Asian americans in american cinema images and counter images of the model minority

REPRESENTATIONS OF ASIANS AND ASIAN AMERICANS IN

Dominant cinematic representations of Asians and Asian Americans

In their 2009 book on Asian Americans and the media, Ono and Pham emphasized that historical representations of Asians and Asian Americans have lasting impacts that persist into the present, despite shifts in media portrayals, particularly after the protest movements of the 1960s and 1970s Understanding these past portrayals is essential to comprehending how Asians and Asian Americans are represented today and throughout history This chapter critically examines mainstream cinematic depictions of Asians and Asian Americans, including their historical context, and provides an overview of prevalent stereotypes in media.

Stereotypes are simplified images of members of a group that may or may not reflect the truth but are problematic due to their overgeneralization They tend to erase individual differences, leading to unfair assumptions about specific members A significant negative aspect of stereotypes is their tendency to portray outgroup members negatively; for example, non-Blacks often perceive Blacks as unintelligent, criminal, hostile, and loud, reinforcing harmful prejudice and discrimination.

17Hogg, Michael A., and Vaughan, Graham M Social Psychology (6 th ed.) Harlow: Pearson Education, 2011

Stereotypes are not fixed; they evolve over time and are influenced by changing cultural contexts According to Franzoi (1996), stereotypes are shaped by a combination of societal forces active at specific moments, meaning they can shift as these forces change As a result, stereotypes are dynamic and reflect the evolving norms and values within a given society.

1.1.1 Orientalism: Asians and Asian Americans as the “Other” and perpetual foreigners

To understand cinematic portrayals of Asian Americans in mainstream media, it is essential to examine how Westerners, especially white Americans, perceive Asians Historically, Asians have been seen as part of the "Other," distinguished from Western civilization, culture, and language As Edward Said noted in "Orientalism," Western assumptions about the East are not only imaginative but also serve as tools of domination, often positioning Asians as inferior This pervasive perception of Asians as the "Other" remains consistent across various studies on their representation in media and popular culture.

The forever foreigner stereotype exemplifies the idea that Asians are perpetual outsiders, viewing Asian Americans as the "Other." Historically, Asian individuals were exoticized due to their "strange" physical and cultural traits unfamiliar to European audiences Today, Asian Americans continue to be perceived as inassimilable strangers who do not fully belong to U.S mainstream society Despite being American-born citizens, many Asian Americans are still regarded as exotic and mysterious, reinforcing the persistent perception of their perpetual foreignness.

19 Devine, Patricia G., and Elliot, Andrew J “Are racial stereotypes really fading? The Princeton trilogy revisited.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, vol 11, 1995, pp

20 Ono, Kent A “The Shifting Landscape of Asian Americans in the Media.” Japanese Journal of Communication Studies, vol 45, no 2, 2017, pp 105-113

21 Campbell, Mary B The Witness and the Other World: Exotic European Travel Writing

Said, Edward W Orientalism New York: Random House, 1978

22See Prasso, Okihiro, and Ono and Pham, for example

23 Kartosen, Reza A Screening Asian Americans: The Construction of Asian Americans‟ (Non-Americanness) in Contemporary Popular American Cinema Master‟s Thesis

Asian Americans are often Orientalized as the "Other" through their distinctive martial arts, eating habits, filial piety, and cultural values that differ from white American norms (Jo & Mast, 1993; Pyke & Dang, 2003) For example, in popular media such as *The Karate Kid* (1984), the character Mr Miyagi is portrayed as a mysterious and peculiar Japanese figure, highlighting how Asian identities are sometimes stereotyped and exoticized in American culture.

Even to the whites who practice karate, a martial art originated from his homeland, Mr Miyagi is still a foreigner who does not belong to the mainstream society

Asian Americans on screen are often portrayed as perpetual foreigners, frequently characterized by their strongly accented English This accent is commonly used because it is easy to project and suitable for minor, simplistic roles Films like *Do the Right Thing* (1989) and *Falling Down* exemplify this recurring stereotype, reinforcing limited and stereotypical portrayals of Asian American characters in media. -Break stereotypes—discover authentic Asian American stories and sharpen your language skills with Talkpal [Learn more](https://pollinations.ai/redirect/2699274)

Films such as *1993* and *Menace II Society* depict Korean merchants and shopkeepers with heavily accented English, reinforcing stereotypes about Asian immigrants In *Juno* (2007), the sole Asian character voices her opposition to family planning with a broken-English statement, "Babies want to be born," highlighting linguistic and cultural stereotypes Even the iconic character Charlie Chan, considered one of Hollywood’s first positive Asian depictions, is portrayed as not fully fluent in English, exemplifying the persistent "forever foreigner" stereotype This stereotype suggests that people of Asian descent can never fully assimilate into American culture, regardless of citizenship, perpetuating prejudiced views of perpetual foreignness Such stereotypes have significant political and social consequences, as highlighted by Fong et al., who argue they hinder Asians and Asian Americans from full acceptance into mainstream American society.

Yellow face remains a significant issue in Hollywood’s portrayal of Asians and Asian Americans, particularly in early film history Ono and Pham identify two types of yellow face: explicit and implicit Explicit yellow face involves white actors playing Asian or Asian American roles, reinforcing racial stereotypes and misrepresentation Implicit yellow face refers to subtle or stereotypical portrayals of Asians in film, which perpetuate distorted perceptions and cultural misunderstandings Addressing yellow face is crucial for promoting authentic and respectful Asian representation in cinema.

24Lyman, Stanford M “The „Yellow Peril‟ Mystique: Origins and Vicissitudes of a Racist Discourse.” International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society, 13, 2000, pp 683-747

Americans themselves play the role of a generic Asian person; often, they have makeup, clothing and an exaggerated accent to seem more “authentically Oriental” (Ono and Pham 54)

Historically, Hollywood's portrayal of Asians and Asian Americans often involved white actors using makeup and costumes to appear Asian, a practice known as yellowface This approach relied on exaggerated speech or nonsense dialogue, reinforcing stereotypes rather than authentic representation Yellowface excludes Asian actors from participating in representing their own communities, perpetuating misrepresentation As Lu argued, yellowface also hinders the recognition of Asian Americans as genuine Americans by emphasizing their status as the "Other," reinforcing the divide between the East (Orient) and the West (Occident) Overall, yellowface is closely tied to Orientalism, shaping distorted perceptions of Asian cultures and identities in film.

An example of explicit yellow face is Mickey Rooney’s portrayal of Mr Yunioshi in "Breakfast at Tiffany’s" (1961), featuring exaggerated features like buck teeth and squinty eyes, which has sparked extensive critical debate over racial stereotyping Although Mr Yunioshi is a minor character in the film, his portrayal contributes to racist humor prevalent in Hollywood's romantic comedies of the era Similar instances of yellowface can be seen in movies like "The Good Earth" (1938) and "Dragon Seed," highlighting a troubling pattern of racial caricaturing in classic Hollywood cinema.

(1944), Paul Muni, Louise Rainer, and Katharine Hepburn respectively played lead roles, all of which are Chinese

The casting of Louise Rainer as O-Lan in the 1937 film adaptation of "The Good Earth" highlights Hollywood's historical issues with representation, as she was chosen over Asian American actress Anna May Wong despite Wong’s popularity and Chinese heritage This decision was primarily driven by the Hollywood Production Code’s anti-miscegenation clause, which banned portrayals of interracial romance on screen, limiting authentic Asian representation in film Initially, author Pearl Buck advocated for an all-Chinese or Chinese American cast to stay true to the novel’s cultural setting, a vision that was initially supported by producer Irving Thalberg but ultimately abandoned due to industry restrictions.

25Lu, Megan Orientals in Hollywood: Asian American Representation in Early U.S Cinema

MA Thesis Boston University, 2017 Web 20 Jun 2019.

American audiences were initially unprepared for this type of movie, highlighting the dynamic relationship between media and viewers The interaction is not one-sided; while media outlets influence public perception and shape opinions, audience feedback and engagement also play a crucial role in shaping media content This reciprocal relationship underscores the power balance between creators and consumers in the media landscape.

Explicit yellow face, seen in movies like *Balls of Fury* (2007) and *I Now Pronounce You Chuck and Larry* (2007), was more prevalent in the past but has become increasingly unpopular since the 1990s Today, implicit yellow face has emerged as a more common form of representation of Asian Americans, often going unnoticed despite its problematic nature While implicit yellow face is less scrutinized and criticized than explicit portrayals, it still raises concerns about stereotypes and cultural insensitivity in modern media.

Implicit yellow face perpetuates problematic stereotypes by requiring actors to conform to narrow ideas of Asianness, disregarding their individual identities and experiences It also perpetuates the erasure of the diverse identities within the Asian American community As Ono and Pham highlight, “current practices of yellow face, which are part of the structure of the institution and industry of media production, blur Asian American identity and deploy cultural essentialism to view ‘Asian’ and ‘Asian American’ people as ‘all seem identical, alike, no different’” (55).

The Asian American independent cinema

The Asian American independent cinema was born in the early 1970s as part of the civil rights and student movements of the 1960s and 1970s, out of political necessity to fight

36Kang, Laura “The Desiring of Asian Female Bodies: Interracial Romance and Cinematic Subjection.” Screening Asian Americans, edited by Peter X Feng, Rutgers University Press,

Institutional racism and invisibility within Hollywood have historically marginalized Asian and Asian American communities, limiting their access to mainstream media production (Okada; Soe) Prior to this shift, white Americans predominantly controlled the representation of Asians, often with little genuine understanding of these communities (Ono) The emergence of Asian and Asian American film movements was a pivotal moment, marking the birth of authentic self-representations and challenging longstanding stereotypes in Hollywood.

The early films made by Asian Americans primarily circulated within their community and lacked mainstream recognition It wasn't until 1982, with the success of Wayne Wang’s *Chan Is Missing*, that Asian American independent cinema gained broader visibility This film was the first Asian American feature to achieve theatrical distribution and critical praise outside the Asian American community, marking a significant milestone (Soe; Xing) *Chan Is Missing* challenges stereotypes by playfully turning the Charlie Chan detective trope upside down, with the missing person being Chan himself, whom the protagonists Jo and Steve search for Through this narrative, the film presents a complex and contradictory portrayal of the Asian American community, breaking away from homogeneous stereotypes.

"Chan Is Missing significantly contributed to bringing Asian American films to a wider audience, paving the way for successful independent productions such as A Great Wall, Mississippi Masala, The Wedding Banquet, Picture Bride, and Better Luck Tomorrow, which achieved national distribution While most Asian American independent films remain within the indie scene, some have transitioned into mainstream cinema, exemplified by these acclaimed titles Notably, directors like Ang Lee, behind The Wedding Banquet, and Justin Lin, of Better Luck Tomorrow, started their careers in independent filmmaking, highlighting the genre's role as a launching pad for Asian American directors in Hollywood."

37Soe, Valerie “Independent Film.” Encyclopedia of Asian American Issues Today, edited by Wen-Chu Chen and Grace J Yoo, ABC-CLIO, 2010, pp 657-662

38 Feng, Peter X Identities in Motion: Asian American Film and Video Durham & London: Duke University Press, 2002

"39Xing, Jun's book *Asian America Through the Lens: History, Representations, and Identity* (1998) explores the evolving portrayal of Asian Americans in film and media Initially, Asian American filmmakers faced challenges in gaining recognition, but over time, they produced influential independent films that highlighted their cultural experiences Many of these filmmakers later achieved mainstream success, creating blockbuster or highly popular movies that reached a broad audience This shift has significantly contributed to increased representation and visibility of Asian Americans in popular culture."

In fact, Ang Lee is the name behind the famous Brokeback Mountain (2005) and Life of Pi

(2012), and Justin Lin behind several movies of The Fast and the Furious franchise

Asian American independent cinema initially emerged as an anti-colonial movement aimed at challenging Hollywood's dominant control over representations of Asians and Asian Americans Over time, it has expanded to explore a diverse range of themes, including political issues like racism and homophobia in films such as "Muni to the Marriage" (2004) and critiques of mainstream portrayals of Asian Americans in "Hollywood Chinese" (2007) Additionally, Asian American cinema often explores identity topics, spanning cultural and ethnic identities in movies like "The Flipside" (2000), to gender identity in films such as "Saving Face" (2004).

Many movies created by Asian American directors do not directly address issues related to ethnicity or cultural heritage For example, *Colma: The Musical* (2006), set in an Asian-majority city, centers on universal themes like relationship problems, party-crashing, and leaving home Similarly, *The Motel* (2005), despite featuring a Chinese protagonist, focuses on personal coming-of-age experiences rather than exploring cultural identity, ethnicity, or race relations.

Contemporary Asian American independent films prominently challenge the model minority myth by depicting the diversity and complexity of Asian and Asian American identities (Ono) These films reject stereotypes that portray Asians and Asian Americans as living unproblematic, successful lives, instead highlighting their varied experiences and demographic breadth (110) This critical conversation will be further explored in Chapters 2 and 4 of the thesis.

Conclusion of the chapter

This chapter explores the representation of Asians and Asian Americans in American cinema, highlighting persistent stereotypes such as the perpetual foreigner, the yellow peril, and the model minority Asian and Asian American men are often portrayed as villains—wicked and lustful—or as asexual, while their female counterparts are depicted through two main stereotypes: the cunning Dragon Lady who uses sexuality to deceive and control men, and the submissive Lotus Blossom who is attractive and willing to partner with white men In romantic contexts, Asian men are frequently shown as sexually undesirable for Asian, Asian American, and white women, whereas Asian women are portrayed as attractive to white men due to their softness and submissiveness Additionally, cinematic representations are marred by yellow face, involving the use of non-Asian actors to portray Asian roles (explicit yellow face) or Asians playing characters that conform to stereotypical notions of Asianness (implicit yellow face), reflecting the racial biases embedded in film production.

Asian American independent cinema plays a vital role in enabling authentic self-representations and challenging Hollywood's longstanding control over Asian portrayals While it initially aimed to destabilize stereotypes, it has evolved to explore diverse themes beyond ethnicity and cultural heritage According to Kent A Ono, a core focus of contemporary Asian American independent film is actively challenging the model minority myth, making it a central theme for further discussion in subsequent chapters, particularly chapter 4.

THE MODEL MINORITY MYTH

The model minority myth

The term “model minority” was first popularized by sociologist William Petersen in a 1966 New York Times Magazine article, praising Japanese Americans for their successful assimilation into mainstream American culture Subsequently, similar stories about Chinese Americans appeared in US News and World Report, reinforcing the stereotype By the 1980s, the model minority myth was deeply embedded in American consciousness, with prominent magazines like Newsweek, Fortune, and Time highlighting Asian Americans' success in education and society This discourse was influenced by the 1965 Immigration Act, which ended discriminatory immigration policies targeting Asians, facilitating their integration into American society.

The model minority myth portrays Asian Americans as more successful academically and economically than other minority groups like Blacks, Latinos, and Native Americans They are perceived as hardworking, intelligent, and self-sufficient, often seen as well-behaved and highly assimilated This stereotype widely influences public perceptions of Asian Americans, affecting how they are viewed within the broader social and economic landscape in the United States.

40 Kwon, Hyeyoung, and Au, Wayne “Model Minority Myth.” Encyclopedia of Asian American Issues Today, edited by Wen-Chu Chen and Grace J Yoo, ABC-CLIO, 2010, pp

221-230 . members of the mainstream American society Thus, their way to success is considered as a

“model” for other groups to follow 41

Further, the model minority myth poses a compatibility, if not identity, between key elements of Asian and Anglo-American cultures (Okihiro) As William Caudill and George

De Vos highlighted a notable compatibility between Japanese and American middle-class values, emphasizing shared principles such as work ethic, education, family values, and self-help (Okihiro) This alignment underscores how the model minority myth perpetuates the promotion of these core values associated with WASP, middle-class Americans, fostering a cultural resonance across these societies.

The model minority myth is problematic because it obscures the real hardships faced by Asian Americans and damages race relations with other ethnic groups While some Asian Americans achieve success, many, particularly Southeast Asians and Pacific Islanders, confront issues like poverty, limited healthcare access, and challenges integrating into American society A significant portion of Asian Americans—around sixty percent—are foreign-born, and language barriers, cultural differences, and the pervasive “forever foreigner” stereotype hinder their full societal integration (Fong et al.; Wen, Chen, and Yoo).

According to the U.S census in 2000, over 12% of Asian Americans in the United States were living below the poverty line, with certain communities experiencing even higher rates A 2014 survey by the NYC Center for Economic Opportunity revealed that 26.6% of Asian Americans in New York City fell below the city's poverty threshold This highlights a significant economic disparity within Asian American populations, emphasizing the need for targeted poverty alleviation efforts.

41 Chen, Sucheng Asian Americans: An Interpretive History Woodbridge: Twayne

42Caudill, William, and De Vos, George “Achievement, Culture and Personality: The Case of the Japanese Americans.” American Anthropologist, vol 58, 1956, pp 1102-26

43 Sacramento, Jocyl, and De la Cruz, Aristel “Poverty.” Encyclopedia of Asian American Issues Today, edited by Wen-Chu Chen and Grace J Yoo, ABC-CLIO, 2010, pp 149-156

Asian Americans are often stereotyped as a homogeneous, successful "model minority," but in reality, they are a highly diverse group The Chinese American community includes members working in fields such as science, engineering, law, business, arts, sports, and politics, highlighting their varied socioeconomic statuses Conversely, Southeast Asians are more vulnerable to poverty, largely due to recent immigration status, occupational discrimination, limited English proficiency, and educational barriers that hinder employment opportunities and social mobility However, it is important to recognize that not all Chinese Americans are affluent, nor are all Southeast Asian Americans economically unsuccessful, underscoring the complexity within Asian American communities.

A 2014 study by Jennifer Lee and Min Zhou revealed that less than 20% of American-born Chinese adults in Los Angeles held professional careers such as lawyers, doctors, or engineers Despite the diverse socioeconomic backgrounds of their immigrant parents, the study found that second-generation Chinese and Vietnamese individuals have similar levels of educational attainment This research highlights the complex dynamics of immigrant identity, education, and professional achievement within Asian American communities.

Overlooking ethnic subgroups within the Asian American community fuels the myth of the model minority For example, the 2007 U.S Census Bureau’s American Community Survey shows that 49% of Asian Americans aged 25 and older hold a bachelor’s degree, compared to 28% of the overall U.S population, yet this achievement rate varies significantly among subgroups—from just 11% for Laotian Americans to 71% for Taiwanese Americans Despite the rich diversity within Asian American communities, media coverage and public perception often emphasize Chinese Americans and overlook the wide disparities among other ethnic groups.

6hhZwDVA8FATJ_Zx8UYOFRiZ0tHsShnq9XqxZg3MVf4LtxKxQOdMF53UaICjS58eZkR 9NZnDTRVTGO8pPszcHitL8c0b58BqwI7NVASOxsAG Accessed 2 Sep 2019.

45 Kwong, Peter, and Chen, Edith Wen-Chu “Chinese Americans.” Encyclopedia of Asian American Issues Today, edited by Wen-Chu Chen and Grace J Yoo, ABC-CLIO, 2010, pp

46 Lee, Jennifer, and Zhou, Min The Asian American Achievement Paradox New York:

47 Hune, Shirley, and Park, Julie J “Educational Trends and Issues.” Encyclopedia of Asian American Issues Today, edited by Wen-Chu Chen and Grace J Yoo, ABC-CLIO, 2010, pp

Japanese Americans, and increasingly Korean and Asian Indian Americans, in terms of education and achievement (Hune and Park)

The model minority myth creates psychological burdens for Asian Americans by imposing unrealistic expectations, despite their hardships Asian Americans often internalize this stereotype because it is seen as a positive label, leading many to feel pressured to excel academically in subjects like math and science This focus on success while ignoring struggles and failures makes it harder for disadvantaged Asian Americans—those who are poor, uneducated, or marginalized—to get the support they need Consequently, these unaddressed issues can lead to mental health problems, exacerbating disparities within the community (Wen, Chen, and Yoo).

The model minority myth not only masks the struggles of Asian Americans but also serves as a tool to undermine other minority groups like African Americans, Latinos, and Native Americans It perpetuates the misconception that Asian Americans can resolve their issues independently without government intervention, reinforcing the narrative that their success dispels the need for racial justice This myth subtly dismisses the challenges faced by racial minorities by suggesting that if Asian Americans can succeed, then all minorities are capable of doing the same, thus dismissing the existence of systemic racism Historically, during the 1960s and 1970s, the myth was exploited to discredit protests and social justice movements by other marginalized groups Additionally, fears of economic competition from Asian Americans often fueled racial crimes and hostility against them, exacerbating racial tensions and discrimination.

A supreme example of intense race relations related to the model minority myth is the murder of Vincent Chin, a hate crime That is, on the night of June 19, 1982, while celebrating

48Lee, Stacey J Unraveling the “Model Minority” Stereotype: Listening to Asian American

Youth New York: Teachers College Press, 1996.

Asian Americans have historically been portrayed as the "model minority" in the popular press, reflecting societal perceptions of success and assimilation during the 1960s and 1980s Osajima's analysis highlights how media narratives contributed to shaping this stereotype, often emphasizing academic achievement, economic success, and conformity among Asian American communities This media portrayal reinforced the notion that Asian Americans exemplify the ideal immigrant story, while simultaneously obscuring the diversity and challenges within these communities Understanding the origins and implications of the model minority myth is crucial for fostering a more nuanced and accurate representation of Asian Americans in society and academic discourse.

Vincent Chin, a 27-year-old Chinese American working as a draftsman and weekend waiter in Detroit, became a tragic victim of racial violence during his bachelor party He encountered two white auto workers, Ronald Ebens and Michael Nitz, who allegedly made racist remarks, leading to a violent confrontation This incident highlights the challenges Asian Americans face as the so-called "model minority" despite ongoing issues of racial discrimination.

“It's because of you little motherfuckers that we're out of work,” which ignited a fight 51 After Ebens, Nitz, Chin and his friends were thrown out of the club, the fight continued in the parking area Ebens and Nitz later searched the neighborhood for the second party, and outside of a McDonald‟s, Nitz held Chin while Ebens repeatedly struck Chin in the head with a baseball bat Chin lost consciousness and died four days later

During a period when the American auto industry was in decline due to widespread job losses caused by the recession, Japanese automakers were rapidly gaining market share in the U.S (Wang) This economic shift led Ebens and Nitz to blame Chinese Americans for the success of Japan’s auto industry, claiming it resulted in American job losses Wu emphasized that Asian Americans were historically viewed as perpetual foreigners before being seen as model minorities, and these perceptions often breed resentment and hostility Overall, exaggerating the achievements of Asian Americans through the model minority myth intensifies racial tensions between Asian Americans and other groups, including white Americans.

The model minority myth in American cinema

The model minority stereotype became prominent in American society during the 1960s, but its roots can be traced back to earlier representations like Charlie Chan, who first appeared on screen in 1931 Unlike the villainous Fu Manchu, Charlie Chan was portrayed as a loyal detective-sergeant dedicated to serving the United States As a social servant, Chan was depicted as successful despite being portrayed with disempowerment, reflecting early nuanced portrayals of Asian characters in American media According to Jachinson Chan, Charlie Chan exemplified these complex representations that subtly influenced the development of the model minority myth.

51Wang, Frances K “Who Is Vincent Chin? The History and Relevance of a 1982 Killing.”

NBC News, 15 Jun 2017, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/who-vincent-chin- history-relevance-1982-killing-n771291 Accessed 15 Jul 2019

52 Wu, Frank H “Why Vincent Chin Matters.” New York Times, 22 Jun 2012, https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/23/opinion/why-vincent-chin-matters.html?mcubz=2 Accessed 14 Jul 2019

53Chan, Jachinson Chinese American Masculinities: From Fu Manchu to Bruce Lee New

York (2001) highlights how individuals assimilate into mainstream American culture by transitioning from working-class roots to middle-class professionalism This transformation exemplifies the American Dream of success, where minorities are increasingly integrated into predominantly white society Such individuals often achieve relative economic comfort and establish nuclear families, embodying upward mobility and social acceptance within the United States.

Chan is depicted as a successful Asian American, highlighting his achievements and dedication However, he is also portrayed as a "forever foreigner," with persistent language barriers, as his English remains broken and does not improve over time Despite his intelligence and hard work, Chan is unable to fully integrate into mainstream American society, reflecting ongoing issues of cultural identity and assimilation.

The model minority stereotype of Asian Americans initially appeared through characters like Charlie Chan, depicting Asians as intelligent, competent, and dependable, yet obedient and non-threatening to white society Today, this stereotype is reflected in portrayals of successful students from reputable backgrounds and professionals in high-paying fields such as doctors, lawyers, scientists, and entrepreneurs, often shown as law-abiding and quiet residents of affluent suburbs These professions are frequently depicted in movies about Asian Americans, including works created by Asian American filmmakers, with characters like Tracy Tzu in "Year of the Dragon" and Wilhelmina in "Saving Face" exemplifying this stereotype However, Asian American characters fitting the model minority image are rarely leads; they are more often supporting roles with limited character development, which underscores the under-representation of Asian Americans in mainstream American cinema.

Asian Americans are renowned for their outstanding academic achievements, exemplified by their portrayal in popular media In the film "Akeelah and the Bee" (2006), the character Dylan Chu, an Asian American boy, demonstrates exceptional intelligence by learning twenty times faster than the protagonist, Akeelah, a Black American girl This portrayal highlights Asian Americans' academic prowess but also underscores complex racial dynamics, as having the Asian American character as the main rival instead of a white character may contribute to negative stereotypes and influence race relations among minorities in the United States.

Asian Americans are often recognized as excellent students; however, they are also frequently stereotyped as nerdy, over-studious, and socially dull This negative portrayal extends to Asian American men, who are commonly depicted as asexual and emasculated, reinforcing harmful stereotypes and impacting their social perception.

The model minority and the yellow peril

The model minority myth appears to have replaced the yellow peril stereotype in contemporary discourse Historically, the yellow peril narrative helped establish racial and cultural distinctions, allowing Christians to differentiate themselves from pagans, Americans from Europeans and Native Americans, and whites from people of color (Marchetti 8) However, since the 1960s, the model minority myth has shifted this dynamic by positioning Asians against other minorities, utilizing socioeconomic arguments to define what constitutes ideal citizenship (Okada).

There is a deep and interconnected relationship between the model minority myth and the yellow peril stereotype, as highlighted by scholars like Okihiro, Kawai, Ono, and Pham Okihiro explains that “the concepts of the yellow peril and the model minority … form a seamless continuum,” illustrating how these narratives are linked The model minority myth promotes values aligned with WASP, middle-class American ideals, while simultaneously threatening white Americans by challenging the traditional majority-minority power dynamic Asian Americans' success can be perceived as a threat to white privilege, as it shifts the social hierarchy by conferring minority members with privileges historically reserved for the majority.

Asians can work too hard, study overmuch, stick together and form a racial bloc, and thereby “flood” [American] markets and displace workers, “flood” [American] schools and displace students, and “flood” [American] land with concentrations of Chinatown, Japantowns, Koreatowns, Little Saigons, Manilatowns “Model” Asians exhibit the same singleness of purpose, patience and endurance, cunning, fanaticism, and group loyalty characteristic of Marco Polo‟s Mongol soldiers, and Asian workers and students, maintaining themselves at little expense and almost robot-like, labor and study for hours on end without human needs for relaxation, fun, and pleasure, and M.I.T becomes “Made in Taiwan,” and “Stop the Yellow

54Pyke, Karen, and Dang, Tran “„FOB‟ and „Whitewashed‟: Identity and Internalized Racism Among Second Generation Asian Americans.” Qualitative Sociology, 26,2003, pp 147-173.

55Kawai, Yuko “Stereotyping Asian Americans: The Dialectic of the Model Minority and the Yellow Peril.” Howard Journal of Communication, vol 16, 2005, pp 109-130

Hordes” appears as college campus graffiti, bumper stickers, and political slogans” (141)

The model minority stereotype can threaten white privilege by drawing parallels to the concept of the yellow peril While it initially alleviates fears associated with the yellow peril by portraying Asian Americans as successful and non-threatening, an excessive emphasis on this stereotype can reinforce racial tensions and perceptions of alienation, potentially transforming into a new form of peril.

Counter-visions of the model minority

The model minority myth portrays Asian Americans with positive traits but remains problematic due to its negative implications In response to this stereotype, Asian American directors have created counter-images that depict negative aspects of the minority, challenging the prevailing narrative These alternative representations serve to critique the oversimplified stereotype and will be explored further in the upcoming chapter.

Conclusion of the chapter

The model minority myth portrays Asian Americans as hardworking, intelligent, successful, and well-behaved, positioning them as a cultural ideal for others to emulate However, this stereotype causes significant harm by imposing unrealistic expectations and masking the real struggles faced by Asian Americans Additionally, exaggerating their successes fuels racial tensions with other groups, including white Americans.

The model minority myth, despite its problematic nature, has been widely reproduced and perpetuated by mainstream American cinema In response, Asian American directors have challenged this stereotype by creating films that depict negative and counter-stereotypical images of the Asian American community These contrasting representations will be analyzed in the following chapters through detailed examinations of selected movies.

IMAGES OF THE MODEL MINORITY

Overview of the movie corpus

Based on Amy Tan’s acclaimed novel, *The Joy Luck Club* (1993) explores the intertwined lives of four Chinese American immigrant women and their second-generation daughters, highlighting themes of cultural identity and familial bonds Despite being a Hollywood-financed production, the film was skillfully directed by Wayne Wang, a renowned filmmaker celebrated for his independent films such as *Chan Is Missing.

Released in 1982, "The Joy Luck Club" is the second Hollywood film, after "Flower Drum Song" (1961), to feature an all-Asian cast, highlighting increasing diversity in American cinema The film received the Casting Society of America’s 1994 Award for Best Casting for Feature Film, Drama, recognizing its outstanding ensemble "The Joy Luck Club" was widely praised by critics and audiences alike, cementing its status as a landmark in Asian-American Hollywood representation and storytelling.

In fact, The Joy Luck Club has long become a classic of Asian American film

In Ang Lee's "The Wedding Banquet" (1993), a film made by an Asian-American director and independently financed, the story revolves around Wai-Tung Gao, a gay Taiwanese immigrant living with his American partner, Simon Under family pressure to have a child, Wai-Tung marries Wei-Wei, a mainland Chinese immigrant, to conceal his homosexuality and help Wei-Wei obtain a green card The film explores themes of cultural identity and family expectations, highlighting Wai-Tung's attempt to conform to the model minority stereotype while Wei-Wei faces her own struggles as an immigrant in America.

Based on the 2013 novel of the same name by Kevin Kwan, the romantic comedy Crazy

"Rich Asians (2018) tells the story of Rachel Chu, a Chinese American professor who travels to Singapore with her boyfriend, Nick Young As the plot unfolds, Rachel discovers that Nick’s family is among the wealthiest in Singapore, highlighting themes of wealth, cultural identity, and social class."

"Crazy Rich Asians," directed by Jon M Chu, features an all-Asian cast, marking a significant milestone in Hollywood as it was the first film with such a cast in 25 years since "The Joy Luck Club" (1993) The movie garnered high anticipation due to its diverse representation and widespread advertising, backed by Warner Bros Distribution Its success sparked numerous discussions in magazines about Hollywood’s portrayal of Asians and Asian Americans, and it achieved notable critical acclaim along with strong commercial performance.

Better Luck Tomorrow is considered as the peak of Asian American independent film

(Okada) A crime-drama movie, Better Luck Tomorrow tells the story of a group of Asian

"Better Luck Tomorrow" is a film that explores the lives of American over-achieving high school students who become bored with their routines and turn to petty crime and material excess Directed by Justin Lin, a Taiwanese American who attended UCLA film school, the movie was independently produced before being acquired and distributed nationally by MTV Films The film gained significant attention after a heated discussion at the Sundance Film Festival, where an audience member questioned Justin Lin about the portrayal of Asian Americans in such a negative light Renowned film critic Roger Ebert awarded "Better Luck Tomorrow" a full four-star rating in the Chicago Sun-Times, emphasizing its critical acclaim despite the controversy surrounding its themes.

He expressed his frustration, stating that it is offensive and condescending to suggest that Asian American filmmakers must represent their community in their work He emphasized that every filmmaker has the right to create films about any subject they choose, asserting, "Asian Americans have the right to be whatever the hell they want to be." This highlights the importance of artistic freedom and challenges the expectation that filmmakers must serve as representatives of their ethnicity.

56 Roger Ebert (1942-2013) was a prominent, if not the most influential and powerful, American film critic He wrote for the Chicago Sun-Times from 1967 until his death in 2013

In 1975, he became the first film critic to win the Pulitzer Prize for Criticism approval helped Better Luck Tomorrow attract interest from big studios, namely Miramax,

Fox, and MTV Films; and finally it became the first movie ever purchased by MTV Films 57

Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle (2004)

"Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle" is a popular stoner comedy directed by Danny Leiner that follows two Asian Americans, Harold Lee and Kumar Patel, on their humorous journey to a White Castle restaurant after smoking marijuana Unlike earlier films discussed, this movie was written and directed by non-Asian Americans, allowing it to explore and subvert the traditional model minority stereotype through its characters Harold, a Korean American, and Kumar, an Indian American, challenge common stereotypes, reflecting diverse Asian American experiences The character of Harold was inspired by a real-life friend of the screenwriters, adding authenticity to the portrayal The film received positive critical reception and led to successful sequels, cementing its place in Asian American and mainstream comedy.

Escape From Guantanamo Bay (2008) and A Very Harold & Kumar 3D Christmas (2011)

"Gran Torino, like Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle, was created by non-Asian American filmmakers, with Clint Eastwood serving as the director, producer, and lead actor." "The film follows Walt, a Korean War veteran who has recently lost his wife and become estranged from his children and grandchildren, highlighting themes of aging, regret, and redemption." "Thao Vang Lor, a young Hmong American neighbor, becomes a central character as he attempts to steal Walt’s treasured Gran Torino under pressure from his cousin’s gang, illustrating cultural tension and peer influence." "Initially angry, Walt’s attitude gradually shifts as he forms a meaningful relationship with Thao, emphasizing themes of unlikely friendship and personal growth."

"Better Luck Tomorrow challenges and sparks conversations about Asian American stereotypes, shedding light on the diverse experiences within the community."

“Better Luck Tomorrow.” National Public Radio 23 Jan 2003, https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId4065&t66337697179 Accessed

"Gran Torino is notably the first Hollywood film to feature Hmong Americans, highlighting their involvement both in front of and behind the camera, including a significant number of Hmong American cast members, some of whom are amateurs." This film has achieved both critical acclaim and commercial success, contributing to increased visibility and representation for the Hmong American community in mainstream cinema.

Images of the model minority

The model minority myth portrays Asian Americans as highly successful academically and economically, excelling in well-paying professions and overcoming challenges to integrate into mainstream American society This article explores these aspects through analysis of selected films, illustrating how these narratives reinforce or challenge the stereotypes associated with Asian American communities.

In Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle, Harold meets a group of Asian / Asian

Asian Americans are well-represented in top-tier universities like Princeton, exemplifying their academic excellence Rose Hsu, a character from "The Joy Luck Club," met her future husband during college, highlighting the importance of higher education in their lives Her husband, born into an aristocratic family that owns a longstanding publishing empire, later assumes control of the family business, demonstrating the intersection of elite education and social status Attending prestigious universities like Princeton provides Asian American students with valuable opportunities for academic and professional success.

Asian American children are often portrayed as highly talented andsuccessful from a young age In *The Joy Luck Club*, characters like Waverly and June exemplify this stereotype—Waverly, an undefeated chess prodigy who easily wins a championship, and June, a confident piano player who competes in talent shows Their achievements highlight the cultural narrative of excellence and pride associated with Asian American youth.

In Figure 3.1, Little Waverly plays chess against a white male peer, demonstrating her composure and confidence Despite her opponent's confident move and the perceived pressure of time, she remains calm, cool, and self-assured Her response indicates that the white boy's move is not a challenge to her dominance in the game, highlighting her strategic mindset and resilience under pressure.

Figure 3.2 Little Waverly is featured on a Life Magazine‟s cover The title reads “Could

Bobby Fischer defeat the Chinese Terror?” While the white boy is mentioned with his own name, Waverly is referred to with a label concerning her ethnicity, or the model minority

Asian high school students often exemplify strong academic achievement, as depicted in "Better Luck Tomorrow," which initially showcases overachieving Asian American youth excelling academically and participating in social and political activities Ben Manibag is a prime example, maintaining excellent grades, working part-time, and earning recognition as “Employee of the Month,” while preparing to apply to prestigious universities like Harvard, Stanford, and Princeton He is a multilingual student fluent in English, Spanish, and Chinese, demonstrating his linguistic versatility through scenes where he interprets medical conversations with medical terminology This portrayal challenges stereotypes by highlighting the diverse talents and ambitions of Asian American students.

Figure 3.3 Ben is also an activist

Ben consistently outperforms his white classmates, achieving straight-A grades and surpassing them academically A notable scene highlights his academic excellence, as a white peer attempts to copy his answer sheet during an exam He is part of a broader group of Asian American overachievers in the story, including his best friend Virgil Hu, described as “the other smart kid,” and Daric Loo, an “academic all-star” who excels both academically and in extracurricular activities Daric is even more remarkable than Ben, serving as president of multiple clubs and leading initiatives like running a math club that supports students of all backgrounds This portrayal emphasizes the high academic achievements and leadership roles of Asian American students in the narrative.

Figure 3.4 Daric runs a math club besides many other clubs

In "Gran Torino," Asian Americans, particularly Hmong Americans, are portrayed not as a model minority but as individuals facing various challenges Thao, the central character, is shown as someone uncertain about his future and lacking confidence in his job prospects Despite this, he is depicted as a hardworking student who diligently reads a book or notebook while walking the street, even when disturbed by his cousin’s gang This particular detail aligns with the stereotype of the model minority, highlighting Thao’s perseverance and dedication amidst adversity.

Figure 3.5 Thao with a book/notebook in his hands

In three out of seven movies examined, the portrayal of successful Asian American students exemplifies the "model minority" stereotype These characters are frequently depicted as academically outstanding, often compared explicitly or implicitly to students from other ethnic groups, including white peers While this positive representation highlights achievement, it simultaneously reinforces stereotypes and is accompanied by negative implications that will be explored further in the subsequent sections.

3.2.2 Nerdy, robotic, and physically weak students

Asian and Asian American students are often stereotyped as over-studious, nerdy, and socially dull, but outstanding academic performance is not limited to them alone For instance, in the film "Return to Princeton," the scene where Harold interacts with a diverse group of Asian/Asian American students highlights that academic excellence transcends racial stereotypes Recognizing the diverse talents and personalities within Asian communities challenges these narrow perceptions and emphasizes that success in academics is attainable for all students regardless of ethnicity.

Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle, such stereotypical, negative images are easily found

The students idolize Harold as an inspiring figure despite his modest job as an investment banker, showing intense admiration and eager interest when he discusses his career Their impatience and nervousness during his hesitation about whether his job is “awful” or “awesome” reveal the high value they place on successful careers and well-paying jobs They even go so far as to ask Harold to be their recommender, highlighting their obsession with professional success Interestingly, they appear disinterested in partying, preferring to focus on Harold’s sharing about his work, and when they do plan gatherings, they mention traditional Korean food like kimchi rather than alcohol, emphasizing their prioritization of career-oriented values over leisure and superficial pleasures.

Figure 3.6 Harold meets a group of Asian/Asian American students at Princeton University

All of them listen to him carefully and look at him with admiring eyes

In the scene depicted in Figure 3.7, students eagerly await Harold's words, highlighting the anticipation in the classroom The girl on the right displays impatience by raising her eyebrows, emphasizing her eager expectation Meanwhile, the girl on the left appears over-studious and socially awkward, characterized by her glasses and serious facial expression This image captures the dynamic emotions of students during a classroom discussion, illustrating variations in patience and social engagement.

Figure 3.8 With wide-opening eyes, they eagerly wait for what Harold has to say about his job as an investment banker

Figure 3.9 The students, especially the guy in the middle of this screenshot, are relieved as

Harold, an investment banker, describes his job as "awesome" rather than "awful," highlighting his positive perspective on his career Despite the often high-stakes nature of investment banking, Harold's enthusiasm remains evident, although his nerdy traits are noticeable His close male friends frequently support him, even holding his hands as he patiently waits for him to finish sharing his experiences, showcasing the strong camaraderie and loyalty within his social circle.

Asian Americans are often stereotyped as robotic learners who memorize information effortlessly In the film *Better Luck Tomorrow*, Ben exemplifies this stereotype by quickly responding to unusual questions about food energy while working at a fast food restaurant.

Client: How many calories in each stick?

Client: How many grams of fat?

Ben: 32 grams, but we do cook it in vegetable oil

Ben is committed to expanding his vocabulary daily to achieve a perfect SAT score He has set a clear goal to improve his verbal score by 60 points, demonstrating a focused and strategic approach to his test preparation By memorizing advanced vocabulary words, he aims to enhance his language skills and maximize his performance on the exam.

Figure 3.10 Ben learns by heart SAT vocabulary

Despite practicing extensively by shooting 215 free throws daily, Ben struggles to excel as a basketball player Although he ultimately earns a spot on the team, he remains a benchwarmer and is often considered “the token Asian,” highlighting the stereotype that Asian American students are not typically successful in physical activities These challenges reflect broader cultural stereotypes and social isolation that many Asian American athletes face in sports environments.

The model minority, the yellow peril, and the racial hierarchy

The selected movies highlight moments where the model minority stereotype intersects with the yellow peril perception For example, Life Magazine’s headline referring to Waverly as “the Chinese Terror” after she beats her white opponent in chess exemplifies this, as she is labeled with an ethnic slur rather than her name This portrayal associates Waverly’s Asian ethnicity with “terror,” a negative term linked to the yellow peril stereotype Such depictions suggest that Asian Americans can excel to the point of surpassing white Americans, fueling both stereotypes of exceptionalism and perceived threat.

In "The Joy Luck Club," Waverly, now grown-up, regularly visits a hair salon with her mother, but the scene features only white and Latin American staff, with no Asian employees present Notably, the salon's manager appears to be a white American, while the woman washing Mrs Jong’s hair is Latina, highlighting a racial hierarchy This detail suggests that while Asian Americans may attain wealth and social status, racial hierarchies persist, as non-white staff are positioned as subservient roles The scene underscores themes of racial dynamics, illustrating both the "yellow peril" stereotype and the ongoing racial stratification within service industries.

Figures 3.40-41 A Latin American does the shampoo for Mrs Jong

Asian Americans, when employed alongside individuals from other racial groups such as white Americans, often are perceived as potential overperformers For example, Ben Manibag, a part-time worker at Better Luck, exemplifies this dynamic within the fast food industry, highlighting underlying perceptions of Asian American employees excelling in the workplace.

Tomorrow is awarded “Employee of the Month” for three consecutive months, which none of his colleagues, some of whose last names are Marquez, Cooper, Cobar, and Fedo, can achieve

Asian Americans are portrayed as a potential source of danger when they exploit their abilities, as exemplified by four overachieving high school students in *Better Luck Tomorrow* These students, including Ben, become bored with their lives and initiate a school-wide cheat sheet operation, stealing tests from the school office to sell to peers, which brings them a small fortune However, their crimes are driven not by financial need but by boredom and a desire for excitement, highlighting how their pursuit of thrill can make them unpredictable and dangerous.

Links between the model minority and the yellow peril are also suggested in Crazy Rich

Asians In this movie, it is people of Asian descent who travel first class rather than white

The article suggests that as Asians become increasingly prosperous, they will eventually access services traditionally reserved for upper-class white Americans The opening scene of the movie illustrates this shift, portraying how the Young family overwhelms Westerners in a London hotel When Mrs Eleanor Young, her relatives, and children arrive late at night in heavy rain, they face racial prejudice from a white receptionist and manager, who refuse to show her the reserved suite—an act that appears racially motivated, as they doubt Asians can afford such accommodations The hotel staff even suggest they go to Chinatown and threaten to call the police if they do not leave, highlighting racial tensions In response, Mrs Eleanor confidently switches from Cantonese to perfect English to assert herself, underscoring the rising confidence and integration of Asians in Western society.

Mr Young instantly acquires the entire hotel with a simple phone call, showcasing his swift business success The former white custodian personally welcomes Mrs Young and her companions, highlighting the dramatic shift in social status Meanwhile, the front office staff are busy mopping the wet floor, emphasizing the ongoing chaos and contrast between the characters’ backgrounds.

In Figure 3.42, the white crew displays racist behavior by refusing to show Mrs Eleanor and her family to their reserved suite, instead suggesting they go to Chinatown They threaten to call the police, exemplifying their sense of racial superiority and discriminatory attitude.

Figure 3.43 The white crew look stunned and pathetic as the supposedly inferior Asian customers now have become their new bosses

Crazy Rich Asians subtly introduces the theme of the yellow peril from the very beginning, highlighting concerns about China's growing influence The film features an impactful quote from Napoleon Bonaparte: “Let China sleep, for when she wakes, she will shake the world,” emphasizing the perception of China as a powerful and potentially disruptive force This initial quotation sets the tone for the movie's exploration of geopolitical anxieties and racial stereotypes associated with China's rise.

Figure 3.44 The quote preluding Crazy Rich Asians 3.4 Conclusion of the chapter

Most movies in the corpus depict Asian Americans through the lens of the model minority myth, showcasing stories of immigrant success, academic excellence, and wealth, often portraying Asian Americans as high-achieving, industrious, and affluent These representations include Asian students who outperform peers and are potential Ivy League candidates, as well as Asians in affluent positions served by others, reinforcing stereotypical images However, this idealized portrayal also has negative implications, such as depicting academically successful Asian students as nerdy or robotic, and implying threats to other ethnic groups associated with the myth of the yellow peril While many images reinforce the stereotype, some films, like *Better Luck Tomorrow* and *Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle*, deliberately challenge and subvert the model minority narrative.

CHAPTER 4 COUNTER-IMAGES OF THE MODEL MINORITY

The concept of the model minority stereotype depicts Asians and Asian Americans through a narrow lens, often reinforced by cinematic portrayals regardless of whether the filmmakers are white or Asian American While many films perpetuate this stereotype, there are also representations that challenge or oppose the myth, serving as counter-images These alternative portrayals offer a more nuanced and diverse depiction of Asian identities, providing a necessary critique of the limiting model minority narrative.

This analysis explores key themes within the films "The Joy Luck Club" (1993), "The Wedding Banquet" (1993), and "Better Luck Tomorrow," revisiting these movies from a new perspective By examining these culturally significant films, the study offers deeper insights into their narrative and thematic elements, shedding light on how they contribute to broader discussions in film analysis.

(2002), Harold and Kumar Go to White Castle (2004), and Gran Torino (2008) Crazy Rich

Asians (2018) is excluded as it does not seem to propose any images opposite to the model minority stereotype This chapter, however, includes another movie, Ethan Mao (2004)

Counter-images of Asian Americans as the model minority challenge stereotypes by highlighting that they do face significant challenges and struggles These narratives emphasize that Asian Americans are not immune to serious issues and often confront obstacles that contradict the stereotype of effortless success Additionally, they reveal that Asian Americans possess a diverse range of attitudes, including a more relaxed approach to certain aspects of life Importantly, these counter-images also acknowledge that Asian Americans can be involved in criminal activities, further dispelling the myth of a uniformly perfect community.

4.1 Problems faced by Asian Americans

Although Asian Americans are often perceived as the model minority, they face significant challenges and struggles, as depicted in films like *The Wedding Banquet*, *The Joy Luck Club*, and *Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle* These themes are further explored in *Gran Torino* and *Ethan Mao*, highlighting the complexities of Asian American experiences beyond stereotypes.

On the one hand, as discussed in the previous chapter, The Wedding Banquet depicts

Wei-Tung is portrayed as a successful Asian immigrant, while his bride, Wei-Wei, struggles as a Chinese artist trying to make a living in the United States She often loses her low-paid jobs and lives in a hot, deteriorating attic, which she has to block out outside noise by playing loud music The attic, described by Wei-Tung as "not a living space," explains her financial struggles, including her inability to pay rent on time When Wei-Tung requests her late rent payments, Wei-Wei offers her paintings as an alternative, despite their limited current value Her situation becomes so dire that her landlord eventually agrees to accept her artwork in lieu of rent, highlighting her desperation and the uncertain future of her artistic endeavors.

Figure 4.1 Wei-Wei and Wei-Tung at the kitchen corner of Wei-Wei‟s rented attic

Wei-Wei hides her financial struggles from her impoverished family in mainland China while desperately needing a green card to remain in the United States Desperate for legal status, she considers marrying an American but believes it’s impossible without resorting to a marriage of convenience She feels hopeless, saying, "No money, no job, no green card No stupid American will marry me," and cannot afford the financial demands of a marriage scam Eventually, Wei-Wei accepts a marriage arrangement with Wei-Tung and Simon, who seek it to appease Wei-Tung’s parents and conceal his homosexuality, despite knowing the groom’s sexual orientation In essence, Wei-Wei defies the typical model minority stereotype, portraying a different, more complex image.

Laid-back attitude

In "Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle," Asian Americans are portrayed as having a laid-back attitude, challenging the stereotypical model minority image Kumar's behavior exemplifies this, as he intentionally disrupts his medical school interview by appearing disheveled—his shirt untucked and tie loosened—yet still impresses the interviewer with his academic brilliance During the interview, Kumar casually answers a phone call from Harold, dismissing the formal setting and openly talking about their plans to party, even referencing marijuana use, which shocks the interviewer This portrayal underscores that Asian Americans can be relaxed and imperfect, countering the typical stereotype of seriousness and professionalism.

Kumar confidently states he has a quarter of the finest herb in New York City and emphasizes that he won't be smoking it alone He urges others to relax and get ready to get high, expecting both of them to be completely blitzed within a few hours.

Kumar‟s irreverent attitude and foul language despite his being an Indian American with brilliant academic competence contribute to the construction of a character that counters the model minority stereotype

Further, when it comes to professional life, a great career is not what Kumar aspires for

He does not even wish to become a doctor As Mr Interviewer gets angry at his behavior and says he will not recommend him for admission, Kumar responds:

Kumar: I‟m gonna be honest with you The only reason I‟m applying is so my dad will keep paying for my apartment I really don‟t have a desire to go to med school

Mr Interviewer: But you have perfect MCAT scores 62 Kumar: Yeah Just „cause you‟re hung like a moose doesn‟t mean you gotta do porn

Kumar, a 22-year-old described by his older brother as someone who refuses to grow up, engages in "post-college rebel bullshit" despite his significant potential He is characterized by a rebellious, laid-back attitude and a lack of clear career direction, yet he remains unconcerned about his future This unserious and defiant personality challenges typical stereotypes of Asian Americans, presenting a unique and unconventional portrayal.

The Medical College Admission Test (MCAT) is a standardized exam essential for prospective medical students in the United States, Australia, Canada, and the Caribbean Islands It evaluates important skills such as problem-solving, critical thinking, and written analysis, along with a comprehensive understanding of scientific concepts and principles Performing well on the MCAT is crucial for gaining admission to medical schools in these regions.

Figure 4.8 Kumar has many medical school interviews scheduled His MCAT prep book, however, is made a place to keep marijuana; the paper is also used to prepare the drug

Kumar is portrayed as someone who disregards legal boundaries, contrasting with the typical model minority stereotype He openly admits to using marijuana for pleasure, despite living in New Jersey, where recreational cannabis remains illegal Additionally, when faced with an automated tollbooth that isn’t functioning, Kumar chooses to pass through without reporting the issue, unlike Harold, who insists on stopping at a manned tollbooth.

Figure 4.9 Kumar (left) and Harold (right) casually smoke marijuana at home

Figure 4.10 They get high Kumar‟s T-shirt reads “I love Bush – the pussy, not the president.”

Harold and Kumar’s reckless adventures in the film showcase their willingness to engage in illegal and absurd activities, such as smoking marijuana in a prohibited state and disguising themselves as doctors to obtain medical cannabis Kumar even performs an unqualified surgery on a gunshot victim, highlighting their reckless disregard for rules and safety Their obsession with eating White Castle burgers leads them to steal a truck and commit speeding offenses when their car is lost, emphasizing their impulsive and humorous approach to problem-solving These farcical antics subvert typical portrayals of Asian Americans, casting them as laid-back and relatable individuals rather than fitting the model minority stereotype The movie uses humor to challenge stereotypes about Asian American characters, portraying them as capable of wild, humorous adventures like anyone else, thus providing a comic critique of societal expectations.

Moreover, the supporting Asian American characters in Harold and Kumar Go to White

Castle challenges the model minority stereotype by depicting Asian American characters as more than just academically focused students; they initially appear as nerdy, career-driven individuals with little interest in partying However, the narrative flips expectations when their supposed traditional Korean kimchi-themed gathering evolves into a lively party featuring sex, alcohol, and marijuana—comparable to parties of other ethnic groups This portrayal intentionally subverts the stereotype that Asian Americans excel academically but lack experience with relaxation and enjoyment, highlighting their capacity for diverse social behaviors.

Crime

Last but not least, in Ethan Mao, Gran Torino, and Better Luck Tomorrow, Asian

Traditional media often depict Americans as more likely to commit crimes, contrasting sharply with the positive image of the model minority These portrayals are distinct from the older stereotypes of Asian mafia gangs in Chinatowns, which typically involved young adults and high school students engaging in petty to serious crimes.

Ethan Mao, the protagonist of the film "Ethan Mao," plans to burgle his father’s house but ends up taking his family hostage after being caught, shooting his father in the leg in the process His actions are driven by poverty, intense emotions related to his deceased mother, and immediate circumstances, which also somewhat justify his behavior The narrative highlights that Asian Americans, particularly young individuals, can engage in criminal activities when faced with turmoil and hardship, emphasizing that they are no different from other humans in the face of adversity.

Asian American youth in films like Gran Torino and Better Luck Tomorrow are depicted as involved in organized crime and gang activities, contrasting with Ethan's case In Gran Torino, the Hmong gang led by Fong "Spider" Thao’s cousin is portrayed as a menace, with members often not attending school or holding jobs, roaming the town in cars armed with guns While the film does not specify the exact crimes committed, it suggests they are serious, as evidenced by the arrest for Walt Kowalski’s murder and a police remark indicating that the gang has prior criminal encounters but avoids jail due to lack of witnesses This portrayal highlights the involvement of Asian American youth in organized, violent crime within these narratives.

Most of the depiction of this gang, in fact, is dedicated to showing how they pressure Thao, the second protagonist, and do not let him live in peace First of all, they try to make Thao become a member, and forces him to steal Walt‟s Gran Torino as an initiation into the group Thao undertakes the enterprises; but as he fails, they become incensed and turn to attack him They get to his house, verbally humiliates and physically beats him After that, the gang keeps going after and bullying him They destroy his work tools and burn him in the face with a cigarette, making him extremely hurt

Figure 4.11 The Hmong American gang (left) on an encounter with a Latin American one

Figure 4.12 Fong “Spider” and one of his gang members swear on their encounter with the

Latin American gang The Asian guy possesses a gun even bigger and more dangerous than that of his Latin American counterpart

The Asian American youth gang depicted in Gran Torino challenges the typical stereotypes often portrayed in American films, especially mainstream media Instead of portraying Asian American youth as model minorities or straight-A students, the film presents a radically different image, offering a counter-narrative that defies conventional expectations This depiction highlights the complexities and diverse realities of Asian American communities that are often overlooked in mainstream cinema.

Compared to Gran Torino, Better Luck Tomorrow provides a more detailed portrayal of young Asian Americans involved in criminal activities, focusing on characters like Ben Manibag, Virgil Hu, Han Hu, and Daric Loo These characters form a tight-knit group, not a gang, but a band running multiple cheating operations at school Despite being overachieving students, they become bored with their academic lives and choose to exploit their talents Their criminal endeavors begin with creating and selling cheat sheets, then escalate to paying a student named Jesus to steal tests from the school office and sell them As their operations grow, they assume leadership roles, transforming from participants into "bosses" who oversee others working for them.

The band's involvement with guns escalates when, at a party, they are provoked by a group of non-Asian peers, prompting Daric to brandish a weapon and scare them off This dangerous incident boosts their notoriety and fuels their desire for fame and adventure, leading them to expand into more risky criminal activities such as stealing school computer parts and selling drugs, which they also become addicted to As Daric observes, these criminal operations have transformed into their full-time pursuit, reflecting their deepening immersion into the criminal underworld.

From excellent students, the young adults turn into those who give and take guns as well as prostitution as presents That is, on Ben‟s birthday, he receives a gun from the three other guys, and duringa trip to the Academic Decathlon championships, Daric hires a prostitute for the gang

The most serious crime which these students commit is murder At first, they are hired by an Asian American college student, Steve Choe, to rob his own house as “a wake-up call” for his parents The gang abhor Steve‟s act, but they agree to undertake the enterprise, supposing it will be a perfect opportunity to teach Steve a lesson

After their upheaval, the four friends attend a New Year’s Eve party, appearing unaffected by recent events However, behind their facade lies a disturbing transformation—from diligent students to petty criminals, and ultimately, murderers This stark shift challenges the traditional image of the model minority, highlighting how circumstances can drastically alter perceptions Despite their potential to attend Ivy League universities, their actions reveal that they can no longer be considered representative of the idealized minority stereotype.

Conclusion of the chapter

Asian Americans are often portrayed beyond the model minority stereotype, facing issues such as unemployment, poverty, bullying, and identity struggles, challenging the typical image of successful and law-abiding individuals They are depicted as not always excelling academically or being perfect adults, with some representations showing them committing petty or serious crimes, directly opposing the stereotype Films like "Better Luck Tomorrow" and "Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle" feature subversive images that consciously challenge and resist the myth of the model minority Despite these efforts, the prevalence of stereotypical images remains higher than counter-images, highlighting the importance of analyzing cinematic representations that seek to defy and subvert these stereotypes.

CONCLUSION Synthesis of the study, findings and implications

This study explores the complex representation of Asian Americans in American cinema, highlighting both their portrayal as the ideal model minority and instances that challenge this stereotype The analysis reveals how cinematic images and counter-images collectively provide a nuanced understanding of Asian Americans’ roles on screen Under the theme of “the model minority,” these portrayals reflect broader cultural perceptions and stereotypes, offering insight into their evolving depiction in Hollywood films.

Most movies in the corpus depict both success and struggle through their representations However, "Crazy Rich Asians" (2018) focuses on Asian and Asian American success stories, while "Ethan Mao" (2004) centers around themes of personal and social struggles These two films serve as notable exceptions, highlighting different aspects of the Asian experience in cinema.

The model minority stereotype portrays Asians and Asian Americans as high-achieving, economically successful, and law-abiding citizens, reinforcing positive images However, this stereotype also carries negative connotations, such as its historical connection to the yellow peril and its use to justify negative perceptions of other minority groups Additionally, while Asian Americans are often praised for their academic and professional accomplishments, they are also stereotyped as nerdy or robotic, illustrating the double-edged nature of this myth.

Counter-images of the model minority depict Asian Americans facing various challenges such as poverty, bullying, racism, and identity crises, challenging their stereotypical portrayal as consistently successful individuals These counter-portrayals aim to resist mainstream cinematic representations that reinforce the myth of the model minority by highlighting the diverse struggles within the Asian American community Moreover, these stories extend beyond ethnic boundaries, illustrating that anyone, regardless of race or ethnicity, can experience rebellion or commit crimes—examples include a rebellious young man like Kumar or a group of high school students involved in criminal activities Ultimately, the distinction between counter-stereotypical images and universal human stories becomes blurred, emphasizing shared human experiences across different backgrounds.

A study comparing films by white directors and Asian American filmmakers found that, contrary to expectations, Asian American directors did not necessarily deliver more authentic or stereotype-free portrayals of their community Despite the assumption that films made by Asian Americans would better reflect their experiences with fewer stereotypes, analyses showed that Asian American filmmakers, especially those targeting mainstream audiences, still often relied on stereotypical representations For example, Jon M Chu’s *Crazy Rich Asians* contains notable stereotypes, highlighting that production factors such as financial and commercial considerations can heavily influence how Asian Americans are depicted in movies.

This study aims to shed light on Asian Americans' underrepresentation and marginalization in media and film, highlighting the need for increased visibility It focuses on the model minority myth, a harmful stereotype that has profoundly influenced Asian Americans' lives, yet remains under-scrutinized in cinematic portrayals Unlike previous research emphasizing historical representations, this study emphasizes contemporary films, analyzing both mainstream and independent movies to provide a comprehensive understanding of Asian American portrayals on the big screen.

Limitations of the study and recommendations for further research

The current study examines both mainstream and independent films within its corpus, highlighting a diverse range of cinematic works Notably, some independent films included are not entirely obscure, as they are among the most popular indie productions by prominent Asian American directors This indicates that the study encompasses well-known independent movies that have achieved significant recognition in the industry, providing valuable insights into Asian American representation in both mainstream and independent cinema.

This thesis utilizes a curated film corpus to enhance accessibility for readers, as they are likely familiar with or can easily access the selected movies While focusing on well-known films makes the study more approachable, exploring obscure movies could significantly contribute to less-studied areas of film analysis However, due to limited resources as a Master's student, the author was constrained to a selection of more accessible films, which is acknowledged as a limitation of the research.

Cinema is just one area where the representation of Asian Americans can be studied; expanding this focus to literature, theater, music, and fine arts provides a more comprehensive understanding of their portrayal in the American public consciousness Media representation of Asian Americans remains a critical issue that warrants ongoing reflection and discussion, despite increasing attention Media plays a vital role in shaping mental images of ourselves and others, influencing social interactions and the potential for harmony or discord within society.

63 Examples of such movies include Shopping for Fangs (1997), The Journey (1997), and Yellow (1998)

APPENDIX Historical and cinematic milestones of Asian Americans

This appendix offers a chronology of the most important historical events and movies concerning Asian Americans

1763 – First recorded settlement of Filipinos in America

1842 – China is defeated by the British in the first Opium War and is forced to give up Hong Kong

1848 – The California Gold Rush draws Chinese immigrants to the West to mine gold

1882 – The Chinese Exclusion Act comes into force This federal law prohibits all Chinese laborers from immigrating to the United States

1915 – Cecil B DeMille‟s silent movie The Cheat features Japanese actor Sessue Hayakawa as the villain

1919 – D.W Griffith‟s Broken Blossoms stars white Richard Barthelmess as “The Chink.”

1924 – Anna May Wong has her first major role in Hollywood with The Thief of Baghdad, in which she acts a villainous slave girl

1931 – Charlie Chan Carries On, the first of many Charlie Chan movies, is released It stars Swedish-American actor Warner Oland as Chinese-American Charlie Chan

1932 – The Mask of Fu Manchu, the first of many Hollywood‟s Fu Manchu movies, is released It stars Boris Karloff as the first of many Fu Manchus

1937 – An adaptation of Pearl Buck‟s novel about life in China, The Good Earth features white actors in all key roles

1941 – Phantom of Chinatown stars Chinese-born American Keye Luke as Mr Wong, an ace detective

On December 7, Japan attacks Pearl Harbor, Hawaii The United States enters World War II

1942 – Executive Order 9066 puts 110,000 Japanese, many of whom are second and third generation, in ten internment camps in the U.S while hundreds of Japanese Americans enlist in the U.S armed forces

1943 – Magnuson Act repeals the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act

1945 – Japan surrenders after the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

All internment camps are closed

The War Brides Act prohibits unmarried Japanese women to immigrate to the United States

1946 – The Philippines becomes independent; all Filipinos living in the U.S can become U.S citizens

1948 – The Displaced Persons Act gives permanent resident status to Chinese caught in the U.S because of the Chinese Civil War

California repeals law banning interracial marriage

1949 – The U.S breaks off diplomatic ties with the People‟s Republic of China

1950 – The Korean War breaks out

In 1951, the film "Go For Broke" was released, telling the inspiring story of the 442nd Infantry Regiment This renowned unit was composed mainly of second-generation Japanese American soldiers who fought bravely in World War II The 442nd Infantry Regiment is celebrated as the most decorated unit in U.S military history, symbolizing courage and patriotism.

1956 – The Teahouse of the August Moon stars Marlon Brando as an Okinawan interpreter

It satirizes the U.S occupation and Americanization of the island of Okinawa following the end of World War II

In 1957, Sessue Hayakawa made history as the first Asian actor to be nominated for an Oscar, recognizing his outstanding performance in *The Bridge Over the River Kwai* The film achieved critical acclaim, winning seven Academy Awards, including the prestigious Best Picture award.

Sayonara, featuring Marlon Brando and Miiko Taka, is released

1959 – The Crimson Kimono, set in Los Angeles‟ Little Tokyo, stars James Shigeta It is one of the rare movies in which an Asian man wins a white in a love triangle

1961 – The Flower Drum Song, directed by Henry Koster, becomes the first Hollywood movie to feature an all-Asian American cast

1965 – The U.S enters the Vietnam War

1973 – Enter the Dragon, which popularizes Bruce Lee and martial arts film, is released world-wide

In 1982, Wayne Wang's film *Chan is Missing* was released, significantly contributing to the representation of Asian American stories in independent cinema Set against the vibrant backdrop of San Francisco's Chinatown, the movie features two Asian American male lead characters, helping to bring Asian American experiences to a broader audience and increasing visibility in the independent film landscape.

The murder of Chinese American Vincent Chin becomes a critical turning point for Asian American civil rights engagement

In 1984, *The Karate Kid*, the first film in the franchise, was released, showcasing Mr Miyagi (Pat Morita) teaching teenage Daniel LaRusso (Ralph Macchio) karate to defend himself and compete in a tournament The movie played a key role in revitalizing Pat Morita’s career, earning him an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor, and contributed significantly to the popularity of martial arts films in the 1980s.

In 1985, Michael Cimino's film "Year of the Dragon," which depicts gang wars in New York City's Chinatown, sparked significant controversy and protests from Asian American communities In response to the backlash, the studio agreed to include a disclaimer clarifying that the film's portrayal of Chinese American gangsters does not represent the experiences or views of the majority of Chinese Americans.

1986 – Ron Howard‟s Gung Ho, a movie about American and Japanese auto workers, is released

1987 – The 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act becomes law It raises the Hong Kong quota and allows certain aliens to apply for temporary status and eventually come citizens

1988 – Deborah Gee‟s Slaying the Dragon, a documentary examining Asian female stereotypes, is released

The Civil Liberty act of 1988 apologizes and offers redress and reparations to Japanese Americans who were denied their civil and constitutional rights during World War II

1990 – Alan Parker‟s Come See the Paradise, a well-known movie about the Japanese

1992 – Korean businesses are looted and burned as a result of riots in Los Angeles due to outrage over the Rodney King verdict

1993 – The Joy Luck Club, Wayne Wang‟s movie based on May Tan‟s best-selling novel, is released nationwide

Ang Lee‟s The Wedding Banquet hits the theaters

1996 – Rumble in the Bronx - Hong Kong‟s Jackie Chan finally breaks into the U.S mainstream after an earlier failed attempts Over a dozen Hollywood-produced films quickly follow, including Rush Hour