Background of the Study
This thesis addresses the growing societal demand for English writing skills, as evidenced by the proliferation of academic writing training programs in English centers Vietnamese learners now prioritize improving their writing abilities alongside listening and speaking, driven by goals such as studying abroad and effective business communication Despite the traditional view that Vietnamese students excel in reading and writing compared to speaking and listening, pretests conducted by the author reveal their academic writing skills are significantly below expectations Many students remain unaware of their shortcomings until these issues are highlighted, highlighting the need to identify the obstacles hindering their progress Understanding these challenges serves as the core motivation for this research, aiming to enhance English writing proficiency among learners.
The proliferation of TOEFL iBT and IELTS training courses in Vietnam has increased opportunities for learners to practice academic writing and meet exam requirements These courses also enable teachers to deepen their understanding of academic writing skills alongside linguistic knowledge, enhancing their ability to support student success This research aims to identify effective methods to help students master the writing skills necessary for success in TOEFL iBT exams Focusing on both teachers and students with experience in TOEFL iBT preparation ensures the study's practical relevance and applicability.
The TOEFL iBT program has seen widespread development, with over 7,500 institutions across more than 130 countries accepting its scores, catering to test-takers in 165 countries through 4,500 testing centers, including Vietnam Its online format offers convenient access for candidates worldwide Due to its global popularity, the TOEFL iBT is a preferred choice for learners aiming to study at higher education institutions, gain English language program admissions, secure scholarships, achieve certification, monitor language progress, and apply for visas Beyond speaking, listening, and reading, academic writing is a crucial component of the test, with the writing section requiring candidates to complete two tasks related to academic contexts.
According to Educational Testing Service (ETS, 2010), English academic writing skills are increasingly in demand among Vietnamese learners of English The writing assessment consists of two tasks: a 200-word integrated essay completed in 20 minutes, which requires combining information from a related text and lecture to demonstrate research report writing skills, and a 300-word independent essay completed in 30 minutes, where test-takers must argue a viewpoint on a real-life topic Mastery of these tasks is essential for demonstrating proficiency in academic English writing.
Vietnamese students often initially perceive English writing as manageable, but they soon realize they struggle with common errors like comma splices and run-on sentences, which are difficult to correct over time As their English proficiency develops, learners recognize the importance of understanding cultural and rhetorical differences that influence writing styles These differences stem from variations in personal and social conventions between English-speaking countries and Vietnam The concept of “contrastive rhetoric” is fundamental to understanding these disparities and will be explored further in this thesis.
This thesis explores the practical application of contrastive rhetoric in the Vietnamese educational context, emphasizing the importance of empirical data collected throughout the study The researcher aims to develop effective suggestions for improving Vietnamese students' English writing skills based on real-world observations Drawing from surveys and classroom practices, the study addresses chronic challenges faced by Vietnamese students in mastering English writing Ultimately, the research seeks to create a formula to overcome these obstacles, contributing valuable insights for future pedagogical strategies in Vietnamese language education.
Aims and Objectives
This research aims to identify effective strategies to enhance Vietnamese students' proficiency in English academic writing By reviewing existing studies, the researcher has found that contrastive rhetoric offers promising solutions for improving English writing skills among Vietnamese learners This approach has been identified as a potentially valuable method to address the challenges Vietnamese students face in mastering academic English writing.
Thus, based on the concept of contrastive rhetoric, the study has clear objectives as follows:
1 The concept of contrastive rhetoric has been researched and applied in some countries, especially the Asian countries such as China, Korea, Japan and has gathered some positive results (Conner, 1981) Therefore, the first objective of this study is to conduct a research of contrastive rhetoric in the Vietnamese setting
2 To prove that the concept of contrastive rhetoric is useful in teaching English writing in Vietnam, the results in students’ work after applying this concept in class must be examined This is the second objective
3 The third objective is to make an investigation into the teachers’ attitudes and the approaches they often conduct in class to offer suggestions for preparing lesson plans used in academic writing classes.
Research Questions and Hypothesis
In order to achieve those objectives, the following research questions must be addressed:
1 To find out whether the concept of contrastive rhetoric may be applied in the Vietnamese setting
2 To determine whether there would be better results in students’ work after applying the new way of teaching writing
3 To suggest a way to prepare lesson plans for TOEFL iBT writing classes if the contrastive rhetorical approach is applicable
Contrastive rhetoric, or intercultural rhetoric, research emphasizes developing strong writing skills for ESL and EFL students, particularly in the context of TOEFL iBT exams This study aims to explore how incorporating recent trends in contrastive rhetoric can enhance teaching and learning strategies for Vietnamese students, focusing on the specific writing criteria of the TOEFL iBT It investigates whether contrastive rhetoric offers advantages for Vietnamese learners aiming to improve their academic English, especially for university admissions in North America and Canada The research assumes that applying contrastive rhetoric theory in Vietnamese academic writing classes can significantly boost students’ overall writing ability Ultimately, this study suggests that thorough understanding and application of contrastive rhetoric principles can improve English writing instruction and student performance in Vietnamese educational settings.
This thesis investigates whether contrastive rhetoric theory can enhance Vietnamese students’ writing skills The main research question examines if students demonstrate improvement in their writing abilities after completing TOEFL iBT writing courses that incorporate contrastive rhetoric principles By addressing this question, the study aims to determine the effectiveness of contrastive rhetoric in developing writing proficiency among Vietnamese learners, guiding the overall structure and focus of the research.
The professional significance of the study
Many Vietnamese students, including post-graduates with extensive writing practice, tend to overlook fundamental writing principles, often due to a lack of grammatical knowledge and spelling skills Consequently, teachers increase grammar and spelling drills to help students correct these errors, resulting in a focus on grammatical perfection in their essays However, mastering vocabulary and grammar alone does not ensure well-written texts; effective discourse organization and lexico-grammatical competence are essential components, as highlighted by Marianne Celce-Murcia and Elite Olshtain (2000) Importantly, satisfying lexico-grammatical criteria does not guarantee that Vietnamese students will master the art of writing in English, as a well-written text involves more than correct sentence structures and sophisticated vocabulary.
This study explores whether understanding contrastive rhetoric can help Vietnamese students enhance their English writing skills after achieving a certain level of lexico-grammatical knowledge As the demand for well-written English texts increases across various disciplines beyond standardized tests like TOEFL, students must develop a strong and effective writing style for future academic and professional success In addition to practical benefits for students, the research aims to validate the theoretical significance of contrastive rhetoric in real-world application Ultimately, the study may inform pedagogical strategies to improve students’ overall writing competence in English.
An Overview of the Methodology
This thesis adopts a primarily quantitative research approach, analyzing experimental data such as students’ essays from progress and achievement tests to derive objective insights Surveys and coding of teachers’ and students’ opinions, attitudes, and cognitive responses provide statistically justifiable evidence to answer research questions The study compares the final written test corpora from control and experimental groups, assessing student performance both quantitatively and qualitatively based on TOEFL iBT writing criteria Additionally, a qualitative analysis of teachers’ interview responses offers further understanding of instructional perspectives.
This study aims to measure students' progress in rhetoric training through empirical analysis of their writing development Data was collected from experimental writing classes at a language center, focusing on students’ essays before and after the courses to assess their achievements Quantitative analysis of essays highlights improvements and underscores key variables in student writing Additionally, teachers’ and students’ attitudes towards academic writing were encoded as digital data to explore perspectives on contrastive rhetoric The research utilizes multiple data collection methods, including gathering students’ written tasks across various courses to build comprehensive corpora Empirical analysis of these corpora provides a solid foundation for understanding language use and the principles of contrastive rhetoric, enhancing the overall insights into effective writing instruction.
The primary tool for data processing is the computer, which converts various data forms like documents and sound recordings into digital formats Essential procedures such as data entry, cleaning, coding, transformation, translation, summarization, aggregation, validation, tabulation, statistical analysis, and computer graphics are applied to extract useful information Once digitized, analytical tools like Microsoft Excel and Word are used to analyze the data, inspect it, and develop models to derive meaningful insights aligned with the research objectives Additionally, the analysis results are compared with TOEFL iBT experts’ data, particularly regarding test validity and Vietnamese students’ reactions relative to their Chinese, Korean, and Taiwanese counterparts, ensuring comprehensive and contextualized findings.
The Delimitations and Limitations of the Study
Despite a carefully designed study leveraging multiple data sources and a large number of participants, certain limitations still exist that may impact the findings.
Assessing students’ writing progress often involves subjective judgments, leading to low reliability due to rater inconsistency and sampling limitations While TOEFL iBT provides useful scoring rubrics, human raters may vary in their evaluations, both between different raters and even from one assessment to another by the same rater Additionally, a reliable assessment requires multiple independent writing samples; however, limited sampling data can affect accuracy To mitigate these issues, our study collected several writing samples from each student and involved trained TOEFL iBT instructors, ensuring more consistent and reliable evaluation outcomes.
This thesis focuses exclusively on the TOEFL iBT writing section, specifically examining argumentative and summative writing skills as defined by ETS standards It evaluates students' writing competence based on their ability to use language effectively in academic contexts, rather than across various writing genres The study emphasizes the importance of assessing academic writing skills to provide targeted insights into students’ national and international language proficiency.
This thesis focuses on how cultural differences influence English writing, emphasizing disparities in expressions between English and Vietnamese It does not address fundamental grammar or spelling issues, but instead explores the challenges arising from cultural variations in language use.
This master's thesis focuses on a specific area within applied linguistics, addressing the challenges Vietnamese students face in learning English writing The study aims to provide solutions to improve English writing skills, particularly for students preparing for academic assessments like TOEFL iBT and IELTS The findings are valuable for educators involved in teaching English writing and designing training courses to enhance student performance in these examinations.
Definitions of Key Terms
CONTRASTIVE RHETORIC: The central term in this thesis is Contrastive
Rhetoric plays a crucial role in understanding how different cultures organize their paragraphs, as each language has its unique stylistic conventions (Kaplan, 1966) Mastering a language involves learning its cultural-specific logical system, which influences coherence and organization in writing Cultural background differences significantly impact writing coherence, making it essential to address these variations systematically This focus is explored within the subfield of written discourse known as Contrastive Rhetoric, as highlighted by Marianne Celce-Murcia and Elite Olshtain.
Contrastive rhetoric, as used in this study, refers to the language flow of a text that is acceptable to a native speaker of that language, based on the original definitions by Kaplan and later by Celce-Murcia et al It does not pertain to the performance of a talented writer, but rather to the characteristic patterns of language use and coherence within different rhetorical traditions.
The TOEFL iBT™ (Test of English as a Foreign Language Internet-based Test) is a widely recognized English proficiency exam, developed by Educational Testing Service (ETS), a private nonprofit organization based in Princeton, New Jersey ETS specializes in educational measurement and research, creating and administering millions of achievement tests annually across the United States and in over 180 countries worldwide.
This study aims to significantly improve Vietnamese students' writing skills in TOEFL iBT courses through the application of contrastive-rhetoric theory The literature review in the next chapter provides background from prior and current research to establish context Chapter 3 discusses key research concepts, including perspective, type, and methods, along with details on the study's location, participants, data collection instruments, procedures, and analysis techniques Chapter 4 presents the study's findings with statistical data displayed in tables and figures, followed by an interpretation of the results The final chapter offers conclusions and recommendations, summarizing the research process, relating findings to existing studies, and proposing directions for educators and future research.
Contrastive rhetoric theory
The term “rhetoric” has had different meanings throughout its long history, as Conner (1969) discussed these changes in her book Cross-Cultural Aspects of
Second-Language Writing First of all, the root of the word “rhetoric” comes from
The word “rhetor” in Greek means “orator,” and in Aristotle’s era, rhetoric was primarily concerned with the art of persuasion in speech Although rhetoric was once viewed negatively as similar to sophism, recent research highlights its value as a form of persuasive discourse free from negative connotations Conner notes that with the expanded understanding of rhetoric in writing studies, it increasingly plays a vital role in contrastive writing research The term “contrastive” originates from the contrastive analysis hypothesis of the 1950s, which examined how the native language negatively influences second language acquisition Developed by Fries and expanded by Lado, contrastive analysis focused on identifying errors caused by language transfer but later evolved into the study of “interlanguage,” a system distinct from both native and target languages While contrastive analysis primarily concentrates on sentence structures within linguistics, contrastive rhetoric explores discourse structures across cultures and genres, such as the organization of research papers and dissertations by non-native English speakers Different cultures often have unique ways of presenting main ideas, like thesis statements, highlighting the importance of cross-cultural variation in discourse organization.
The concept of contrastive rhetoric originates from the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which posits that language influences perception and thought differently across cultures This theory suggests that learners face challenges when acquiring a new language due to their native linguistic influences Although initially criticized by linguists and psychologists, support for aspects of the hypothesis emerged in the 1990s In 1966, Kaplan supported the Whorfian view, asserting that both spoken language and written texts reflect culturally specific logic and rhetoric Kaplan's perspective marked the first effort in the field of ESL to examine how cultural differences shape writing styles, serving as a foundation for further research in contrastive rhetoric.
Before 1966, when Kaplan introduced contrastive rhetoric, ESL composition instruction primarily emphasized structural linguistics The dominance of structural linguistics and behavioral psychology during that period led to teaching methods centered on pattern drills Conner highlights that pedagogical approaches of the time were heavily influenced by these frameworks, with scholars like Brooks (1960) and Fries shaping the focus on structural patterns in language education.
In 1945, Lado (1964) emphasized that students were primarily trained to master English sentence structure and sound system, with writing not being the main focus Consequently, most writing exercisesCentered on manipulating sentence elements to ensure correct patterns rather than fostering coherent and organized texts A lack of coherence or organization in ESL students’ writing was often attributed to insufficient practice and was considered a sign of poor thinking, as noted by Conner.
English writing exercises in Vietnamese high schools and higher-education institutions predominantly still follow the traditional structural linguistics approach, with a preference for translating Vietnamese texts into English rather than writing directly in English This pedagogy has been criticized for its limited effectiveness, as noted by Tran Thai (2007) and supported by researchers like Brooks, Fries, Conner, and Lado, who highlight the need for pedagogical transformation Efforts to improve Vietnamese students’ English writing skills have included promoting journal writing to enhance motivation and competence, as suggested by Luu T T (2010), and adopting diverse methods such as psycholinguistics, syntax, sociolinguistics, and pragmatics, per Nguyen H H T (2008) However, these approaches often overlook the crucial role of text organization, which is influenced by cultural differences and essential for developing effective English writing skills.
This thesis emphasizes Kaplan’s theory, particularly the issue of organization in ESL writing, highlighting the importance of examining his work closely Kaplan argued that disorganized texts by ESL students are not due to laziness but stem from their cultural backgrounds, which influence how they structure their writing based on their linguistic norms This insight offers a new perspective on teaching composition in ESL classrooms, though it remains relatively unfamiliar within parts of the Vietnamese English teaching community While many teachers believe students recognize the basic essay structure of introduction, body, and conclusion, students often struggle to correctly develop content within each part, leading to errors in organization Therefore, Kaplan’s concept of contrastive rhetoric, which attributes organizational mistakes to cultural differences, should be carefully considered in ESL teaching practices.
Robert Kaplan’s model of contrastive rhetoric and his theoretical premises
In Robert B Kaplan’s 1966 article “Cultural Thought Patterns in Inter-Cultural Education,” he introduced the first discussion of how cultural differences influence approaches to teaching composition, framing these variations as aspects of rhetoric Kaplan explained that rhetoric is a mode of thinking that shapes analysis, data collection, interpretation, and synthesis within the writer’s mind, influenced by cultural perceptual frames He founded the discipline of contrastive rhetoric, emphasizing that linguistic analysis alone is insufficient for understanding texts, as languages from different cultures produce divergent realities despite lexical similarities Kaplan argued that rhetorical conventions are deeply rooted in native languages and cultures, asserting a reciprocal relationship where language shapes culture and vice versa; this means rhetoric varies across cultures and evolves over time Using examples like the differences between Indo-European and Inuit perceptions, he demonstrated that language and thought patterns are culturally embedded, making cross-cultural rhetorical transfer problematic Kaplan also pointed out a common misconception in American education—that mastery of native language writing skills automatically ensures proficient ESL writing—highlighting that even students with strong syntactic knowledge often struggle with producing cohesive, focused texts in English due to cultural and rhetorical differences.
Kaplan argues that foreign-student papers often lack organization and cohesion because writers from different cultures utilize rhetorical structures that may not align with English-speaking readers' expectations He emphasizes that a person's writing style is shaped by their cultural system of ideas, which influences composition methods For example, English essays typically follow a linear structure, starting with a clear topic sentence supported by relevant examples, whereas other languages may have different paragraph organization models This concept is supported by the author's own research, where most students, even in Vietnamese, are unfamiliar with the term "topic sentence," highlighting cultural differences in writing conventions Incorporating this understanding can improve the clarity and coherence of cross-cultural student writing.
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The article discusses the importance of cohesive and coherent writing, highlighting how logical structures and clear patterns enhance communication It emphasizes the use of parallelism and rhetorical devices, such as allegory and indirect references, to create impactful sentences The piece also references linguistic concepts across different cultures, including Semitic and Japanese, illustrating how various traditions utilize abstract and intricate patterns to convey ideas effectively Additionally, it points out that native speakers often favor straightforward yet meaningful patterns, enabling writers to produce clear and engaging texts that resonate with readers.
Romance, as depicted in the 1966 work, explores the complex interplay of thoughts and their parallelisms, highlighting the nonlinear aspects of narrative structure The central theme focuses on the portrayal of relationships and emotional depth, emphasizing the importance of understanding characters' inner worlds This study, conducted near the university, examines how organization and thematic development contribute to the overall impact of the story, offering valuable insights into the intricacies of romantic storytelling and literary analysis.
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Different show patterns reflect diverse linguistic influences, highlighting that English language learners often prefer certain structures based on their native language habits Korean and Japanese speakers tend to organize their thoughts in ways that mirror their cultural language patterns, which can affect their English sentence construction The influence of native language structures is evident in how students arrange English sentences, emphasizing the importance of understanding these patterns for effective language learning Models of language acquisition suggest that learners tend to transfer familiar sentence structures, leading to certain recurring patterns in their speech Recognizing these patterns allows educators to better support students in overcoming language transfer issues and achieving more natural English fluency.
French-speaking students often write digressive paragraphs that lack syntactic significance to the main idea, despite being interesting tangents In contrast, Chinese texts tend to favor indirect expression, influenced by traditional literary styles Kaplan explained that the indirectness in Chinese writing is rooted in the influence of classical Chinese literature and cultural communication norms.
The "eight-legged essay" underscores a writing style rooted in an Oriental orientation that emphasizes indirect expression and the avoidance of personal views and feelings Although the researcher did not explicitly mention Vietnamese language or culture, their analysis suggests that Vietnamese writing may share these traditional traits Further exploration of cultural influences in writing will be addressed by considering insights from other researchers and native speakers of specific languages.
Kaplan’s analysis introduces a new perspective for thousands of ESL teachers, emphasizing that the English thought pattern is simply different, not better or worse than others He clarifies that his discussion aims to demonstrate the existence of diverse paragraph development styles without criticizing existing English methods While acknowledging that rhetorical differences do not necessarily reflect distinct thought patterns, Kaplan highlights the importance for teachers to recognize cultural differences in teaching paragraph structure and to make contrastive rhetoric clear to students This approach helps ESL students perform appropriately in both writing and reading tasks The core idea of Kaplan’s findings guides this thesis, which explores the application of contrastive rhetoric in teaching writing in Vietnam.
Some typical issues of Vietnamese learners of English writing
Le, Dung H (2004) found that nearly 100% of students and teachers believe a well-written assignment must have clear, logical organization of ideas, emphasizing coherence within the text However, Vietnamese learners face challenges such as limited vocabulary, uncertain structure, difficulty using appropriate grammar, lack of fluency and naturalness, and trouble starting writing; among these, only logical organization relates directly to content coherence, while others are categorized under lexical and grammatical accuracy per TOEFL iBT criteria The proper use of grammar and vocabulary reflects basic language knowledge rather than cultural influence, which is the main focus of this thesis Based on Le's findings that Vietnamese students and teachers prioritize logical organization for quality writing, Kaplan’s theories on cultural impact on text organization suggest that cultural factors significantly influence how English texts are structured.
According to Tran (2007), Vietnamese writers of English face challenges due to a lack of awareness of a critical audience He recommends introducing the concepts of rhetorical text construction in college curricula to help students enhance their writing skills during their first year Incorporating these principles can significantly improve students' ability to produce coherent and audience-focused English texts.
Vietnamese students face two main challenges in English writing: sentence skills and text organization While both are equally important, emphasis has predominantly been placed on developing sentence skills in current teaching practices Despite recognition of the importance of text organization in language learning, little research has been conducted on how cultural backgrounds influence organization styles To effectively improve English writing among Vietnamese students, it is essential to consider not only grammar and vocabulary issues but also to follow Kaplan’s recommendations by examining the specific cultural and stylistic factors affecting organization in Vietnamese learners.
TOEFL iBT writing criteria
The TOEFL® Internet-based test (TOEFL iBT) features an innovative writing section with two tasks, combining both independent and integrated formats The independent tasks, approximately 330 words each, require test takers to express their personal opinions or experiences, often addressing whether they agree or disagree with a statement The integrated tasks, around 250 words each, necessitate the use of listening, reading, and writing skills; for example, test takers must read a short passage, listen to a related lecture, and then write an explanation of how the information from both sources is connected This new writing format enhances the assessment of a candidate’s comprehensive language abilities.
To improve Vietnamese learners' TOEFL iBT essay writing, it is essential to understand the official scoring criteria outlined in the TOEFL iBT official guide The writing section consists of two tasks: an integrated writing task and an independent writing task, each with distinct characteristics but similar writing styles overall The integrated task combines listening and reading skills, while the independent task challenges examinees with a prompt to assess their writing ability Both tasks are scored collectively with a total of 30 points, which accounts for one-fourth of the total TOEFL score, encompassing reading, speaking, listening, and writing skills Analyzing these criteria from a contrastive rhetorical perspective helps identify differences between Vietnamese and Western writing styles, providing insights for learners to enhance their essay performance.
• For the Integrated writing essay:
Effective writing requires carefully selecting relevant information from both the lecture and reading sources, ensuring that the key facts are clearly highlighted The organization of this information into coherent paragraphs is essential for clarity and coherence Additionally, using precise grammar and vocabulary enhances the overall quality of the writing Raters evaluate not only the accuracy and relevance of the selected facts but also how well the information is structured and communicated through proper language use.
• For the Independent writing essay:
In this type of writing, the test-taker responds to a common question about an issue from daily life, with the overall quality of the essay being scored based on specific criteria Key factors include the organization of the essay, precise use of grammar and vocabulary, and the ability to demonstrate unity, progression, and coherence throughout the writing To achieve coherence, writers should use cohesive devices to connect ideas, employ pronouns to maintain the flow of concepts, and ensure a consistent structure that effectively addresses the topic and task.
Trained TOEFL iBT raters recognize that test-takers' responses are first drafts written under strict time constraints, meaning essays are not expected to be thoroughly researched or fully comprehensive While language errors such as grammar and vocabulary issues may occur, organization plays a more crucial role in determining the overall score The essay's structure is influenced by specific cultural expectations, which this research project aims to examine and understand.
In Western culture, essay composition involves understanding key elements such as thesis statements, topic sentences, and concluding sentences, as outlined in many textbooks.Students are also encouraged to incorporate exemplifications that align with Western thinking patterns, making their writing more effective and coherent Mastery of these criteria is essential for producing acceptable and well-structured academic writing in Western educational contexts.
Not all Western writing styles align with the TOEFL iBT approach, which originates from the United States, highlighting differences in educational design Vietnamese learners trained in IELTS often struggle when switching to TOEFL iBT classes due to differing examiner expectations While the TOEFL iBT emphasizes directness and individual expression, British and Australian IELTS styles favor impersonality and indirectness, often delaying personal opinions until the conclusion IELTS writers tend to conceal their views or adopt eclectic approaches on controversial topics, reflecting Asian writing traditions Consequently, it is challenging to draw a clear line distinguishing Western and Eastern thought in writing styles.
The textbook "College Writing Skills" by John Langan (McGraw-Hill, 2008) is a comprehensive resource that aligns with the TOEFL writing criteria, making it valuable for evaluating student essays Langan emphasizes that argumentative essays in American academic writing require a clear statement of opinion in the introduction, contrasting with approaches from other instructional sources He also advises that the essay’s overall plan should be explicitly presented in the introductory paragraph to enhance clarity Additionally, Langan discusses common writing issues such as clichés and pretentious language, recommending students avoid phrases like "Last but not least," which are frequently used by Vietnamese students in their essays These guidelines are essential for understanding the American style of organizing ideas in academic essays.
Special studies of written texts by TOEFL iBT researchers
Researchers from Princeton University investigated the relationship between discourse characteristics, test-taker ability levels, and task types for the evolving TOEFL iBT writing tasks Their 2005 journal highlights that, while not all studies directly address contrastive rhetoric, many reveal that cultural differences—such as variations in directness, expressiveness, and academic stance—pose challenges for test-takers in producing effective written responses.
Research by Cumming, Eouanzoui, Kantor, Baba, Erdosy, and James (2005) highlights significant differences in written discourse based on language proficiency and task types Higher writing proficiency is characterized by increased lexical sophistication, greater syntactic complexity, longer texts, and improved grammatical accuracy Their studies also reveal that responses to independent tasks tend to be longer, with more fully developed argument structures, and are influenced by the writer's individual knowledge These findings underscore the importance of task type and proficiency level in shaping writing quality.
Research by Sue O’Connell (2006) highlights that independent writing tasks often rely on personal opinions and factual statements, emphasizing the use of experience as a source of evidence In contrast, integrated tasks demand greater lexical complexity, syntactic sophistication, and depend heavily on source reading and listening passages, utilizing paraphrasing and summarization techniques Additionally, studies by Alister Cumming, Robert Kantor, Kyoko Baba, Keanre Eouanzoui, Usman Erdosy, and Mark James analyzed 216 essays across different TOEFL score levels, revealing significant differences in lexical, syntactic, rhetorical, and pragmatic features between integrated and independent writing tasks These findings underline that discourse produced for integrated writing tasks markedly differs from that of independent essays, reflecting the varying demands of each task type.
Research from 1980 identified three major factors influencing TOEFL test performance, noting that these factors may be interpreted differently across various language groups Oltman, Stricker, and Barrows (1988) found that TOEFL validity is supported, but the interpretation of test results varies depending on examinees' English proficiency, with easy and difficult items differing in how they assess language competence Hale et al (1996) developed a classification scheme for undergraduate and graduate writing tasks, highlighting disciplinary differences in writing demands Frase et al (1999) analyzed essays from multiple language groups, revealing that while topic choices influenced some writing variables, language groups differed mainly in expressiveness, directness, and academic stance, with ESL writers tending to produce longer words and more words overall.
A 2004 study examined the comparability of TOEFL-CBT writing prompts for examinees from different native language backgrounds The research analyzed 81 prompts introduced between July 1998 and August 2000 using a three-step logistic regression for ordinal items An English language ability variable, combining standardized TOEFL reading, listening, and structure scores, was used to match East Asian (Chinese, Japanese, Korean) and European (German, French, Spanish) test-takers Although approximately one-third of the prompts initially showed statistically significant group effects, the effect sizes were too small to indicate meaningful differences.
This chapter reviews key background concepts for the thesis, primarily drawing from Kaplan’s work, which highlights how cultural differences influence writing styles Despite some controversy surrounding Kaplan’s ideas, the thesis aims to identify the distinctive writing styles of Vietnamese English learners in comparison with TOEFL iBT standards from the United States to offer effective solutions for common writing challenges It is important to note that the focus is on students’ ability to organize and express ideas in a manner acceptable to native English speakers, rather than issues related to grammar, vocabulary, or syntax, which have already been extensively studied by Vietnamese researchers The next chapter will detail the research instruments used to analyze data collected from various methods, including the core task of analyzing and compiling statistics from thousands of Vietnamese learners’ essays.