English speaking skills among non english majors at the college of foreign economic relations of ho chi minh city problems and implications for teaching

ENGLISH SPEAKING SKILLS AMONG NON-ENGLISH MAJORS AT THE COLLEGE OF FOREIGN ECONOMIC RELATIONS OF HO CHI MINH CITY: PROBLEMS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL

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Soperrisor : PE'flR LEONARD, MA Student; NGUYfeN TH| THOY CHAU

HO CHI MINH 2006

ENGLISH SPEAKING SKILLS AMONG NON-ENGLISH MAJORS AT THE

COLLEGE OF FOREIGN ECONOMIC RELATIONS

OF HO CHI MINH CITY: PROBLEMS AND

IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS (TESOL)

COLLEGE OF FOREIGN ECONOMIC RELATIONS OF HO CHI MINH CITY: PROBLEMS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING" in terms

of the Statement of Requirements for Theses in Master's Programs issued

by the Higher Degree Committee

This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma

in any other institution

Ho Chi Minh City, April 2, 2006

NGUYEN THI THUY CHAU

in the Library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited in the Library should be accessible for the purpose of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Library for the care, loan or reproduction of theses

Signature:

Date:

valuable guidance, helpful suggestions and comments in the writing of this study

1 would like to express my sincere gratitude to my lecturers for their dedication and helpful instruction during my TESOL course

Thanks are also due to all my colleagues for the permission to attend their classes, their help with the data collection for the research, and their precious remarks; to all the first-year students participating in the research for their cooperation; and to all my friends for their moral support, good friendship and enjoyable company

Finally, I would like to thank my husband, Nguyen Viet Anh, who helped me with data processing for this paper and his encouragement

ui

English, especially spoken English, is a good advantage for job applicants nowadays Unfortunately, very few students at COFER have such an advantage Most of the students have problems with oral English, which always makes the teaching of spoken English a challenge to all EEL teachers

The purpose of this study is to investigate the first-year non-English majors' problems in learning speaking skills, their causes, and offer some suggestions to better the teaching of spoken English to the freshmen at COFER

In order to achieve the purpose, the study was carried out with the data collected through a survey questionnaire of 168 first-year non- English majors, interviews with eight EEL teachers, and class observations A combination of qualitative and quantitative methods helps

to achieve triangulation in action in order to gain good validity in the study

The results of the,study show that the students are very passive and not confident in spoken classes First, this is due to the fact that they are affected by their prior learning experience, psychological factors such as anxiety, shyness, being afraid of being laughed at, being afraid of making mistakes, listening ability, classroom climate, and teacher Second, it is caused by the students' insufficient communicative competence After all, these problems result ftom the fact that they lack exposure to authentic English

Based on the results and under the Hght of relevant literature review, the thesis came up with practical suggestions for the improvement

of the teaching of spoken English at COFER

IV

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

LIST OF TABLES ix LIST OF FIGURES x

INTRODUCTION 1

01 Background 1

02 Statement of Purpose 5

03 The Research Questions 5

04 Significance of the Study 6

05 Abbreviations and Definition of Terms 6

06 Assumptions 7

07 Limitations 7

08 Delimitations 8

09 Overview of the Thesis 8

Chapter 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 9

1.1 What is speaking? 9

1.2 The importance of speaking skills 9

1.3 Differences between spoken and written language 11

1.4 Factors affecting EEL learners' speaking skills 16

1.4.1 Cultural factors ' 16 1.4.2 Linguistic factors 16 1.4.3 Listening ability 17 1.4.4 Psychological / Affective factors 17

1.4.4.1 Self-esteem 17 1.4.4.2 Inhibition 18 1.4.4.3 Anxiety 19 1.4.4 4 Attitude and Motivation 19

1.4.5 Classroom settings 20 1.4.5.1 Physical conditions 21 1.4.5.2 The teacher 21 1.4.5.3 Classroom climate 21

1.5 Components underlying speaking effectiveness 22 1.6 Interaction 25 1.6.1 What is interaction? 25

1.6.2 The importance of interaction 25 1.6.3 Promoting Interaction 26 1.7 Teaching methods often used in Vietnam 28

1.7.1 The grammar-translation method 28 1.7.2 The communicative approach 29 1.7.2.1 The goal of communicative language teaching 30

1.7.2.2 Characteristics of the teaching/learning process 30 1.7.2.3 The roles of teachers and learners in the classroom 31

VI

1.7.2.4 The role of teaching materials 32 1.7.2.5 Error treatment 35 1.8 Summary 35 Chapter 2: METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN DESIGN 36

2.1 Methodology 36 2.2 Research design 37 2.2.1 Characteristics of Subjects 37

2.2.2 Instruments 38 2.2.3 Data collection procedures 41

2.3 Summary 42 Chapter 3: DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS 43

3.1 Data analysis 43 3.1.1 From student-questionnaires 43

3.1.2 Teacher-interviews 57 3.1.2.1 EFL teachers' remarks on problems students face in

learning speaking skills and the causes of the problems 57 3.1.2.2 Difficulties teachers face in teaching speaking skills 62 3.1.3 Class observations 64 3.2 Summary of findings 66 3.3 Summary 68 Chapter 4: SUGGESTIQNS 69

To the organizers 69

To the teachers 70

VI1

CONCLUSION 87 BIBLIOGRAPHY 89 Appendix 1 95 Appendix 2a 97 Appendix 2b 100 Appendix 3 103 Appendix 4

Appendix 5

via

LIST OF TABLES

Page 3.1 Students' prior learning experience at high school 43 3.2 Students' feehngs about learning English 44 3.3 Students' difficulties in learning spoken English at COFER 45

3.4 Students' obstacles in carrying out a conversation 47 3.5 Students' solutions to being unable to express their ideas 48

3.6 Students' frequency of exposure to English 49 3.7 Students' perception on the influence of teacher, physical conditions

and classroom climate on their speaking skills 50 3.8 Students' attitude towards the course book 51 3.9 Students' attitude to learning spoken English 53 3.10 Students' motivation (reasons) for learning spoken English 53

3.11 Students' favourite ways of learning speaking skills 55 3.12 Students' favourite classroom activities 56

IX

LIST OF FIGURES

Page 3.1 Students' feelings about speaking English 45 3.2 Students' solutions to being unable to express their ideas 48

3.3 Students' perception on the influence of teacher, physical conditions and classroom climate on their speaking skills 51 3.4 Students' attitude towards the course book 52 3.5 Students' attitude to learning spoken English 53 3.6 Students' motivation (reasons) for learning spoken English 54

3.7 Students' favourite ways of learning speaking skills 55

INTRODUCTION

01 Background

Today, English has established itself as the most dominant language in the world English is used as an important medium of communication in the fields of science, technology, politics, diplomacy, and especially in business, commerce, and international trade

In Vietnam, English is regarded as an effective tool in gaining access to scientific and technological advances and as a means to promote mutual understanding and cooperation between Vietnam and other countries in the world In the next few years when Vietnam joins the WTO, more and more foreign companies will invest in Vietnam It is no doubt that there will be a great demand for people who have a good command of English, especially spoken English in order to communicate with foreign partners and do business with them Unfortunately, at the College of Foreign Economic Relations (COFER) where non-English majors are expected to become foreign trade executives and business people, their oral proficiency is far from satisfactory Although they have spent several years' learning English, they still cannot express themselves freely and naturally in English; they find themselves quite embarrassed and lack confidence when they speak English in front of class or participate in English conversations; they made a lot of errors in their oral communication in the target language

In this study, it is the author's intention to choose the first-year English majors as the target group since the learning of oral English in the flrst year is considered as a "turning point" in students' study After several years' study of grammar, vocabulary, and reading at high schools, many students have become so interested in learning speaking English, but their language level and their personal characteristics may cause them some inhibitions Therefore, the identification of first-year non-English majors' problems in learning oral English and giving some suggestions to improve teaching speaking skills in first-year classes are very essential in order to help students learn this skill well in the following academic years, and in the long run help them find a good Job

non-hi order to understand the issues to be discussed in tnon-his thesis, it is necessary to have a brief look at the English course for first-year classes

at COFER, teaching material, physical conditions, students, and teachers

In the first academic year, non-English majors are required to learn English for 180 periods in two semesters Thus each semester, students are required to learn 90 periods, each week ten periods including four skills In terms of speaking skills, at the end of the first academic year, students are expected to carry out short conversations, and present simple topics in front of class

The material used for teaching spoken English in the first-year classes at COFER is GETTING AHEAD by Sarah Jones - Macziola and Greg White It is "a course in communication skills in English for students who

2

need, or will soon need, to use English in their work" (Sarah Jones Macziola and Greg White, 2000: vi) The book consists of 20 units, four

-of which are review units The units are topically based but incorporate practice in all four skills

The school facilities at COFER do not contribute to an ideal environment for practicing spoken English Although the classrooms are spacious, bright, and equipped with cassette players, the sound quality of the cassette players is not good In addition, the classroom setting is still strongly influenced by traditional teaching ideas with the teacher's desk

in the front and students' desks and benches fixed and ananged in rows lacing the teacher This kind of seUing is only suitable for teacher- centered teaching, but not conductive to communication activities in the classroom Students usually find it hard to talk to each other in this kind of setting when they practise in groups

First-year non-English majors at COFER are aged from eighteen to twenty-one Most of students major in export- import business administration The others major in business and trade administration All

of them have learnt English for seven years at high school Before entering COFER, they had to pass the entrance exam in written English (see appendix 1), mathematics, and literature Students who come from central and southern provinces are often not as good at English as those from big cities because the conditions for teaching and learning English there are very poor due to a shortage of instructors of English and

materials Students from the big cities like Ho Chi Minh City, Da Nang, Nha Trang are usually better, but they are only better at grammar and translation They can do written exercises on grammar accurately but they find it difficult to express their thinking in English This proves that they had been taught English with the Grammar-Translation method or in a very traditional way Ellis, G has provided a comprehensive description

of Vietnamese cultural predilection in language learning:

"The propensity of Vietnamese for using Grammar as a starting point in language learning systems comes from a long standing tradition of memorizing linguistic forms and according

to Michael (An Australian teacher informant) is still a strong characteristic of their learning style"

(Ellis, G 1994:35) Although students have difficulty in expressing themselves in English, they are expecting to achieve certain efficiency in using English communicatively and naturally in order to find a good job in the future

As for teachers, there are totally eight tenured teachers in charge of English at COFER They are Vietnamese teachers who obtained a Bachelor's or a Master's Degree in TESOL However, no one has been to

an English speaking country for study Just a few teachers often have a chance to speak to native speakers because in the evening they teach English at foreign language centers where there are foreign teachers The rest rarely have a chance to speak to native speakers All of them confess that sometimes they feel a lack of confidence in themselves when they

teach oral skills' because they lack knowledge of English culture, customs, and business

02 Statement of Purpose

The objectives of this study are:

- to investigate problems that students face in learning speaking skills and their causes

- to give suggestions for the improvement of teaching speaking skills

at COFER

In order to achieve the objectives, the study is carried out with data collected from three different sources: (I) a questionnaire asking students about their difficulties and their preferences in learning speaking skills; (2) interviews with EFL teachers on their students' problems in learning speaking skills as well as teachers' difficulties in teaching speaking skills; (3) classroom observations in order to find out students' problems in learning speaking skills and empirical evidence for supporting causes of the problems

03 The Research Questions

The thesis attempts to answer the questions as follows:

1 What problems do students have in learning speaking skills?

2 Why do they have such problems?

3 What are students' preferences in learning spoken English?

4 What difficulties do teachers face in teaching speaking skills?

5 What should be done to help students overcome the problems and speak English better?

04 Significance of the Study

So far, there have been a few studies about problems that English majors have in learning speaking skills and solutions to these problems However, at COFER, no research has been done on problems that first- year non-English majors face during the process of learning speaking skills This study will be the first at COFER to investigate problems first- year non-English majors face in learning speaking skills and their causes Thus, this study will serve as a summative report on the problems of learning speaking skills with some suggestions for the improvement of teaching speaking skills in first-year classes at COFER For EFL teachers outside COFER who are interested in the problems of learning speaking skills, this study will help them identify their students' problems more easily and find teaching methods, techniques and materials suitable for their situations

05 Abbreviation and Definition of Terms

• An approach is defined as "a set of correlative assumptions dealing

with the nature of language teaching and learning An approach is axiomatic." (Anthony, E., 1963 cited in Richards & Rodgers, 1986:15)

• A method is 'an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach An approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural Within one approach, there can be many methods " (Anthony, E., 1963 cited in Richards & Rodgers, 1986:15)

• A technique is "implementational - that which actually takes place in a

classroom It is a particular trick, strategem, or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate objective Techniques must be consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony with an approach as well." (Anthony, E., 1963 cited in Richards & Rodgers, 1986:15)

• Communicative approach refers to "an approach to foreign or second language teaching which emphasizes that the goal of language learning is communicative competence." (Richards, J.C et al., 1993: 65)

06 Assumptions

The study was based on the following assumptions:

The sample population of the first-year non-English majors of one course (2()()5-2()()8) was representative of the majority of the first-year non- English majors at COFER in other courses

The methods and procedures of data collection and analysis were reliable and appropriate to obtain the information to answer the research questions

The EFL teachers and first-year non-English majors were honest in their responses

07 Limitations

This study aims to investigate the problems that first-year non-English majors at COFER have in learning speaking skills All this was done through a questionnaire, interviews, and observations The study findings should not be generalized to the learning of speaking skills of English-

major students who are supposed to have a good knowledge of English

08 Delimitations Due to the nature of this study and the research methods of data collection, generalizations and recommendations will be limited to the teaching and learning of oral skills in first-year classes at COFER The particular composition of the sample of first-year non-English majors participating in the study may also hmit the generalizability of the results The recommendations from this study may, however, be beneficial to the EFL teachers of other colleges and universities in similar situations

09 Overview of the Thesis The thesis is structured as follows:

Introduction provides the background to the study and identifies the

problem in question and gives an overview of the thesis

Chapter I presents a review of the literature

Chapter 2 describes the research design and methodology employed in

the study

Chapter 3 analyzes and discusses the research findings It ends with a

thorough summary of all the findings

Chapter 4 oiiQY^ some suggestions for teaching speaking skills at COFER Conclusion consists of a brief summary and inference which closes the

thesis

1.2 The importance of the speaking skill

There seems to be little agreement among scholars as to the importance

of speaking According to Krashen (cited in Mc Laughlin, 1991: 50), speaking is unnecessary for acquiring a language, since in fact someone who is not able to speak for physical reasons can still acquire the full ability to understand language However, according to Bygate (1997: vii), speaking is an important skill It is the vehicle par excellente of social solidarity, of social ranking, of professional advancement and of business Brown and Levinson (cited in Hudson, 1991:115) also express their agreement on the importance of speech They state that speaking is one

of the ways in which one presents a personal image for others to evaluate, both through what one says and the way one says it

In second or foreign language learning, Ur states that "speaking seems intuitively the most important: people who know a language are referred

to as "speakers" of that language, as if speaking included all other kinds

of knowing, and many if not most foreign language learners are primarily interested in learning to speak" (1996: 120) On the one hand, speaking can increase the communicative abilities of the learners in groups and motivate learners to study (Long and Porter cited in Mc Laughlin, 1991: 50) On the other hand, speaking or comprehensible output has a decisive impact on learners' language learning Swan (cited in Ellis, 2003: 49) indicates a number of specific ways in which learners can learn from their own output First, output can help learners notice their language knowledge gaps That is, by trying to speak in the target language, they can realize what they lack in their communication Second, output provides learners with opportunities to experiment with language forms and structures Finally, learners can obtain feedback from others about their language use In addition, speaking exercises seem very relevant and necessary, not only in speaking classes but also in classes teaching other language skills When mentioning techniques used in teaching writing, reading, or listening skills, Brumfit et al (1980) explicate that preceding oral discussion in the classroom is always needed to achieve the success in other skills Thus, it can be concluded that speaking is a very important skill which needs to be developed

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1.3 Differences between spoken language and written language

According Burns and Joyce (1997: 8-11), there are many differences between spoken and written language The first and perhaps the most obvious difference is that speech and writing are typically used in different kinds of situations When speaking, speakers are usually interacting directly with others (e.g telephoning to make an enquiry about goods and services or chatting casually to friends in lunch break) The language speakers produce is spontaneous and relatively unplanned and

as a consequence speakers tend to use more informal and everyday language that does not always conform to standard grammatical conventions of written language On the contrary, when writing, writers are generally alone and not in direct contact with the people to whom they are writing Writers have more time to plan what language they will use and to reflect on the topic of the written text Writers also often feel under

an obligation to achieve accuracy and precision, because written language

is more permanent than spoken language

It is not only the situations in which spoken and written language are used that are different There are differences in the language patterns which are selected by speakers and writers One major contrast lies in the extent

to which the language interacts with the actual context itself A piece of writing has to be able to exist away from the physical context in which it was produced It needs to be self explanatory and the reader needs to be able to assess the meanings from the text itself In speaking situations, however, speakers can use the surrounding context to make meanings; for

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example, they can refer to things in the context as "it", "this one", "like this", "these", "they" without having to name them exphcitly for the other interactants

Another difference lies in the overall structure of written and spoken texts Written texts are products which have particular beginning, middle, and end structures depending on the type of text, or genre, they are For example, a recount retelling the sequence of events in a traffic accident will, typically, have the structure:

1 Orientation: information on the context of the event

2 Record of events: a record of the events they occurred in sequence

3 Reorientation: closure or a conclusion to the events The structure of written texts is relatively fixed so that it is generally possible for readers to predict quite easily how the text is likely to be structured Spoken texts, on the other hand, are more open-ended, dynamic, and faster, and may be much more closely tied to the actions occurring in the immediate context, with one utterance leading to another Casual conversations also often range over a number of different topics so

it is much more difficult for the speakers to predict the exact direction the interaction will take

The different situations in which spoken and written texts are produced give rise to a further linguistic difference As written texts are not tied to the immediate context, they can be drafted and redrafted until the writer

12

produces a final and polished version In contrast, spoken texts must be produced as the speaker proceeds, and as a result that speech is full of hesitations, repetitions, overlaps, and incomplete clauses It is this feature

of speech that underlies the view that speaking is ungrammatical However, it is not so much the case that speech is ungrammatical but that speech and writing are grammatical in different ways Halliday (1989 cited in Burns and Joyce 1997: 10) states that written language is characterized by its lexical density while spoken language has a greater degree of grammatical intricacy Brown and Yule (1989: 7) make a similar comment on this sort of difference:

One major difference between spoken language and written language is that density of packing information Information may be packed densely in the written language, using heavily pre-modified noun phrases with accompanying post- modification, heavy adverbial modification and complex subordinating syntax It is rare to find spoken language produced like this, with this dense packing of information

Brown and Yule (1989: 4) state that the syntax used in spoken language is much simpler than the one in written language

Most speakers of English produce spoken language which is syntactically very much simpler than written language Most spoken language consists of paratactic (unsubordinated) phrases which are marked as related to each other, not so much by the syntax as by the way the speaker says them The

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speaker uses the resources of pausing and rhythm and, to a lesser extent, intonation, to mark out for listener which parts

of his speech need to be co-interpreted

To sum up, spoken language is different from written language in many ways Therefore, in language teaching, it is very useful to be able to pinpoint these differences so that students can choose appropriate words, syntactic structures, and strategies when they communicate in English

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Comparisons between spoken and written language

Spoken language Written language

• generally accompanies action

Grammatically intricate

• tends to contain more content or grammatical words such as pronouns, conjunctions, etc

• develops through intricate networks of clauses rather than complete sentences as

it is jointly constructed and relies on verbs

Edited and redrafted

• written language can be edited and redrafted any number of times

Lexically dense

• tends to contain more lexical or content words as meaning is carried

by nouns and noun groups

• relies on the prcK'ess of nominalization whereby things which are not nouns can be turned into nouns

(Burns and Joyce 1996: 13)

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1.4 Factors affecting EFL learners' speaking skills

Factors that may affect EFL learners' speaking skills include cultural factors, linguistic factors, listening ability, psychological/ affective factors, and classroom settings

1.4.1 Cultural factors

According to Burns and Joyce (1997:134), cultural factors have an influence on learners' speaking skills Cultural factors derive from learners' prior learning experiences and expectations created by these experiences If learners come into a classroom believing that learning a language involves listening to the teacher, reading, and doing written exercises, then they will be reluctant to become active in speaking up in class

- a lack of understanding of common grammatical patterns in English

(eg English tenses) and how these may be different from their own language

- lack of familiarity with the cultural or social knowledge required to

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process meanmg

1.4.3 Listening ability

According to Shumin (2002: 205), listening plays an extremely important role in the development of speaking ability Speaking feeds on listening, which precedes it Usually, one person speaks, and the other responds through attending by means of the listening process In fact, during interaction, every speaker plays a double role - both as a listener and as a speaker ''While listening, learners must comprehend the text by retaining information in memory, integrate it with what follows, and continually adjust their understanding of what they hear in the light of prior knowledge and of incoming information" (Mendelsohn & Rubin, 1995:35) If one cannot understand what is said, one is certainly unable to respond So, speaking is closely related to or interwoven with listening, which is the basic mechanism through which the rules of language are internalized

L4.4, Psychological/ Affective factors

The affective side of the learner is probably one of the most important influences on language learning success or failure (Oxford 1990:140) Psychological and affective factors related to L2 or foreign language learning include self-esteem, inhibition, anxiety, attitude and motivation (Brown 1994: 134)

L4.4.1 Self-esteem

Self-esteem may be one of the most key factors that influence language

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learning in general and oral communication in particular Self-esteem is defined by Coppersmith (1967: 4-5) as a personal judgement of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that the individual holds towards himself Brown (1994: 136) states that there is no successful cognitive or affective activity that can be carried out without some degree

of self-esteem, self-confidence, knowledge of yourself, and belief in your own capabilities for that activity According to Krashen (cited in Young, 1999: 126), students with low self-esteem are more likely to be concerned with what their classmates think about them; thus, fear of making a mistake or appearing foolish in front of peers heightens their anxiety A student who finds himself as the "strongly passive type" will be worse at oral communication than one with an "out-going, gregarious" self- concept

1.4.4.2, Inhibition

The other major aspect of personality that is related to second language learning is inhibition Young students with physical, emotional, and cognitive changes bring on mounting defensive inhibitions to protect a fragile ego, to ward off anxiety that threatens their self-esteem Some students with higher self-esteem and ego strength are more able to withstand threats to their existence and thus their defences are lower Those with weaker self-esteem maintain walls of inhibition to protect what is self-perceived to be a weak or fragile ego, or lack of self- confidence in a conversational situation or task (Brown 1994:138)

1.4.4.3 Anxiety

Anxiety also has an influence on EFL learners' speaking skill Anxiety is defined by Brown (1994: 141) as "feelings of uneasiness, frustration, self- doubt, apprehension, or worry" According to Scovel (cited in Freeman 1995: 3) moderate anxiety can be facilitating However, over-anxious students can never produce a proper talk with confidence (Krasen cited in Phillips, 1999: 12) They are always concerned with what their classmates think about them and the fear of making a mistake or appearing foolish heightens their anxiety which results in making them prefer to put themselves in a defensive status of inhibition

1.4.4.4 Attitude and Motivation

Attitude is the persistence shown by the learner in striving for a goal (Gardner and Lambert, cited in Ellis, 1996: 117) Motivation is defined by Brown (1994:152) as an inner drive, impulse, emotion, or desire that moves one to a particular action Attitude and motivation toward a language are generally seen by many linguists and language learning theorists as correlated since it seems quite logical that a positive attitude toward a foreign language is one important factor that motivates the learner to expend the effort required to learn that language In contrast, others argue that there is no causal relationship, but rather a connection between attitude and motivation Gardner (1985: 10) makes this

connection clear, "Motivation refers to the combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the language plus favourable attitudes toward learning the language" Jakobovits (1970: 3) divided

motivation into two types: extrinsic (motivation that is derived from external incentives) and intrinsic (the urge to engage in the learning activity for its own sake) In Gardner and Lambert's terms (1972: 3), intrinsic can be divided into "integrative" and "instrumental" motivation

A learner with integrative motivation often has the desire to learn a language to integrate with or join the speakers of the target language A learner with instrumental motivation, on the contrary, wishes to acquire a language as a means for attaining instrumental goals: gaining a necessary qualification or improving employment prospects

Gardner and Lambert (1972) suppose that attitude and motivation are very strongly related to achievement in language learning Els, (1984: 117) indicates that "attitude is directly related to motivation, which in turn affects second language acquisition" According to Ellis (1996: 11), learners who are interested in the social and cultural customs of native speakers of the language they are learning are likely to be successful Similarly, when learners have a strong instrumental need to learn a L2, they will probably prosper Conversely, learners with liule interest in the way of life of native speakers of the L2 or with low instrumental motivation can be expected to learn slowly and to stop learning some way short of native speaker competence

1.4.5 Classroom settings This set of factors includes whatever happens in class such as physical classroom conditions, classroom cHmate, and teacher This set has an

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advantage of being relatively open to outside intervention

1.4.5.1 Physical conditions:

Physical conditions such as the hghtness, the temperature, the layout of desks may have a great effect on students' learning of speaking skill and can alter a student's motivation either positively or negatively Surely, classrooms which are badly lit and overcrowded can be excessively de- motivating (Harmer 1991: 5) Therefore, teachers should presumably try

to make their classroom as pleasant as possible

1.4.5.2 The teacher

In a language classroom, it goes without saying that teacher has a great

influence on students' speaking skills If the teacher is aggressive and dominant, students may develop their anxiety about their own capacity to act assertively Conversely, if the teacher shares with the students as much responsibility as possible and tries to encourage them to participate

in speaking tasks, their performance and productivity will improve (Zaieznik and Moment 1964 cited in Nguyen Thi Thuy Ngoc 2000: 13 - 14))

L4.5.3 Classroom climate

Classroom climate is also a vitally important factor affecting students' speaking skills If students experience the classroom as a caring, supportive place where there is a sense of belonging and everyone is valued and respected, they will intend to participate more fully in speaking tasks.OldfatherjTgill^lO cited in Bui Diem Hanh 2000: 37)

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l l l l f V l t H C i l M l A i U N V

indicated that "students perform best when they feel respected and valued."

Reviewing factors that can affect speaking skills and attempting to identify the underlying reasons for students' reluctance to speak in class will help teachers to create the most positive environment for the learners, which in turn will help learners interact better

1,5 Components underlying speaking effectiveness

What is it that one needs to know and be able to do in order to speak in another language? Of course, one needs to know how to articulate sounds

in a comprehensible manner, one needs an adequate vocabulary, and one needs to have some mastery of syntax These various elements add up to linguistic competence (Chomsky, 1965) However, according to Hymes (1971), linguistic competence is necessary, but it is not sufficient for someone who wants to communicate competently in another language Hymes (1971) proposed the notion of communicative competence as an alternative to Chomsky's linguistic competence Communicative competence consists of linguistic competence and a range of other sociolinguistic and conversational skills that enable the speaker to know how to say what to whom, when Building on Hymes' theory, Canale and Swain (1980), Scarcella and Oxford (1992) propose that abilities underlying speaking proficiency are grammatical competence, discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence, which reflect the use of the linguistic system and the functional aspects of communication respectively

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Grammatical Competence

Grammar Vocabulary \

Pronunciation \ x

34 m

SPEAKING PROFICIENCY

Sociolinguistic Competence

Appropriate use of language (including register, speech acts, intonation)

Strategic competence

Use of communication strategies

^ (for example, gestures,

circumlocution, topic selection) when words are unknown; use of conversation management strategies

Discourse Competence

Coherence in speech Cohesion in speech

(Scarcella & Oxford, 1992: 154)

''Grammatical competence is an umbrella concept that includes

increasing expertise in grammar, vocabulary, and mechanics With regards to speaking, the term mechanics refers to basic sounds of letters and syllables, pronunciation of words, intonation, and stress" (Scarcella and Oxford 1992: 141) In order to convey meaning, EFL learners must have the knowledge of words and sentences; that is, they must understand how words are segmented into various sounds and how sentences are stressed in particular ways Thus, grammatical competence enables speakers to use and understand English language structures accurately and unhesitatingly, which contributes to their fluency

Discourse competence is the competence which enables speakers to

manage turn taking in conversation (which entails taking a turn of talk, holding a turn, and relinquishing a turn), to open and close a conversation,

to keep a conversation going, use appropriate levels of formality, and to

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repair trouble spots in conversation Also, speakers are required to achieve a large repertoire of discourse markers (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992: 155)

Sociolinguistic competence is the competence which involves knowing

what is expected socially and culturally by users of the target language; that is, learners must acquire the rules and norms governing the appropriate timing and realization of speech acts Understanding the sociolinguistic side of language helps learners know what comments are appropriate, know how to ask questions during interaction, know how to respond nonverbally according to the purpose of the talk Therefore, '\second language learners must acquire stylistic adaptability in order to

be able to encode and decode the discourse around them correctly" (Brown 1994:238)

Strategic competence is "the way learners manipulate language in order

to meet communicative goals" (Brown 1994: 228) According to Tarone and Yule (1989:91), strategic competence includes ''the ability to select

an effective means of performing a communicative act strategic competence is gauged, not by degree of correctness, but rather by degree

of success, or effectiveness." Strategic competence is perhaps the most important of all the communicative competence elements Simply put, it

is the ability to compensate for imperfect knowledge of linguistic, sociohnguistic, and discourse rules (Berns 1990 cited in Shumin 2002: 208) With reference to speaking, strategic competence refers to an

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individual's ability to use "communicative strategies", e.g paraphrase, language switch, literal translation, appeal for assistance, mime, and avoidance, to allow them to communicate effectively in the new language

in spite of their limited or imperfect knowledge of the target language

1.6 Interaction 1.6.1 What is interaction?

Interaction is an important word for language teachers In the era of communicative language teaching, interaction is, in fact, the heart of communication; it is what communication is all about Then, what is interaction? According to Brown (2()()1: 165), "interaction is the collaborative exchange of thoughts, feelings, or ideas between two and moie people, resulting in a reciprocal effect on each other"

1.6.2 The importance of interaction

The theories of communicative competence emphasizes the importance

of interaction as human beings use language in various contexts to negotiate meaning, or simply stated, to get an idea out of one person's head and into the head of another person and vice versa

From the very beginning of language study, classrooms should be interactive Rivers (1987: 4-5) puts it this way:

Through interaction, students can increase their language store as they listen to authentic linguistic material, or even the output of their fellow students in discussions, skits, joint problem-solving tasks, or dialogue journals In interaction,

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students can use all they possess of the language - all they have learnt or casually absorbed - in real Hfe exchanges

Even at an elementary stage, they learn in this way to exploit the elasticity of language

Counihan (1998:2) states that interaction is a major means by which learners explore the relationship between what they already know and new observations or interpretations which they meet Oral interaction with peers helps students clarify their thinking and "introduces them to new perspectives [that] facilitate reflection and innovative thinking" (Wollman-Banilla 1993: 49) To sum up, interaction is beneficial for English learners of all levels It provides them with a fairly unstructured, but encouraging environment where learners have the opportunity to interact not only with their teacher, but also with their peers

1.6.3 Promoting classroom interaction

Rivers (1987:10) states that interaction can be two-way, three-way, or four- way, but never one-way For genuine interaction, language learning requires individuals (teachers as well as students) to appreciate the uniqueness of other individuals with their special needs - not manipulating or directing them or deciding how they can learn or will learn, but encouraging them and building up their confidence and enjoyment in what they are doing Real interaction in the classroom requires the teacher to step out of the limelight, to cede a full role to the students in developing and carrying through activities, to accept all kinds

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of opinions, and be tolerant of errors the students make while attempting

to communicate In order to promote interaction, teachers can ask students

to participate in cooperative learning Cooperative learning means sharing, encouraging, and accepting responsibility for one's own learning and that of others (River, 1987: 10), not leaving all responsibihty to the teacher According to Johnson and Johnson (1987: 9), cooperative learning promotes higher classroom interaction since students are always asked to participate in all class activities in which group initiatives are always welcome Each group determines its own way of interaction and works together towards the common goal put forward by all members of the group Besides, cooperative learning brings about a lot of benefits to students First, cooperative learning helps students have more chances to interact with one another, achieve at a higher academic level, and use higher-level reasoning strategies more frequently Second, cooperative learning increases the self-confidence of students, including weaker ones, because every participant in a co-operative task has an important role to play Knowing that their team-mates are counting on them can increase students' motivation (Candlin & Mercer 2001: 34) Finally, cooperative learning provides an environment where students can talk not only with their teachers, but also with their peers to develop communicative competence

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1.7 Teaching methods often used in Vietnam 1.7.1 The grammar- translation method

The Grammar- Translation is also called the "traditional method" This method is rooted in the formal teaching of Latin, a language which was not usually taught for active use in any language conmiunity in Europe in the nineteenth century In the later part of the century, these techniques were adapted to the teaching of modern languages by Plotz in Germany Then Plotz's ideas rapidly spread to other countries "Though it may be true to say that the Grammar-Translation method is still widely practiced,

it has no advocates It is a method for which there is no theory." (Richards and Rodgers 1986: 5)

The principal characteristics of the method are as follows:

- The goal of foreign language study is to read its literature Study is through detailed analysis of grammar rules and translation of sentences and texts into or out of the target language

- Reading and writing are the major focus; little or no systematic attention

is paid to speaking and hstening

- Vocabulary is taught through bilingual lists and memorization

- "The sentence is the basic unit of teaching."

- "Accuracy is emphasized." (Howatt 1984: 131-132)

- Mother tongue is the medium of instruction

- The Grammar-Translation method lays emphasis on teaching the form rather than the use of the target language River (1982: 29) says:

"It aims at inculcating an understanding of the grammar of the language, and training the students to write the new

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