types of organization: thematic development and paragraph structure While thematic development involves linking themes across a passage, this article concentrates on paragraph structure as a crucial element in effective text organization Understanding paragraph structure is essential for creating clear and coherent texts that enhance readability and communication.
According to Nash (1980, cited in Goatly, 2000), there are four common paragraph structures in continuous prose: the Step, the Stack, the Chain, and the Balance Goatly highlights these patterns by examining the metaphors each structure suggests, helping writers understand how to organize their ideas effectively Recognizing these paragraph types can enhance clarity and coherence in writing, making your content more engaging and SEO-friendly.
The step is a fundamental text type used to describe procedures or narrate events in chronological order Repetition is commonly employed to create cohesion and ensure the text flows smoothly, while lexical chains and collocational items also play a key role in linking ideas and maintaining coherence throughout the text.
TheStack is a widely used paragraph structure in expository and argumentative writing, typically starting with a clear topic sentence It is followed by supporting comments, evidence, and arguments that develop or challenge the main idea introduced initially Ensuring cohesion between paragraphs can be achieved by incorporating transition words with related or contrasting meanings This method helps create a logical flow and enhances the clarity of the overall text, making it more engaging and easier for readers to follow.
Clearly, not only various kinds of discourse markers can be used here to achieve cohesion but also all the other types of cohesion.
The chain is a text type characterized by a loose, chain-like organization Each sentence is only linked to the next, creating a continuous flow of ideas The cohesive power of this structure relies on the repetition of words and pronouns This repetitive linking helps maintain coherence despite the simple, casual connection between sentences Using pronouns for reference ensures the reader follows the train of thought smoothly Overall, the chain organization fosters clarity while allowing flexibility in paragraph development.
The Balance is a fundamental paragraph structure commonly used to present facts or arguments coherently It often appears at the conclusion of a paragraph or text, summarizing key points effectively Multiple balances can be integrated within a paragraph alongside other organizational methods like stacking, enhancing clarity and flow Understanding how to utilize balance in writing improves content coherence and aligns with SEO best practices by creating well-structured, easily digestible information for readers.
Goatly emphasizes that Nash’s four types of text organization serve as fundamental frameworks rather than strict templates, allowing for flexible modifications In practice, these organizational patterns are often combined within a single paragraph or text, reflecting their adaptable nature This blending of structures enables writers to craft more cohesive and versatile content Understanding the flexibility of Nash’s models is essential for effective writing and communication.
2.4.3 Discourse structure signaling system in texts
Research by Carrell (1985), Grabe (1991), and Grabe and Stoller (2002) highlights the importance of discourse structure cues in ESL/EFL reading comprehension, enabling readers to understand how texts are constructed These studies emphasize that recognizing discourse signaling systems helps readers interpret and comprehend texts more effectively According to Grabe (2009), key discourse signaling systems include various textual features that support readers’ understanding, making it essential to understand how these systems function in reading education.
Cohesive structuring at the surface level of texts includes various cohesive devices proposed by Halliday and Hasan, especially lexical relations According to Grabe, these cohesive signals are crucial for analyzing discourse structure and serve as a major factor in establishing textual coherence He emphasizes that strong top-level cohesive structuring significantly enhances a reader’s ability to interpret and understand a text coherently, ultimately improving comprehension.
Information structuring plays a crucial role in creating coherent and comprehensible text by organizing content based on importance, novelty, and thematic relations It involves arranging information from more important to less important, highlighting new information alongside given details, and establishing thematic relationships that enhance understanding According to Grabe (2009), effective information structuring provides essential resources for improving text comprehension and readability.
Anaphoric referential signaling is a key aspect of textual cohesion, involving language markers that refer back to prior information within a text These cohesive devices include pronominals, repetition, synonyms, substitution, ellipsis, and paraphrase, which utilize both lexical and syntactic resources to ensure coherence Understanding these markers is essential for effective writing and improving text clarity and flow, making them important for SEO-focused content.
Grabe (2009) believes the ability to recognise relationships in texts by using anaphoric signals affects reading comprehension He affirms that:
Cohesion and the reading process
Reading is fundamentally a process of interaction between the reader and the text, emphasizing that it is more than just a product According to Urquhart and Weir (1998), reading involves receiving and interpreting information encoded in language through print, highlighting its dynamic nature Various approaches to reading and reading pedagogy exist, with metaphorical models such as top-down, bottom-up, and interactive models being the most prevalent in discussions about how reading operates (Anderson, 1999; Hudson, 2007).
The interactive reading model emphasizes the importance of an engaging, dynamic process that integrates both top-down and bottom-up strategies, enabling EFL readers to develop effective skills for comprehending texts By combining these approaches, the model helps learners overcome language barriers and background knowledge gaps, enhancing their overall reading comprehension Researchers like Nuttall (1982) and Carrell highlight the significance of this integrated method in improving language learning outcomes for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students.
Reading is a complex cognitive process involving comprehension and interaction between the writer, the reader, and the text (Carrell & Eisterhold, 1983; Grabe, 1999; Celce-Murcia & Olshtain, 2000; Grabe & Stoller, 2002) During reading, readers utilize critical cues within the text to interpret the underlying meaning conveyed by the writer Effective reading comprehension requires the active integration of linguistic knowledge and various cognitive skills, enabling readers to interpret and understand the text comprehensively Alderson (2000) emphasizes that factors influencing reading are categorized into two main groups: reader variables—such as motivation, purpose, skills, and prior knowledge—and text variables—including topic, structure, and presentation methods Understanding these factors is essential for developing effective reading strategies and enhancing overall reading proficiency.
Nuttall (1982) identifies five key textual features that can cause reading difficulties for foreign language learners, including concepts requiring metalinguistic knowledge, issues beyond the literal sentence meaning, and linguistic elements such as vocabulary, sentence structure, cohesive devices, and discourse markers He highlights that certain cohesive devices, like reference and ellipsis, can pose comprehension challenges because they serve as signals referencing other text parts rather than conveying direct meaning To address these challenges, Nuttall emphasizes the importance of teaching learners specific skills to identify and interpret cohesive devices and discourse markers through regular practice The primary goal of this training is to increase students’ awareness of these textual features, enabling them to recognize and effectively use them independently in reading comprehension.
According to Grabe and Stoller (2002), numerous challenges exist in teaching L2 reading, particularly concerning learners' linguistic knowledge and processing resources essential for comprehension A key dilemma is the insufficient focus on vocabulary instruction, which is crucial for enhancing overall L2 skills and reading comprehension Additionally, there is a significant need to raise awareness of text structure and discourse organization, including cohesive devices and organizational patterns, yet many teachers lack the willingness to prioritize this aspect The researchers emphasize that integrating textual features into instruction can greatly improve students' understanding of complex texts.
L2 readers must develop the ability to recognize and utilize text structure signaling devices and discourse organization to enhance their reading comprehension (Grabe & Stoller, 2002, p.80) Understanding and applying these strategies are crucial for improving reading skills in second language (L2) learning environments Teaching methods should focus on addressing instructional challenges related to text structure to effectively support L2 learners These instructional practices have direct implications for optimizing reading instruction in L2 contexts, helping students better understand and engage with complex texts.
2.5.3 Text analysis and interpretation in reading comprehension
Text analysis is essential for reading comprehension, as it helps identify the core elements of a text that influence understanding According to Nuttall (1982), "the text is the core of the reading process, the means by which the message is transmitted from writer to reader," emphasizing the importance of examining textual characteristics Analyzing a text's structural features and other contributing elements allows readers to pinpoint the problems that make a text easy or difficult to understand, ultimately enhancing reading strategies and comprehension skills.
According to Beaugrande and Dressler’s (1981) procedural approach to text analysis, McCarthy (1991) emphasizes that “making sense of a text is an act of interpretation,” which involves understanding the reader, the text itself, and the broader social, cultural, and environmental context This approach highlights the active role of the reader in constructing meaning and suggests that interpretation procedures operate across multiple levels Effective text comprehension relies on integrating these elements to facilitate deeper understanding within various contextual frameworks.
Effective reading and writing rely on the use of cohesive ties to establish semantic links within the text, creating coherence for better understanding According to McCarthy (1991), analyzing texts by mediating between cohesion and coherence is essential in discourse-based approaches to literacy While identifying textual patterns or segments across clauses and sentences is another interpretive level, it falls outside the scope of this study and will not be discussed here.
McCarthy highlights the crucial role of textual signals in helping readers identify relationships between different segments of a text and interpret its overall meaning He emphasizes that these signals serve as supporting evidence rather than being entirely deterministic, guiding readers without dictating their understanding By understanding the balance between these clues and their interpretative nature, readers can better navigate and comprehend complex texts.
2.5.4 The role of cohesion in analysing texts
Effective text analysis requires developing specific interpretive skills, as emphasized by Nuttall (1982), to enhance comprehension Nuttall advocates for training students to use these skills when working with texts, ensuring better understanding According to Nuttall (1982), cohesive devices can be categorized into two groups: the first includes reference, substitution, elliptical expressions, and lexical cohesion; the second comprises discourse markers, most of which are classified as conjunctions by Halliday and Hasan (1976) Understanding these cohesion types is crucial for accurate interpretation and enhancing writing clarity.
2.5.4.1 Identifying and interpreting cohesive devices
Reference and substitution, as Nuttall (1982, p 90) says, are words like it, he, our, this, those, one, so/not, and comparatives as same, smaller, additional, such, etc.
Pronouns themselves carry no inherent meaning but serve as essential markers that help identify the referent within a text Many foreign language (FL) learners struggle to interpret these devices, particularly in cases of ambiguity or complex texts Incorrect identification of the referent can lead to misunderstandings, highlighting the importance for readers to utilize context clues and common sense Developing a strong understanding of context can improve comprehension and accuracy in interpreting referential devices in reading.
Lexical cohesive devices, such as synonyms, general nouns, and superordinate terms, are commonly used instead of direct repetition for stylistic reasons, enhancing the flow and readability of the text (Nuttall, 1982) However, these devices can create challenges when multiple items refer to the same referent, causing readers to struggle with identifying their close relationship Additionally, when related items appear in different sentences or paragraphs, it becomes difficult for readers to recognize and connect them, potentially impacting overall comprehension.
Lexical collocation is a complex aspect of cohesion, as it can be challenging for readers to follow lexical chains or distinguish vocabulary items sharing the same context, such as topical associations This difficulty increases when multiple interconnected lexical chains appear within a text Addressing potential issues with cohesive links is important, and teachers can develop targeted tasks to help students interpret these devices, ultimately enhancing their comprehension of texts and overall language proficiency.
2.5.4.2 Identifying and interpreting discourse markers
Nuttall (1982, pp 96-98) calls these conjunctive devices as discourse markers and arranges them in three groups as follows:
Group A includes markers such as "then," "first," "at once," "next," and "the following day," which signal time order or chronological events These words help guide readers by establishing clear chronological relationships between events, making the sequence of actions easier to follow Using these markers effectively enhances the coherence of your writing by clarifying the timeline of events for your audience.
Cohesion in the reading-vocabulary relationship
Lexical competence is strongly linked to reading ability, with research stating that there is a "perfect correlation" between vocabulary knowledge and reading skills (Grabe, 2009, p 266) Moreover, Grabe and Stoller (2002, p 76) emphasize that substantial lexical knowledge is essential not only for effective reading but also for developing all second language skills, academic success, and enhancing background knowledge A strong vocabulary foundation is therefore crucial for overall language learning and achievement.
Vocabulary is essential for achieving fluency in a foreign language, highlighting the importance of building both general and specialized vocabulary knowledge Researchers (Laufer, 1987; Liu Na and Nation, 1985, cited in Nation, 1990) emphasize that L2 learners should know approximately 95% of the words in a text to understand it effectively and infer the meanings of unfamiliar words from context Additionally, Read (2000) notes that vocabulary learning for foreign language learners is a conscious and challenging process, even at advanced levels of study.
“experience lexical gaps” (p 1) that make it difficult for them to understand and interpret both written and spoken discourse, thus impeding their communicative ability.
To enhance reading fluency for FL/L2 students, Grabe (2009) emphasizes the importance of prioritizing the consistent development of a large recognition vocabulary in the classroom He notes that it is unrealistic to teach students all necessary words in a short period; instead, focus should be on mastering 2,000 to 3,000 high-frequency words Additionally, teaching students effective strategies for handling unknown vocabulary is essential for successful reading comprehension.
According to Grabe (2009, p 267) knowing a word involves at least nine components of knowledge, the most significant ones can be listed as:
- Collocations (what words very commonly go with a word)
- Meaning associations (topical links, synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms)
An effective vocabulary learning approach to enhance reading comprehension involves combining multiple strategies Key methods include learning words within context through extensive reading, providing direct instruction of vocabulary, and developing word-learning strategies Incorporating these techniques can significantly improve vocabulary acquisition and overall reading skills (Grabe).
It is widely accepted that teaching students effective strategies for coping with unknown words is more beneficial than focusing solely on memorizing vocabulary Among these strategies, using context clues to guess meanings is considered one of the most important for developing vocabulary skills (Nation, 1990; Grabe, 2009).
2.6.2 The place of lexical cohesion in vocabulary learning
Throughout the development of language learning, perspectives on vocabulary have evolved significantly Traditional methods often focus on a word-out-of-context approach, treating vocabulary as isolated word study primarily aimed at receptive skills (McCarthy, 1991) However, it is widely recognized that words are typically used within context, and both single words and multi-word units function to connect ideas across sentences in extended texts The rise of discourse analysis in the 1970s shifted the focus towards a socio-cultural understanding of lexis, leading to a more holistic lexical model that reflects social contexts and demonstrates how vocabulary should be studied (McCarthy, 2001).
Research by Sinclair (1966, 1991), Halliday and Hasan (1976), and others highlights the crucial role of lexis in creating cohesion in extended texts McCarthy (2001, p 63) emphasizes that lexis has a “far more powerful influence in the basic structuring of language,” making it an essential tool for organizing language As a result, scholars have increasingly focused on exploring multi-word units, lexical patterning, and chunks, emphasizing their significant role in discourse structuring and cohesion.
To enhance vocabulary teaching, Carter (1987) emphasizes McCarthy’s (1984) view that students need to understand not only the meanings, semantic features, and typical collocations of words but also explore how words relate across sentences within discourse Studying the role of lexis in creating cohesive connections is essential for improving reading comprehension McCarthy (1991) further advocates that language learners benefit from identifying lexical links in texts, highlighting the importance of understanding how words function within discourse organization to foster better language skills.
(1976) model in various ways (pp 65-67).
Cloze tests
Numerous studies, including Carter (1987), highlight the strong correlation between cloze tests and overall second language proficiency, particularly in reading comprehension and vocabulary development Empirical research by Oller (1973), Chihara et al (1977), Anderson (1980), and Bachman (1982) demonstrates that cloze tests effectively assess cohesive relationships beyond individual sentences Therefore, the cloze test is considered a practical and reliable method for measuring reading ability As Alderson (1979, 2000) explains, “cloze techniques were first developed by Taylor,” underscoring their significance in language assessment.
In 1953, efforts to measure text readability and reading comprehension in a first language laid the groundwork for assessing reading skills Taylor proposed that utilizing reading tests that examine how readers engage with texts could provide more accurate evaluations of readability The adoption of cloze procedures gained popularity as effective tools for assessing overall second language ability, as highlighted by Oller in 1973 and 1979, emphasizing their role in understanding language proficiency.
Research on the cloze procedure indicates that it can potentially assess both lower-order and higher-order language skills, though opinions vary among scholars Bachman (1982, 1985) conducted studies to validate the construct of cloze tests, focusing on their ability to measure cohesive links within and across sentences His research compared two formats: fix-ratio and rational deletions, providing empirical evidence that rational deletions enable the assessment of a range of abilities, including higher-order skills such as textual relationships, cohesion, and coherence Bachman concluded that cloze tests with 30 deleted items at a 1:11 deletion ratio are reliable and valid, as this provides sufficient context for students to retrieve information Additionally, based on Rand’s (1978) findings, Bachman suggested that optimal reliability can be achieved with approximately 25 deletions, making the cloze test an effective tool for language assessment.
Alderson (1979, 2000) explains that the cloze test can be evaluated using various scoring methods while maintaining its core format These methods include awarding credit for precisely recalling deleted words or substituting synonyms or semantically acceptable alternatives One recommended approach by Alderson is to provide learners with multiple-choice options or a bank of possible answers, known as the banked or matching cloze procedure This approach helps control the range of responses, making scoring more objective and assessing students' comprehension and vocabulary skills more accurately According to Porter (1976), Ozete (1977), and Read (2000), multiple-choice cloze tests improve objectivity in marking and enhance their learner-friendliness, effectively measuring reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge.
Based on researchers' insights into scoring methods for cloze tests, this study recommends designing tests that follow standard cloze procedures while providing learners with a list of correct responses beforehand Utilizing exact answer keys helps mitigate issues associated with alternative scoring techniques, thereby maintaining the validity of the cloze assessments, as outlined by Bachman (1985).
This chapter establishes the theoretical framework for analyzing cohesive devices and their role in enhancing English reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition Understanding these devices is essential for effective language learning and contributes to more accurate data analysis The insights gained here will inform the discussion of findings in Chapter Four Subsequently, Chapter Three will detail the research methodology employed in the study.