INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND AND THE PROBLEM
The Practical High School (PHS) - University of Pedagogy (UP) was founded in 1999 It belongs to Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) UP
There are 70 teachers at the institution, including seven English teachers aged between 25 and 43 Four of these English teachers are currently pursuing Master's degrees at HCMC University of Social Sciences and Humanities and Victoria University, while one holds a Ph.D in contrastive linguistics, and the remaining two hold Bachelor's degrees in Arts, all graduated from HCMC University of Pedagogy's English Department These teachers are highly motivated and committed to enhancing their teaching skills and gaining more experience, demonstrating adaptability to new and effective methods for teaching English They typically achieve high scores on graduation examinations, with a standard of 55 out of 60 marks, reflecting their similar educational background and proficiency in English Overall, they are active, diligent, and recognize the importance of providing quality education to support student success.
The course book used here are English 10, 11, and 12 edited by Tu and Ha
In 1995, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) approved specific English textbooks that are mandatory in Vietnam high school curricula, particularly in Ho Chi Minh City These core textbooks include "Bai tap tieng Anh 10, 11, 12" by Mai and Nguyen (2001), which are widely used for classroom instruction Additionally, teachers often supplement these with customized reading and grammar books tailored to their classes to enhance students' language proficiency.
At PHS, students in grades 10, 11, and 12 are required to spend four periods weekly studying the course book and completing exercises from supplementary books They participate in three comprehensive 45-minute tests aligned with the HCMC Education and Training Office’s format, focusing on reading and writing skills, with 80% multiple choice and 20% rewriting tasks Additionally, students undertake numerous shorter 15-minute tests and have opportunities to engage in extracurricular activities Teachers design and compile these tests to ensure a thorough assessment across all students in each grade, emphasizing the importance of reading and writing as core educational priorities Teaching reading and fostering reading skills are regarded as vital responsibilities for both teachers and students at PHS.
Grade 12 students participating in the study are highly motivated and familiar with their school regulations and teaching styles, especially as they prepare for their June graduation exam English, being a compulsory subject, is highly valued among students, with a particular focus on developing reading skills The school comprises six grade 12 classes with a total of 230 students, where only the top performers from entrance exams and previous grades are placed in class 12A1, while the remaining five classes consist of students with similar academic levels.
Despite the emphasis on developing strong reading skills in the syllabus, many students find reading classes at PHS to be discouraging and unengaging The widespread perception that these classes are boring and sometimes unproductive highlights the need for innovative teaching methods to enhance student interest and learning outcomes Improving the quality of reading instruction is essential to foster a more motivating and effective learning environment.
Many students express frustration with long, challenging texts and traditional teaching methods that rely solely on textbook exercises, which fail to engage or motivate them to read They often assume the topics are uninteresting and believe they can learn effectively from the story content, yet feel bored and uninspired during reading classes Students from different classes at PHS complain about a lack of variety and innovation in reading instruction, highlighting their concern about developing reading and writing skills in an unengaging environment Despite individual differences in reading goals, students share a common need to interpret, understand, and respond to the meanings of texts effectively.
The focus should shift from assigning blame to providing students with engaging, effective, and useful reading activities that foster curiosity and enhance their cognitive and critical thinking skills Teachers can leverage various pre-reading activities to stimulate students’ interest and motivation, helping them to explore new ideas and develop a deeper understanding of texts Implementing diverse pre-reading strategies is especially important for students in their final years of school, as it prepares them for university-level education and encourages a lifelong love for reading.
Reading is a complex activity that requires both perception and comprehension, involving two key processes: word recognition and understanding Word recognition is the ability to perceive how written symbols correspond to spoken language, forming the foundation for reading Comprehension, on the other hand, is the process of making sense of words, sentences, and connected ideas within texts Mastering both aspects is essential for effective reading comprehension and literacy development.
Readers typically make use of background knowledge, vocabulary, grammatical knowledge, experience with the text, and other strategies to help them understand written text
Research shows that activating readers’ background knowledge significantly enhances reading comprehension Educators and researchers emphasize the importance of prior knowledge, as successful interpretation depends on the alignment of schemata between readers and texts Implementing activities that stimulate students’ background knowledge has been proven to improve reading understanding effectively To foster active and effective student participation, teachers should incorporate these preparatory activities, which are key to boosting reading comprehension success.
This study examines three practical pre-reading techniques for English as a foreign language learners: pictorial context, vocabulary pre-teaching, and pre-questioning Research by Hudson (1982) demonstrates that pictorial context and vocabulary pre-teaching can enhance comprehension for native speakers in certain situations, while pre-questioning has been supported by studies involving both native and non-native speakers (Royer et al., 1984) Additionally, Taglieber et al (1988) found that these preceding activities significantly improve reading ability among Brazilian college students learning English as a foreign language, highlighting their effectiveness in boosting EFL reading comprehension.
This article explores the effectiveness of three specific techniques for EFL reading among high school students in Vietnam, particularly at PHS-HCMC UP It questions whether these methods are useful and impactful for high school learners in a non-English environment The study aims to determine if these reading strategies can enhance English language proficiency and comprehension skills among students in this setting Understanding the relevance of these techniques may provide valuable insights for improving EFL instruction in Vietnamese high schools, especially in environments where English is not the primary language of daily communication.
AIM OF THE STUDY AND OVERVIEW OF THE THESIS
This study aims to investigate the impact of preceding activities—specifically pictorial contexts, vocabulary pre-teaching, and pre-questioning—on high school students' reading comprehension skills The findings will help identify effective strategies to enhance students' understanding of texts through targeted preparatory activities Implementing these preceding activities can significantly improve students’ reading comprehension by providing relevant context, building vocabulary, and engaging students before reading The research underscores the importance of integrating visual aids, vocabulary instruction, and pre-reading questions as key tools for boosting reading proficiency in high school education.
The study is guided by the question:
What is the effect of preceding activities on high school students’ English reading at the PHS- HCMC UP?
In detail, the study will try to answer the following questions:
1 Do the students who receive the preceding activities comprehend better than those who do not receive these treatments?
2 Do students who receive a combination of three treatments comprehend better than only one type of treatment?
3 Are any of the treaments superior to the other?
4 What are students’ attitudes toward the treatments?
This study highlights the overemphasis on linguistic knowledge in teaching reading comprehension and grammar in Vietnamese high schools, particularly in grade 12 English curricula in Ho Chi Minh City It points out that teachers often neglect content schematic knowledge, guessing, and predicting skills by not utilizing pre-reading activities that prepare students for better comprehension This oversight limits students’ creativity and critical thinking The report offers valuable recommendations for incorporating diverse pre-reading activities to activate students’ background knowledge and enhance engagement Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of teachers expanding their content schematic knowledge to provide more meaningful classroom experiences Teachers and educators interested in improving reading instruction can use this study as a useful reference to adopt strategies that foster deeper understanding and active student participation.
1.2.4 Organization of the remainder of the study
Chapter II presents a review of the literature and research relevant to the study It will examine the theoretical and practical information in discussion of reading, preceding activities and the effects of preceding activities on reading comprehension It also covers rationale for choosing the four passages employed in the study
Chapter IV deals with data analysis and findings as well as implications
Chapter V presents recommendations for teaching and learning reading comprehension It also shows limitations of the study and suggestions for further research.
SUMMARY
This study examines the current English reading teaching and learning practices at PHS-HCMC UP, providing background through the high school syllabus The research specifically investigates the impact of pre-reading activities on students' reading comprehension The findings aim to offer practical benefits for both teachers and students, enhancing the effectiveness of English reading instruction.
2.1 MECHANISM OF READING 2.1.1 Reading as a process
Learning to read is an important educational goal (Bernhardt, 2000; Kamil
Reading is a crucial academic skill that serves various pedagogical purposes, highlighting its importance in education (Grabe & Stoller, 2002; Richards & Renandya, 2002) Despite numerous definitions provided by researchers, conceptualizing reading remains complex, but it is generally understood as a multifaceted process involving comprehension and interpretation of written texts (Pearson, 2000; Hulstijin, 1991) These varying perspectives underscore the significance of reading in developing literacy and academic success.
“… the ability to draw meaning from the printed page and interpret this information appropriately”
“… the process of receiving and interpreting information encoded in language form in the medium of print.”
Active and fluent reading is a dynamic process that involves both the reader and the reading materials in constructing meaning It emphasizes that meaning does not solely reside on the printed page nor is it exclusively in the reader; instead, understanding is built through the interaction between the two.
Understanding the true essence of reading remains challenging despite examining various definitions A review of the reading definitions by Anderson and Pearson (1988), along with insights from the National Reading Panel Report (2000), highlights the complexities involved in accurately defining what reading truly entails.
Comprehension, thus, entails three elements They are the reader who is doing the comprehending; the text that is to be comprehended and the activity in which comprehension is a part
Reading comprehension, as defined by Brown (1994), is a holistic process of constructing meaning from written text through the interaction of the reader's prior knowledge, including word recognition, world knowledge, and linguistic conventions; the interpretation of the writer’s language; and the reading context Understanding why reading is complex helps explain its difficulty, as it involves intricate processes, skills, and elements that vary depending on the task, purpose, and language ability Despite this complexity, certain core processes are universally activated during reading, as outlined by Grabe & Stoller (2002) Recognizing these underlying processes is essential for developing effective reading strategies and improving comprehension skills.
Lower-level process Higher-level process
Lexical access Text model of comprehension
Syntactic parsing Situation model of reader interpretation
• Working memory activation Background knowledge use and inferencing
Lower level cognitive processes in language are automatic and skill-oriented, focusing on basic linguistic tasks In contrast, higher level processes involve comprehension, requiring readers to utilize their background knowledge and inferencing skills Effective reading comprehension depends on the seamless interaction between these automatic and inferential processes.
Many attempts have been made to define or describe the nature of reading
Reading involves two key levels: a visual task and a cognitive task The visual task focuses on deciphering marks on the page, including eye movements such as left-to-right reading in English, which learners may need to master if their first language uses different scripts The cognitive task involves interpreting this visual information to understand the meaning behind the text, requiring thinking skills that allow the reader to reconstruct and grasp the author's intended message.
Salataci & Akyel (2002) highlighted that extracting meaning provides invaluable insights into readers’ cognitive processes during reading Implementing cognitive strategies enhances students’ ability to construct meaning from the text, leading to improved reading comprehension compared to traditional instruction Providing explicit cognitive strategy instruction is an effective method to set a purpose for reading, as it directs learners’ attention to specific cognitive skills essential for understanding.
2.1.1.2 Reading as a “bottom-up”, “top-down”, and interactive process
Wallace (2001) highlights the evolving role of the reader in reading models, noting that the perception shifted from viewing reading as a passive skill in the early 20th century to describing the reader as "extracting" meaning from texts during the 1980s and 1990s Recently, reading has been recognized as an interactive process rather than merely active, with Wallace distinguishing between the models by characterizing the bottom-up model as involving passive readers, the top-down model as involving active readers, and the interactive model as engaging readers who actively engage with the text.
Bottom-up processing involves recognizing and analyzing linguistic information such as words and sentences directly from incoming data, with minimal reliance on background knowledge According to Carell and Eisterhold (1983), this process is driven by data that enters the system through hierarchically organized schemata, from general to specific Nunan (1999) emphasizes that reading as a bottom-up approach entails decoding written symbols into their spoken equivalents in a linear manner, where each letter is discriminated, sounded out, and then combined to form words and derive meaning The final step in this process is understanding the meaning of the word, highlighting the systematic nature of bottom-up reading comprehension.
Top-down, or conceptually-driven, processing involves readers using their prior knowledge and experience to interpret and infer information from a text According to Grabe and Stoller (2002), this model suggests that reading is primarily guided by the reader’s goals and expectations Top-down approaches highlight the crucial role of schemata and the reader’s active contribution in understanding incoming text, as emphasized by Alderson (2000).
It owes much to the work of Goodman (1971,1996), who emphasized in their writings the importance of the contribution made by the reader to the reading process
A comprehensive understanding of reading involves both top-down and bottom-up approaches, which are often contrasted in research The bottom-up approach treats reading as a process where perception of graphemes, words, and sentences builds understanding sequentially from sensory input to comprehension, whereas the top-down approach views reading as an interpretive process driven by prior knowledge, schemas, and hypotheses about the text (Parry, 1987) Many scholars, such as Stanovich (1981), Brown (1994), and Carrell et al (2000), advocate for an interactive approach that combines both methods, emphasizing that effective reading engages simultaneous bottom-up processing of textual details and top-down integration of prior experience and purpose This integrated perspective highlights the importance of prior knowledge, writing conventions, and reading goals in facilitating comprehension, making reading a dynamic and holistic cognitive activity (Eskey & Grabe, 1988).
2.1.2 Reader’s process of comprehending a text
Carell et al (2000) describe reading as a receptive psycholinguistic process that begins with a writer encoding thoughts into language and ends with the reader constructing meaning This process involves an essential interaction between language and thought, where the writer encodes ideas as linguistic surface representations, and the reader decodes language to understand those ideas During reading, the brain actively employs five key processes: recognition-initiation, prediction, confirmation, correction, and termination, to facilitate comprehension The brain functions as the central organ of information processing, determining which tasks to handle, selecting input channels, and employing strategies to maximize information intake while minimizing effort.
In the recognition-initiation stage, the brain identifies visual stimuli as written language and begins reading, with this process typically occurring once per reading session but potentially interrupted and restarted During prediction, the brain constantly anticipates and seeks order in sensory inputs, verifying these predictions through confirmation or reprocessing when inconsistencies arise Reading terminates when the task is completed or for other reasons such as lack of meaning or disinterest, with termination being a flexible option This sequence—prediction, confirmation, correction—forms an intrinsic process, where the same information can serve multiple roles Grellet (1981) emphasizes that reading involves continuous guessing, highlighting the importance of prior knowledge in understanding unfamiliar elements Therefore, teaching students to leverage what they already know to comprehend new ideas or words through a holistic approach is essential for effective reading comprehension.
Chart 1: A global approach to the text
When studying a layout, it is important to make hypotheses about the placement of the title, length, images, typeface, and overall function of the text based on prior knowledge of similar text types Anticipating these elements helps guide the initial analysis During the second reading, further confirmation is achieved through skimming and detailed review, allowing for predictions or revisions of initial guesses about the passage’s content and structure This process enhances comprehension and ensures a coherent understanding of the text.
SCHEMA THEORY
The concept of "schema" was introduced by psychologist Bartlett in 1932 and has significantly influenced research in speech processing and language comprehension Bartlett described schemas as organized patterns of knowledge in our minds, functioning as mental scripts or scenarios based on repeated experiences Throughout our lives, we develop hundreds of these mental schemas, which enable us to understand and navigate various situations efficiently.
2.2.2 Schema theory and reading comprehension
The reader's existing knowledge significantly impacts their comprehension, memory retention, and overall understanding of the text This influence shapes how they process information, making prior knowledge a crucial factor in effective learning and engagement Understanding this relationship is essential for creating content that effectively resonates with and educates the audience.
Schema theory suggested that our knowledge and expectations about the world will strongly affect our ability to understand new information (Nunan,
Research from 1999 highlights that schema theory plays a crucial role in understanding reading comprehension for both first and second language readers It emphasizes that reading is an interactive process where the reader actively engages with the text by connecting its clues to their existing background knowledge This approach underscores the importance of background knowledge in enhancing reading understanding and highlights the relevance of schema theory in language learning and literacy development.
Research by Guyotte (1997) demonstrates that content knowledge significantly enhances students' ability to recognize logical relationships within test passages, highlighting its importance in reading comprehension Additionally, Richards (1990) conducted influential studies in second language reading classrooms, emphasizing effective instructional principles Among these, he identified key strategies that promote better understanding and learning outcomes, underscoring the critical role of targeted teaching approaches in language education.
The teacher adopts a comprehensive theory of second language (L2) reading, integrating knowledge of L2 reading strategies, schema theory, and the importance of background knowledge to inform their teaching practices Instead of relying on common sense, the teacher strategically selects learning activities that enhance students’ ability to comprehend and interpret texts in a foreign language This approach emphasizes evidence-based methods to improve L2 reading proficiency through targeted strategies and a thorough understanding of students’ prior knowledge.
Cook (1989) explains that the mind is activated by key words or phrases in the text or by context, triggering a knowledge schema This suggests that schema activation involves automatic cognitive responses to external stimuli, rather than conscious processes There are two primary ways in which schemata are activated, with the first being through new information that interacts with existing mental frameworks.
Schemata are flexible and creative cognitive structures that help individuals make sense of scattered pieces of knowledge They are flexible because they undergo a cyclic process, allowing changes to be made actively and efficiently, storing and retrieving information with minimal effort Additionally, schemata are highly creative, capable of representing all types of experiences and knowledge, making them specific to what is being perceived and understood.
Carrell and Floyd (1989) emphasized that ESL and EFL teachers must equip students with the necessary schemata they lack and teach them how to connect existing knowledge with new information for effective reading comprehension Building bridges between a student’s prior knowledge and new content is essential, and various pre-reading strategies have been developed to activate background knowledge and facilitate understanding Rumelhart and Ortony (1977) highlighted that providing learners with real or vicarious experiences can expand their culturally influenced background knowledge, enhancing their ability to comprehend and retain reading material Implementing pre-reading activities effectively activates background knowledge, fostering schemata flexibility and creativity among learners.
THE EFFECTS OF PRE-READING ACTIVITIES ON READING
Reading is a meaning-making process that involves active, constructive, and higher-thinking strategies, making it a crucial cognitive activity Schema theory emphasizes the importance of activating prior knowledge before reading to improve comprehension, highlighting the role of background knowledge support in effective reading According to Ur (1996), reading activities are divided into pre-, while-, and post-reading stages, each holding unique significance and interconnected roles In this study, special attention is given to the pre-reading stage to foster better understanding and engagement with the text.
Pre-reading activities aim to motivate students and prepare them to effectively engage with the text, shifting the focus from just the product to the reading process itself Historically, teachers have often assumed that meaning resides solely within the reading, leading to superficial pre-reading tasks like simply instructing students to read specific pages and answer questions However, this approach overlooks important assumptions, such as students already possessing the necessary vocabulary and grammar skills, which current reading experts are beginning to question Effective pre-reading strategies involve more thoughtful preparation to ensure students are genuinely ready to comprehend and engage with the material.
Saricoban (2002) emphasizes that language preparation does not require teachers to explain every word and grammatical structure in a text Instead, educators should focus on enabling learners to approach the text confidently without becoming overwhelmed by language barriers This approach promotes effective comprehension and reduces learner frustration, supporting successful language acquisition.
Pre-reading activities, as described by Kamil and Pearson (2000), are essential enabling activities that equip readers with the necessary background knowledge to effectively comprehend and engage with the material These activities help elicit prior knowledge, build relevant background, and focus students' attention, fostering a positive attitude towards the text Effective pre-reading strategies vary depending on the goal—whether to stimulate interest or establish a shared understanding of key ideas and techniques Educators should dedicate sufficient time to pre-reading tasks, such as arousing curiosity about the text's subject, characters, and messages, to enhance comprehension and motivation (Greenwood, 1989).
Lewis and Hill (1985) emphasized the importance of encouraging language learners to evaluate and engage critically with reading materials Pre-reading activities can effectively prepare students for this process by activating prior knowledge and setting learning objectives Additionally, ensuring that readers have sufficient background knowledge enhances comprehension and critical thinking skills during reading tasks Incorporating these strategies supports more meaningful reading experiences and promotes better language acquisition.
, therefore, help students’ comprehension (Carrell and Eisterhold 1983; Grabe 1991; Ur 1996)
The pre-reading stage aims to enhance students’ interest and motivation while preparing them for the reading passage by activating background knowledge and making connections between the text and students’ interests Teachers can assess students’ prior knowledge, provide necessary background information, clarify cultural context, and explain the purpose and type of the text to facilitate comprehension Incorporating activities like predicting content from titles and subtitles, examining visuals such as pictures, maps, or diagrams, and encouraging group discussions can significantly improve understanding Overall, the teacher plays a crucial role in guiding students through pre-reading activities to foster engagement and better comprehension of the material.
THE EFFECTS OF VOCABULARY PRE-TEACHING; PICTORIAL
2.4 THE EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCABULARY PRE-TEACHING; PICTORIAL CONTEXTS AND PRE-QUESTIONING ON READING COMPREHENSION
2.4.1 Students’ difficulties in reading comprehension:
Steffensen et al (1979) and Yorio (1972) identified common challenges faced by second or foreign language students in reading comprehension, including limited vocabulary knowledge, difficulty using language cues to derive meaning, and lack of conceptual understanding They emphasize that implementing pre-reading activities such as vocabulary pre-teaching, pictorial context, and pre-questioning can effectively address these core issues.
Limited vocabulary knowledge occasionally results in readers stopping to identify unfamiliar words and disrupts comprehension This is also a problem with first language readers, particularly those with decoding problems (Samuels,
Limited vocabulary knowledge can hinder effective reading comprehension, especially when understanding a sentence or paragraph depends on knowing specific words Pre-teaching vocabulary strategies can significantly improve comprehension by ensuring learners grasp essential terms before reading Implementing vocabulary pre-teaching is an effective approach to enhance reading skills and foster better understanding of texts.
EFL learners face challenges in the reading process due to interference from unfamiliar words and grammatical patterns, which hinder their ability to effectively recall syntactic cues, make associations, and predict future content—processes that native speakers perform automatically (Yorio, 1972; Goodman, 1971) To address these difficulties, pre-reading activities such as using pictures and pre-questioning encourage students to make predictions about the text, helping them better resolve meaning problems caused by syntactic interference Incorporating these strategies into reading instruction can improve comprehension for EFL learners by supporting their ability to connect ideas and anticipate upcoming information.
Lack of conceptual knowledge significantly hinders reading comprehension for both first language and EFL readers According to Anderson & Pearson (1988), comprehension can be distorted when there is a mismatch between the reader’s schemata and the text’s content, especially across different cultures This issue is exacerbated when readers do not share the writer’s cultural background, beliefs, or assumptions, leading to misunderstandings Pre-reading activities, such as analyzing pictures, can help reduce these distortions by activating relevant schemata However, understanding of culturally loaded concepts heavily depends on the reader's background knowledge; without it, especially in unfamiliar or culturally rich texts, comprehension becomes extremely difficult or impossible (Carrell & Eisterhold, 1983; Hudson, 1982; Johnson, 1982; Steffensen et al., 1979).
To enhance reading comprehension, especially when students lack prior knowledge, three key instructional strategies should be implemented First, teaching vocabulary as a pre-reading step helps students understand essential terms before reading Second, providing relevant experiences builds background knowledge, making new information more accessible Third, introducing a conceptual framework enables students to construct appropriate context and understanding Effective text preparation includes an introduction, pre-questions, and vocabulary instruction; the teacher should give a brief overview of the text to activate prior knowledge, pose 2-3 pre-questions aligned with the main ideas to focus students’ attention, and pre-teach key vocabulary to facilitate smoother comprehension These strategies collectively make reading more natural and engaging, fostering better understanding and anticipation.
2.4.2 Pre-questioning and Reading Comprehension
Over recent decades, theories and models of reading have evolved from viewing reading as a primarily receptive process from text to reader, to recognizing it as an interactive process involving dynamic interactions between the reader and the text (Adams, 1990; Eskey & Grabe, 1988; Perfetti, 1985; Samuels, 1977; Stanovich, 1981; Swaffar).
Since 1988, approaches to teaching foreign language reading have incorporated interactive exercises and tasks that emphasize the importance of questioning Asking questions before, during, and after reading enhances engagement and comprehension, encouraging critical thinking beyond simple yes or no answers Pre-reading questions help learners connect their background knowledge to the new text, set clear reading purposes, and make predictions, thereby fostering a more active and meaningful reading experience.
Grellet (1981) emphasized that readers approach a text with the expectation of finding specific information, answers to questions, and relevant ideas He noted that readers naturally begin reading prepared to identify key details and extract important content, making this an essential aspect of effective reading comprehension.
Reading inherently involves expectation, creating a dynamic interaction between the reader and the text, where predictions are continuously made and either confirmed or corrected This process highlights the artificial nature of classroom reading experiences, where students often face unfamiliar passages they cannot easily contextualize Pre-questioning, as described by Dolan (1982), is an effective active reading strategy for children; it involves the instructor asking questions about the passage and encouraging students to generate their own questions This method helps students set purposeful reading goals and promotes comprehension by prompting questions that require understanding the text Supported by research in both first language (L1) reading (Singer & Donlan, 1982) and foreign language reading (Royer et al., 1984), pre-questioning enhances engagement and comprehension skills in diverse learning contexts.
Sequero (1998) proposed a ready-made reading class model, emphasizing the effectiveness of Warming-up For Reading (WFR) activities that can be applied across various texts, audiences, and proficiency levels In WFR worksheets, students are encouraged to write questions in English they expect to find answers to in the reading, based on the given title, promoting active participation and prediction This student-centered activity fosters students’ ownership of their learning process, aligning with Carrell and Eisterhold’s (1983) view that "the most valuable information is in our students’ perceptions." Saricoban (2002) supported the use of critical pre-reading activities, where generating questions before reading enhances engagement and comprehension Although research findings are not conclusive, engaging students in question-generation about texts generally yields positive and encouraging results.
Chia (2001) emphasizes that questioning is a vital form of top-down processing in learning, encouraging both teachers and students to generate questions before reading Pre-reading questions help students activate and organize their prior knowledge, which can then be confirmed or challenged during reading Additionally, students can express their own opinions through pre-reading "agree/disagree" tasks, fostering critical thinking and active engagement with the text.
2.4.3 Vocabulary Pre-teaching and Reading Comprehension
Recent research highlights a strong positive relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension, as knowing a word involves phonological, morphological, syntactical, semantic, and collocational understanding (Alderson, 2000) However, this relationship may plateau or weaken at higher levels of vocabulary proficiency Studies by Gravers et al (1998) and Hulstijn and Bossers (1992) indicate that L2 vocabulary knowledge can predict between 28% and 58% of reading comprehension performance Laufer (1992) found that participants knowing 3,000 word families achieved approximately 56% in reading comprehension, with an additional 7% increase for every extra 1,000 word families, emphasizing the crucial role of vocabulary size in reading success.
Research by 1989 demonstrated that when an EFL reader's vocabulary size exceeds 95% coverage of the lexicons in a reading text, their reliance on guessing unfamiliar words decreases, leading to improved comprehension Building on Laufer’s findings, Chen and Graves (1995) further confirmed that a strong vocabulary foundation enhances reading understanding and reduces cognitive load during language processing.
ESL readers require a massive receptive vocabulary that can be accessed rapidly, accurately, and automatically to enhance reading comprehension (Grabe, 1991) A "parallel" approach is recommended, involving the simultaneous development of vocabulary and background knowledge through pre-teaching for sets of passages to be read later (Carrell, 1988b) Additionally, there are reciprocal links between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension, emphasizing the importance of building a strong vocabulary base for effective understanding (Stanovich, 1981).
….vocabulary is the glue that holds stories, ideas, and content together…making comprehension accessible for students.
Foreign language vocabulary is crucial for developing high-level reading skills and improving comprehension (Nikolova, 2004; Anderson & Freebody, 1981; Ruddell, 1997) Teachers can promote vocabulary acquisition by implementing pre-reading activities that emphasize key words in the text, such as previewing strategies, which enhance the visibility of target vocabulary These activities increase the chances of repeated exposure, facilitating both input and output, and enable learners to encounter vocabulary in varied contexts—partially decontextualized and fully contextualized—which has been shown to support effective vocabulary learning (Zimmerman).
SUMMARY
This article reviews current issues in reading mechanisms, highlighting the effects of pre-reading activities—such as vocabulary pre-teaching, pictorial context, and pre-questioning—on reading comprehension, supported by various studies While these practices have shown promise elsewhere, their impact within the Vietnamese English learning context requires further investigation through comprehensive research methods The present study aligns with this gap, focusing on examining the effects of pre-reading activities on reading comprehension specifically in Vietnam Additionally, the rationale for selecting four carefully analyzed passages as study materials is discussed, ensuring their suitability for data collection in this research.
This chapter outlines the research methodology, starting with a detailed description of the research design to provide a clear framework for the study It then covers the main aspects of the research, including the characteristics of the subjects involved, the instruments used for data collection, and the procedures followed to gather reliable and valid data.
This study aimed to assess whether EFL students' reading comprehension improves through various pre-reading activities, including pictorial contexts, pre-questioning, and vocabulary pre-teaching According to Creswell (1994), the experimental method involves specific components that guide the research process, ensuring systematic investigation Implementing different pre-reading strategies can significantly enhance students' understanding and engagement with texts, contributing to more effective English language learning.
An experimental design was employed to gather data and answer the research questions outlined in Chapter 1 A survey questionnaire was distributed prior to the experiment to collect participants’ background information and attitudes towards reading comprehension, providing valuable insights for data analysis The study utilized a within-subjects (repeated measures) design, where the same participants experienced different treatments, enabling comparison of their responses across conditions Any occasional missing data on specific items were addressed using a pairwise deletion procedure to ensure data integrity and accurate results.
The study involved 91 out of 230 grade 12 students at PHS-HCMC UP, specifically from classes 12A2 and 12A3 Participants were divided into two groups, with 47 students in Group 1 (G1) and 44 students in Group 2 (G2) This sample size provided valuable insights into the academic research conducted at the school.
Group 2 (G2) consisted of 44 students from classes 12A2 and 12A3, which were selected for the experiment due to their convenience and similar class sizes These classes were chosen because the researcher was teaching there, ensuring ease of data collection Additionally, both classes had comparable English subject scores in grade 11 and on the first test of the first semester of the 2005-2006 school year, as recorded by teachers at PHS-HCMC UP (see Tables 3.1).
The test assessed students' vocabulary, grammar, and reading comprehension skills, with their scores indicating an average level of ability To ensure unbiased results, students were randomly assigned to two groups, with Group 1 serving as the experimental group This random assignment eliminated the risk of systematic differences among subjects or environmental factors influencing the outcomes, thereby enhancing the validity of the experiment.
Table 3.1: The results of English in grade 11
Table 3.2: The English test result in the first semester of grade
A pilot study was conducted prior to the main research to assess the project's feasibility The initial design focused on traditional data sources, including test content, test performance, and participants' personal attributes Additionally, the study gathered insights into attitudes towards reading comprehension and pre-reading activities through questionnaires.
10 students in 4 classes in grade 12 at Nguyen Hien high school and also 40 English non-majored freshmen at the HCMC UP
In the study, students completed tests consisting of eight multiple-choice questions and six Wh-questions for each passage, with a time limit of 15 minutes for short stories, articles, and fables, and 20 minutes for legends After completing the tests, students participated in interviews to provide feedback on the test content and instructions Teachers also distributed questionnaires and participated in interviews to assess the clarity and effectiveness of the test questions Based on the pilot study, the test directions and questions were reviewed and revised to address identified issues The feedback from students revealed specific problems that needed adjustments to improve the overall assessment process.
The initial test was too challenging and time-constrained, with only 20 minutes for the legend and 15 minutes for the remaining sections, making Wh- questions especially time-consuming and causing student boredom and reluctance While subjects found the test content appropriate, their feedback indicated that the test should be shortened, maintaining the same overall timing for each section Replacing Wh- questions with alternative reading comprehension exercises, such as true-false or cloze tests, would facilitate easier grading and improve student comfort A more manageable and less intimidating test format would encourage students to complete the exam more genuinely, leading to more accurate assessments of their comprehension Consequently, the test was redesigned to include six multiple-choice questions and four true-false items, creating a more suitable format for students.
Students benefit from brief introductions to passages before reading to understand the topics they will encounter; some topics are familiar, while others require teacher-led explanations Teachers should provide contextual background to enhance comprehension, but must carefully select the number of new vocabulary words introduced beforehand Overloading students with extensive lists of new words can be overwhelming; at Nguyen Hien High School, students expressed frustration, feeling they were in a vocabulary class rather than a reading session, especially when dedicating 45 minutes solely to new words, which discouraged them from continuing with the reading.
To prevent cheating during exams, each test should be labeled as "Test A" and "Test B," even though the content of both tests is identical This strategy helps minimize cheating among students sitting close to each other in the classroom, ensuring a fair assessment environment.
An investigation into the test-taking process was essential to better understand participant behavior, leading to a revised test format for the main study This careful revision aimed to enhance the validity and reliability of the assessment, ensuring more accurate results Incorporating these insights underscores the importance of analyzing testing procedures to improve research outcomes and data quality.
Effective reading comprehension tests should incorporate texts related to topics previously covered in class to tap into students' content schemata They should include both passage-dependent and passage-independent questions to assess understanding comprehensively Well-organized, semantically complete, and authentic texts are essential to enable students to recognize structural patterns through their formal schemata Additionally, tests should not focus solely on inference; they must also evaluate lower-level decoding skills, combining both bottom-up and top-down reading processes to ensure a balanced assessment of student abilities.
The study utilized four authentic reading tests focused on the well-known figure Robin Hood, a familiar topic for grade 12 high school students These passages were complete and genuine texts designed to assess both bottom-up and top-down reading skills, spanning from basic decoding to advanced comprehension Students were encouraged to apply their language knowledge and contextual understanding to interpret the texts effectively Importantly, the test questions extended beyond simple inference, requiring a comprehensive application of reading strategies (see Appendix 1).