INTRODUCTION
Aims of the study
This thesis investigates EFL learners’ difficulties in pronouncing English fricatives, focusing on interdental (/θ/, /ð/), alveolar (/s/, /z/), labiodental (/f/, /v/), and post-alveolar (/ʒ/) fricatives It aims to identify common pronunciation errors made by students and pinpoint the specific fricative sounds that pose challenges Additionally, the study explores learners’ perceptions of the reasons behind their pronunciation difficulties, providing insights into their experiences and challenges with English fricatives.
Research questions
This thesis attempts to answer three following questions:
1 With reference to fricative articulation, what are the errors (1) that students make in practice and (2) that they report having difficulties in articulating them? a Do students make significant errors in articulating fricatives? b Is there a relationship between the errors made in practice and the difficulties reported?
2 Do problems of articulating fricatives differ in terms of: a Level b Gender c Regional dialect
3 How do students attribute their difficulties in articulating fricatives?
To what extent do they attribute their difficulties to: a Interference of L1 transfer b Lack of teachers’ instruction.
Research hypotheses
The study consists of the following hypotheses on the account of the research questions:
1 The learners will face many difficulties in articulating the English fricatives Place of articulation and voicing will affect the learners’ articulation considerably In other words, there is a relationship between the errors made in practice and the difficulties reported
2 There will be significant differences in the difficulties of articulating fricatives As far as the level, the gender and the regional dialect are concerned
3 In terms of the factors influencing the articulating, the interference of L1 transfer is regarded as a key one besides the teachers’ instruction.
Significance of the study
This study addresses a gap in existing research by focusing exclusively on the pronunciation aspects of fricative sounds As outlined in the conceptual framework of Chapter 2, there has been limited investigation into the specific phonetic features of fricatives in English language teaching The findings will serve as a valuable resource for EFL teachers and researchers interested in phonetics and pronunciation, contributing to enhanced teaching strategies and further academic inquiry in this area.
The thesis findings reveal that fricatives present significant challenges for Vietnamese students Language teachers should focus on improving students' pronunciation of the interdental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ as well as the post-alveolar fricatives /ʒ/ and /ʃ/, paying particular attention to their place of articulation and voicing Addressing these pronunciation issues is essential to prevent communication breakdowns and misunderstandings, such as mispronouncing "ship" as /sip/.
/ ɪp/ or in the word beige as /bei/ for the corrected sound /beiʒ/ may result in misunderstanding and communication breakdown
Last but not least, the thesis hopefully provides useful groundwork for EFL teachers to be flexible in applying raising consciousness and physical training in teaching pronunciation.
Organization of the thesis
Chapter 1 presents an introduction about this M.A thesis Specifically, it aims to provide the background of the problem at East Europe Language Center on the specific aspect of the only sounds named fricatives Besides that, the aim of the study, research questions, hypotheses, significance of the study, and organization of this thesis cannot be ignored
Chapter 2 is the literature review, providing theoretical concepts, especially the consonants classification, fricatives descriptions including the eight relevant fricatives Also mentioned in this chapter are the reasons for pronunciation difficulties and recapitulating ESL/EFL learners’ empirical research in acquisition of English pronunciation This chapter is also considered as conceptual framework
Chapter 3 supplies the methodology including research design, study setting, participants, and research instruments, scoring criteria, data analysis, and procedures in details
Chapter 4 analyzes the results of the study based on the relevant theories, questionnaire and recording Discussions of these findings are also indispensable
Chapter 5 provides the conclusion of the study Some implications for language pedagogy, limitations and recommendations for future research are reported.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theoretical concepts
This section reviews consonants classification Describing these eight sounds is also the key aspect Some main causes of the difficulty in pronouncing fricative sounds are also given out
2.1.1 The definition of consonants classification 2.1.1.1 Voicing
Voicing, as defined by Avery and Ehrlich (1992), refers to whether there is vibration of the vocal cords during speech Voiced (lenis) consonants involve vocal cord vibration, while voiceless (fortis) consonants are produced with greater and louder frictional force To distinguish between voiced and voiceless sounds like /b/ and /p/, Bowen and Marks (1992) suggest using a simple test with a sheet of paper held about nine centimeters in front of the face; if the paper moves when pronouncing the consonant, it indicates voicing, as seen with /b/, whereas a lack of movement indicates voiceless sounds like /p/.
The vocal cords are the vibrating bands of tissue within the larynx, or voiced box, fundamental to sound production (Celce-Murcia, Brinton & Goodwin, 1996) When air is released forcefully, the fortis vocal cords remain relatively closed, whereas the lenis cords vibrate freely, allowing easier airflow Vibrating vocal cords indicate the presence of lenis sounds, while non-vibrating cords correspond to fortis sounds The next section focuses on the place of articulation, which plays a crucial role in phonetic pronunciation.
The place of articulation refers to the horizontal relationship between the articulators, specifically the interaction between the active and passive articulators during speech production (Davenport & Hannahs, 1998) Avery and Ehrlich (1992) describe it as the process where articulators approach the upper unmovable parts of the mouth, modifying the airstream to produce different sounds Additionally, Celce-Murcia, Brinton, and Goodwin (1996) emphasize that the place of articulation involves the specific positioning of speech organs necessary to produce particular consonant sounds, which is crucial for understanding speech production and phonetics.
Producing a speech sound involves contact between two speech organs, with the specific position determining the place of articulation For example, the labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/ are formed by bringing the upper teeth into contact with the inner lower lip, as heard in words like "fee" and "van." In addition to the place of articulation, the manner of articulation is crucial in properly pronouncing fricatives, influencing how the airflow is manipulated during speech.
The manner of articulation refers to how the obstruction of the airstream is achieved during speech, with definitions varying among linguists Avery and Ehrlich (1992) described it as the way in which consonants are formed by obstructing the airflow Davenport and Hannahs (1998) explained that it involves the distance between active and passive articulators, ranging from close together to allowing wide airflow Ladefoged (2006) noted that at most places of articulation, there are multiple basic ways in which articulatory gestures are performed, highlighting the diversity in manner of articulation across speech sounds.
2 According to Roach (2000,p.8), the different parts of the vocal tract are called articulators
Certain parts of the tongue or lower lip serve as the active articulators, responsible for most of the movement during speech gestures Meanwhile, the passive articulator, which typically determines the name of the place of articulation, remains stationary This dynamic interplay between active and passive articulators is fundamental in producing distinct speech sounds (Davenport & Hannahs, 1998).
Celce-Murcia, Brinton and Goodwin (1996, p 43) said “how those various speech organs interact with each other”
The manner of articulation refers to how speech organs such as the lips, tongue, and teeth involve producing sounds For example, producing interdental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ requires airflow through the mouth with the tongue tip positioned between the teeth Additionally, understanding the characteristics of fricatives is essential, as they are produced by forcing air through narrow constrictions in the vocal tract, creating the distinctive hissing or buzzing sounds.
Fricatives are consonant sounds produced by forcing air through a narrow constriction in the vocal tract, often created by the tongue or lips This articulation involves getting close to specific parts of the upper mouth to create the characteristic friction sound Understanding how fricatives are articulated is essential for language learners and linguists alike, highlighting their role in speech production.
Fricative sounds are produced through a combination of airflow friction caused by air escaping through a narrow passage, often creating hissing sounds Additionally, maintaining fricative sounds relies on the presence of air in the lungs, enabling continuous airflow necessary for their production.
According to Rogers (2000), the voiceless interdental fricative /θ/ is produced by placing the tip of the tongue between the upper and lower teeth, allowing air to pass through the narrow passage This sound typically occurs at the beginning (initial), middle (medial), or end (final) of words, as in "thick," "nothing," and "breath." The tip of the tongue lightly touches the rear surface of the teeth during production Its voiced counterpart, /ð/, is produced similarly and can appear in any word position, examples include "they," "father," and "breathe."
However, when pronouncing /ð/, there is some vocal cord vibration or voice These two sounds are spelt with th (see Figure 2.1.2.1) The next part involves sounds: /s/ and /z/
Figure 2.1.2.1 Tongue position for /θ/ and /ð/
The voiceless alveolar fricative /s/ is produced with the blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge, creating a small opening that allows air to escape with friction, generating a turbulent, noisy sound found in words like "skin," "seaside," and "piece." It appears in various positions within words and is commonly spelled as "ss," "x," or "se," such as in "hiss," "axe," and "hearse," as well as "s," "ss," or "c" before "i," "e," and "y," in words like "cigarette," "ceiling," and "bicycle"; notably, "s" is silent in words like "corps" and "island." The voiced alveolar fricative /z/ is produced similarly to /s/ but involves vocal cord vibration, especially before vowels and in inter-vocalic positions, as in "zone" and "reason," occurring in initial, medial, and final positions in words like "zero," "easy," and "peas." Typically, /z/ is spelled as "s" in the medial and final positions, as in "easy," "desire," "nose," "calls," and "adds." The following section discusses the labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/.
Figure 2.1.2.2 Tongue position for /s/ and /z/
According to Chomsky and Halle (1968), the /f/ sound is a voiceless labiodental fricative produced by bringing the upper teeth and inner lower lips close together, allowing air to pass through and create friction This sound appears at the beginning, middle, and end of words such as "feel," "office," and "sniff," and can be spelled with "ph" as in "graph," "physic," "f" as in "fire," "loaf," or "ff" as in "effort" and "sniff." The voiced counterpart, /v/, shares similar articulation but involves vibration of the vocal cords The /f/ sound also occurs in various positions within words, such as "veil," "invite," and "leave," and is typically spelled with "v," except in cases like "of," "nephew," and "Stephen," where it appears as "f" or "ph." Additionally, the article discusses the post-alveolar fricatives /ʃ/ and /ʒ/, highlighting their phonetic significance.
Figure 2.1.2.3 Tongue position for /f/ and /v/
Post-alveolar fricatives are transitional sounds situated between alveolar and palatal consonants, involving the back portion of the tongue and the front part of the palate while keeping the tongue's top down These sounds include both voiceless (/ʃ/) and voiced (/ʒ/) varieties, characterized by air passing through a higher passage along the center of the tongue The voiceless /ʃ/ occurs when vocal cords are not vibrated, and it can appear in initial, medial, and final positions in words such as "shirt," "washing," and "English." Commonly, this sound is represented as "sh" in words like "shoe," "push," and "ash," and can be spelled with "s" in "sugar" and "sure," "ss" in "mission" and "pressure," or "ci" in "delicious" and "ancient." Understanding the production and spelling variations of post-alveolar fricatives is essential for accurate pronunciation and effective SEO content about phonetics.
The voiced /ʒ/ sound primarily appears in medial and final positions, as in words like treasure and garage It is commonly spelled as "z" when followed by "u" in words like seizure or "ge" in words like massage Additionally, when followed by "u" or "i," the /ʒ/ sound can be spelled as "s," as seen in words like visual and decision (Chomsky & Halle, 1968).
(see Figure 2.1.2.4) The following section aims to provide reasons for ESL/EFL learners’ difficulties in pronouncing the fricatives
Figure 2.1.2.4 Tongue position for /ʃ/ and /ʒ/
2.1.3 Reasons for ESL/EFL learners’ difficulties in pronouncing the fricatives
Research indicates that ESL/EFL learners' difficulties in pronouncing fricatives are influenced by several key factors, including L1 transfer, the contrastive analysis hypothesis (CAH), and the markedness differential hypothesis (MDH) Additionally, teachers’ instruction, exposure time, gender, and regional dialects significantly contribute to pronunciation challenges These theoretical frameworks help understand the various elements impacting learners’ ability to produce accurate fricative sounds, highlighting the complex nature of second language pronunciation acquisition.
Empirical research
Previous research on ESL/EFL learners' challenges with producing fricatives can be categorized into two main areas The first focuses on studies involving general ESL/EFL learners, highlighting common pronunciation difficulties, while the second specifically examines Vietnamese EFL learners' struggles with articulating fricatives These studies provide valuable insights into the unique and shared phonetic challenges faced by learners from different linguistic backgrounds, informing targeted teaching strategies to improve pronunciation accuracy Addressing these issues is essential for enhancing intelligibility and linguistic competence in English language learners.
2.2.1 Studies about ESL/EFL learners’ pronunciation rather than
Extensive research has focused on ESL/EFL learners' pronunciation of fricatives, highlighting common errors influenced by L1 transfer and the Markedness Differential Hypothesis (MDH) (Chan & Li, 2000; Bada, 2001; Ohata, 2004; Akade, 2004; Adana, 2007) Additionally, some studies have examined the impact of teachers and facility quality on pronunciation accuracy (Akade, 2004; Gonet & Pietron, 2005).
Research by Chan and Li (2000) highlights that Cantonese speakers face significant pronunciation challenges in both segmental and suprasegmental aspects of English due to phonological differences between the two languages Common issues include replacing English fricatives with similar sounds from Cantonese, such as pronouncing /ð/ as /d/ or /f/ in final positions, leading to errors like "with" being pronounced as /wid/ instead of /wið/ Additionally, the voiceless /θ/ is often substituted with /t/ or /f/, causing words like "thin" to become /tɪn/, and confusion between voiced and voiceless labiodental fricatives results in mispronunciations such as "live" /laɪv/ becoming /laɪf/ When /w/ is used instead of /v/ at initial positions, and the absence of certain sounds like /z/ in Cantonese leads to replacing it with /s/, creating errors like "zip" pronounced as /sɪp/ Furthermore, post-alveolar fricatives /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ are often substituted with /s/ or /ʒ/, affecting words like "shave" and "save." The main reason for these pronunciation difficulties is the lack of equivalent sounds in Cantonese, emphasizing the need for ESL teachers to recognize phonological differences and implement targeted instruction to help students improve their English pronunciation It is important to consider both phonological and other linguistic factors contributing to these pronunciation challenges.
A study by Bada (2001) examined how native language influences the pronunciation of English sounds among Japanese speakers, revealing significant phonetic transfer issues The research involved 18 participants, primarily female, aged around 19, who had acquired English over eight years and spoke the same Japanese dialect Participants read 38 sentences while recordings were made, with results showing that Japanese speakers often replaced the voiceless alveolar fricative /s/ with /z/ in final word positions and struggled with interdental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/, substituting them with their native language counterparts like /t/ and /d/, respectively Additionally, sounds such as /v/ posed difficulties due to their absence in Japanese, leading to substitutions with /f/ or /w;/ the sound /∫/ was frequently mispronounced as /s/ or /t∫/ The study concluded that the influence of native language significantly affects Japanese speakers’ English pronunciation, as they tend to replace non-existent sounds with familiar ones However, limitations such as small sample size, lack of detailed contextual word analysis, and insufficient instructions highlight the need for further research to accurately assess articulation challenges.
A 2004 study by Ohata examined the differences between English and Japanese sound systems to identify common pronunciation challenges faced by Japanese EFL learners The research highlighted that English has more consonants than Japanese, notably the interdental fricatives /ð/ and /θ/, which are absent in Japanese Additionally, Japanese learners often do not distinguish the post-alveolar fricatives /ʃ/ and /ʒ/, leading to pronunciation errors such as confusing "ship" and "she." The absence of the /v/ sound in Japanese results in learners replacing it with /b/, affecting words like "vanilla" and "very," which may be pronounced as "banana" and "berry." Overall, the study emphasizes that phonological transfer from Japanese and fundamental language differences significantly contribute to pronunciation difficulties These insights can assist teachers in designing targeted activities to improve students' pronunciation, though the findings are based on language comparison and student observations, suggesting the need for further research.
A study conducted by Akande (2004) investigated the pronunciation problems and reasons for these difficulties of Yobura learners of English (YSE) Fifty first year undergraduate students coming from Obafemi Awolowo
Participants from Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU) in Nigeria, all of whom had been exposed to English since primary school and had attended OAU for approximately four months across various departments, took part in a study using three research instruments: story-telling, reading aloud, and questionnaires During the reading task, students read a prepared English text containing all present tense sounds, which they transcribed and recorded; they also narrated stories within a ten-minute limit to maintain formality The questionnaires aimed to identify reasons behind pronunciation difficulties, revealing that Yoruba speakers often confused /t/ and /d/ sounds with interdental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/, pronouncing "think" and "though" as /tiŋk/ and /do:/, and struggled to distinguish voiced /z/ from voiceless /s/, mispronouncing final /s/ in words like "bags." The findings indicated that Yoruba language interference, inadequate teaching resources, and lack of facilities contributed to these pronunciation errors The researcher recommended several corrective measures, noting that avoiding marking specific words during reading and involving multiple judges would enhance the reliability of pronunciation assessments.
Gonet and Pietron (2005) conducted a study on Polish learners’ pronunciation of the English interdental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ to identify effective teaching methods for these sounds The research involved 14 intermediate English students aged 17, who received four lessons per week The study analyzed 80 words and phrases containing {th} from common secondary textbooks, revealing that learners found it more difficult to produce the voiced /ð/ compared to the voiceless /θ/ Additionally, the /f/ and /t/ sounds were often substituted with /θ/, with /f/ being replaced more frequently, especially in words like faithful and throw, highlighting common pronunciation challenges among Polish EFL learners.
Participants tended to substitute incorrect sounds such as /d/ and /v/ for the voiced interdental fricative /ð/ in words like "with me," indicating that word position influences Polish speakers' pronunciation of /ð/ Specifically, students often replaced /ð/ with /d/ when it appears before vowels, as in "that," and with /v/ before consonants, as in "with me," demonstrating consistent pronunciation patterns based on sound placement Additionally, learners frequently produced /f/ or /t/ instead of /ð/, as in "bath," revealing common pronunciation challenges The study emphasizes the crucial role of teachers in identifying and correcting these sound substitutions through clear instructions on the place and manner of articulation, promoting accurate pronunciation However, the research was limited to just two sounds and primarily relied on word and phrase recordings, with potential subjectivity due to evaluation by a single researcher.
Later on, Adana launched a study on pronunciation of Turkish students in
In 2007, a study was conducted to identify teachers' and students' pronunciation errors using the Markedness Differential Hypothesis (MDH) in order to help them overcome these issues The study involved two groups, each with 26 sophomore students from the English Language Teaching Department at Cukurova University, with diverse educational backgrounds from state and private high schools, all having completed a Phonetics and Phonology course Participants took a pre-test consisting of 60 problematic English words to read aloud, recorded using a digital music pen recorder The treatment focused on raising awareness of consonant pronunciation errors, guided by MDH principles After ten weeks of targeted intervention, both groups took a post-test with the same word list to measure progress.
Moreover, the procedure of the recording had a clear instruction as in the pre-test The researcher had the subjects’ recording and American English native speakers’ recording compared
The study revealed that most Turkish EFL learners mispronounced the voiced interdental fricative /ð/ as alveolar stops /t/ and /d/, particularly in the pre-test For example, the word "bathe" was incorrectly pronounced as /beit/ and "there" as /deə/ Notably, 92.3% of controlled participants initially produced the undesired /d/ sound in the word "there." Additionally, the experimental group frequently mispronounced "father" with the /t/ sound, highlighting common substitution errors among Turkish learners of English.
The study revealed that 88.5% of the experimental group mispronounced the word "bathe," often producing a /t/ sound, compared to 73.1% in the control group Turkish EFL learners faced significant challenges with the interdental fricative /ð/, particularly in the initial, medial, and final positions, with the experimental group showing 30.8%, 42.3%, and 53.8% errors respectively, and the control group showing 11.5%, 15.4%, and 84.6% The learners struggled most with the word-final /ð/, demonstrating little improvement, which highlights the difficulty Turkish speakers have in producing this sound due to its rarity in their native language and environmental factors The study suggests that incorporating questionnaires and spontaneous speech tasks could enhance future research.
2.2.2 Studies about Vietnamese EFL learners’ pronunciation
While most existing studies on Vietnamese EFL learners' pronunciation have been conducted abroad, research within Vietnam has also significantly contributed to this field Many studies have focused on identifying pronunciation difficulties faced by Vietnamese learners and exploring their underlying causes (Santre, 1992; Nguyen Thi Phuc Hoa, 1999; Ha Cam Tam, 2005; Ha Thanh Bich Loan, 2005; Nguyen Hong Quang, 2006; Le Huu Ly, 2007; Nguyen Thi Thu Thao, 2007; Nguyen Thi Kim Ba, 2009; Nguyen Tan Loc, 2009) Additionally, Nguyen Thi Nhu Diep (2007) is notable for addressing challenges related to the teaching and learning of pronunciation in Vietnam.
Santre (1992) was the first pioneer to study South Vietnamese (SV) learners’ English pronunciation errors, focusing on consonants, tense, and lax vowels through contrastive analysis theory His research involved ten Vietnamese participants living in Australia, using instruments such as word lists, a short reading passage, and interviews The study included ten pronunciation lessons administered between the first and second tests across three contexts—word lists, interviews, and reading passages—followed by three assessment tests After six months, a third identical test was recorded without additional pronunciation training The findings revealed notable patterns in pronunciation errors among the participants, providing insights into the impact of contrastive analysis on ESL pronunciation Learning.
SV learners often face pronunciation challenges, such as replacing the voiceless interdental fricative /θ/ with alveolar stops like /t/ (e.g., "thin" pronounced as "tin") and /d/ (e.g., "myth" as "myd"), including omission at the end of words like "sixth." Additionally, the voiced interdental fricative /ð/ is frequently substituted with /t/ (e.g., "bathe" as "bate") or replaced by the palatal affricate /ʧ/ in words like "bather," highlighting persistent difficulties with these sounds among SV learners.
The S.V faced challenges with the voiceless alveolar fricative /s/, often confusing it with the voiced /z/ sound, as seen in words like "months" and tendencies to delete it at the end of words, such as "moves." Additionally, the voiced alveolar fricative /z/ posed difficulties, leading speakers to mispronounce it as the voiceless /s/ in words like "zip," "pizza," and "fizz."
Omitting /z/ medially and finally as in Mazda and moves was also common
Conceptual framework
Numerous studies have explored pronunciation errors related to fricative sounds, but they largely overlook the eight specific fricatives, especially their place of articulation and voicing features (Chan & Ly, 2000; Bada, 2001; Ohata, 2004; Ha Thanh Bich Loan, 2005; Nguyen Hong Quang, 2006; Nguyen Thi Thu Thao, 2007) Additionally, previous research has insufficiently examined the relationship between students’ actual pronunciation errors and the pronunciation difficulties they report Most studies focus on L1 influence, general pronunciation errors, or teacher-related factors, without integrating these aspects into a comprehensive framework Therefore, this study aims to develop a conceptual framework that addresses these interconnected factors influencing fricative pronunciation difficulties.
Student proficiency significantly impacts language production, with pre-intermediate learners experiencing greater difficulties than advanced students (Le Huu Ly, 2007) Gender differences also influence pronunciation, as some researchers find females more prominent than males (Ellis, 1994; Burstall, 1975; Boyle, 1987), while others argue males outperform females (Nowicki & Strickland, 1973; Lochel, 1983) Additionally, regional dialects cause variations in pronunciation, indicating that level, gender, and regional background should be carefully considered in pronunciation studies Although Le Huu Ly (2007) examined the influence of learner level and gender on Vietnamese learners' pronunciation—focusing only on the interdental fricatives /θ/ and /ð*—a broader analysis of all eight fricatives considering these factors is essential for comprehensive understanding.
L1 transfer and teachers’ instruction are two crucial factors that significantly aid learners in acquiring correct pronunciation (Akada, 2004; Gonet & Pietron, 2005; Ha Cam Tam, 2005; Nguyen Thi Nhu Diep, 2007) However, previous research has largely overlooked the comparative influence of L1 and teachers’ instruction on students' ability to articulate fricatives To address this gap, the current study explores these factors through a detailed questionnaire.
To conclude, the involved conceptual framework is paramount to the current study.
Summary
This study comprises two main parts: the theoretical background and empirical research It begins by defining consonant classification and reviews the description of fricatives, highlighting common difficulties in their pronunciation The review of relevant studies indicates that learners face challenges producing English fricatives due to factors such as L1 transfer, teaching strategies, intelligibility issues, and inadequate syllabi Additionally, a conceptual framework is presented to guide the research, establishing a solid foundation for the subsequent methodology chapter.